The Role of Biology
in Psychology
- Chapter 2 -
How the Nervous System Works
Topics
How Do the Different Parts of Your Brain Work
How Does Your Brain Communicate with Your Body
How Do Nature and Nurture Affect Your Brain
the Nervous
System
the Nervous System
our nervous system is interconnected with all parts of our
body
we can think or see something, and begin to feel it
Ex: spiders, imagining giving a speech, playing a game
nervous system contains billions of cells in our brains and
bodies
responsible for what we think, feel, and do
the Nervous System
Basic functions
receives sensory input--vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch
processes this information--paying attention, perceiving,
remembering
responds to the information--acting on the information
the Nervous System
Nervous System Divisions
Central Nervous System (CNS)
consists of the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
consists of nerve cells outside of the brain and spinal cord
(skin, organs, glands, muscles)
the Nervous System
Nervous System Divisions
systems are constantly interacting to inform us of our
environments and respond appropriately
example: You take a bite of ice cream.
PNS registers this experience and sends info to the CNS
CNS organizes and evaluates the information
CNS then sends information to the PNS about what to do
next (take another bite)
the Nervous System
Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System
transmits signals to and from the CNS through nerves
receptors in skin, muscles and joints send information to the
spinal cord, which sends information to the brain
CNS also sends signals through the somatic nervous system to
start/end movement
voluntary movements--what are examples?
the Nervous System
Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
regulates the body's internal environment
stimulates glands and maintains internal organs
involuntary processes (breathing, digestion, blood pressure)
nerves in ANS carry signals from glands and organs to the
CNS (ex: full stomach)
the Nervous System
Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous System
prepares the body for action
example: hiking and see a bear
body floods with epinephrine (adrenaline), heart rate
increases, pupils dilate in order to fight or flee
the Nervous System
Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Nervous System
returns the body to a normal/resting state
example: bear looks at you and walks away from you
body slows breathing, decreases heart rate, stops sweating
the Nervous System
Nervous System Activation
What other examples can you think of where our
sympathetic/parasympathetic systems are activated?
What happens if our parasympathetic system does not return to
a resting state?
the Nervous System
the Nervous System
Neurons
receive, integrate, transmit information in the nervous system
communicate selectively with other neurons
form neural networks that develop/strengthen with maturation
and experience
networks streamline processing information
connections let the neurons process information effectively
the Nervous System
Neurons
Bozeman Neuron Video
[Link]
Crash Course Nervous System pt 1
[Link]
Crash Course Nervous System pt 2
[Link]
the Nervous System
Neuron Structure
[Link]
the Nervous System
Neuron Structure
dendrite
branchlike extensions with receptors that receive information
from other neurons
cell body
part of the neuron where information from other neurons is
collected and integrated
the Nervous System
Neuron Structure
axon
long, narrow outgrowth of a neuron's cell body that lets the
neuron transmit information to other neurons
terminal buttons
parts of the neuron at the end of axons that release
chemical signals from the neuron into the synapse
the Nervous System
Neuron Structure
synapse
gap between the terminal buttons
of a sending neuron and the
dendrites of receiving neuron
photo from [Link]
the Nervous System
Action Potential
a neuron is stimulated through action potential
neuron in a resting state has a more negative charge
stimulation brings in positively charged sodium ions (NA+) to
the neuron
if enough sodium enters, the action potential begins
moves along the axon and away from the cell body toward
terminal buttons
the Nervous System
Action Potential
myelin sheath (fatty casing) enables action potential to move
quickly, enabling quick and effective neural communication
if myelin sheath degrades, neural communication slows and our
physical and cognitive abilities can be compromised
vision, movement, strength, thinking
the Nervous System
Neuron States and Stages
presynaptic neuron (sending signal)
occurs in sending neuron before synapse
three stages
transmission
reception
integration
the Nervous System
Neuron States and Stages
Transmission (stage 1)
exists in resting state (more negative inside)
stimulation causes +sodium ions to move through membrane
if enough come through, neuron fires action potential
action potential allows neurotransmitters to release into synapse
sodium continues to enter, potassium leaves for milliseconds
neuron enters refractory period (return to resting state)
the Nervous System
Neuron States and Stages
Reception (stage 2)
chemicals travel across the synapse and bind with dendrites
neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron
receptors specialized and function with specific neurotransmitters
once they bind, receptors are stimulated, pass signal, and release
back to synapse
If neurotransmitter isn't removed, stimulation can continue
the Nervous System
Neuron States and Stages
Reception (stage 2) continued
removal is through reabsorption (reuptake) or degradation by
enzymes
action potential allows neurotransmitters to release into the synapse
sodium continues to enter, potassium leaves for milliseconds, back to
resting state
the Nervous System
Neuron States and Stages
Integration (stage 3)
how the postsynaptic neuron processes incoming signals
either excitatory or inhibitory effects on postsynaptic neuron
if enough activation remains, process will begin again with
transmission in new neuron
excitatory: increase likelihood of firing action potential
inhibitory: decrease likelihood of firing action potential
the Nervous System
Neurotransmitters
chemicals released at terminal buttons that are sent to communicate
between neurons
agonist enhance actions of neurotransmitters (nicotine:
acetylcholine)
antagonist inhibit actions of neurotransmitters (naloxone: endorphin)
receptors cannot differentiate between neurotransmitter &
ingested drug
the Nervous System
Types of Neurotransmitters
acetylcholine
motor control over muscles; attention, memory, learning, sleeping
norepinephrine
arousal and alertness
serotonin
emotional states and impulse control; dreaming
the Nervous System
Types of Neurotransmitters
dopamine
reward and motivation; motor control over voluntary movement
GABA
inhibition of action potentials; reduce anxiety; intoxication
glutamate
enhance action potentials; learning; memory
endorphins
pain reduction; reward
Different Parts of
the Brain
Different Parts of the Brain
Major parts of brain video
[Link]
Different Parts of the Brain
Hindbrain
Midbrain
Forebrain (subcortical)
Forebrain (cortical)
photo from [Link]
Different Parts of the Brain
Early 1800s: phrenology
brain functions and personality indicated by measurements of
brain bumps
1861: Paul Broca autopsied human brain and found damaged
tissue in front left side
deceased could only speak one word
photo from [Link]
the Nervous System
Hindbrain (survival, reflex, involuntary actions)
medulla: most survival basics (heart rate, gag reflex, breathing,
urination)
pons: sleep and arousal, coordinating bilateral movements (left-
right)
the Nervous System
Hindbrain (survival, reflex, involuntary actions)
cerebellum
motor function; involved in motor learning & motor memory
behind medulla and pons
“little brain”
bicycling, planning, memory, language, experiencing emotion
the Nervous System
Midbrain
located above the pons
reflexive movements of eyes and body
substantia nigra is critical for initiating voluntary movements
dopamine
the Nervous System
Forebrain (subcortical structures, limbic system)
thalamus
sensory gateway; receives almost all incoming messages,
organizes and sends to the cortex
smell bypasses the thalamus and goes straight to the cortex
hypothalamus
regulates the body, in balance; sleeping/waking, blood sugar,
temperature, eating/drinking, aggression, sex
the Nervous System
Forebrain (subcortical structures, limbic system)
hippocampus
creates new neural connections with new experiences and
sends them to the cortex; also for navigating locations of
places/objects
amygdala
detecting and responding to threats; develop associations
between things and emotional responses
the Nervous System
Forebrain (subcortical structures, limbic system)
example
social anxiety/anxiety meeting new people shows higher
amygdala activation
the Nervous System
Forebrain (cortical structures, outer layer, "cerebral cortex")
thoughts, perceptions, behaviors, understand self and others
two halves
left and right hemisphere, each with four areas
hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum, made of
millions of axons
the Nervous System
Forebrain (cortical structures, outer layer, "cerebral cortex")
occipital lobes
back portion, mostly vision (colors, forms, motions)
parietal lobes
touch, divided between right/left and process oppositely;
objects in space
the Nervous System
Forebrain (cortical structures, outer layer, "cerebral cortex")
temporal lobes
hearing, some visual areas, memory (house hippocampus &
amygdala)
frontal lobes
complex thought, planning, movement
the Nervous System
Prefrontal Cortex
30% of the brain
rational thought, follow social norms, connect with others
emotionally, empathy
some parts are responsible for attention
the Nervous System
Phineas Gage, 1840s
dropped tamping iron
while packing explosive
powder
iron bounced back up and
went through his cheek,
through his brain and out
his skull photo from [Link]
the Nervous System
Phineas Gage
his case is what first modern theories of prefrontal cortex were
based on
Gage experienced personality changes
became impulsive, profane, argumentative
changed back over time, but never the "same"
the Nervous System
Lobotomies (1930s-mid 1950s)
purposeful damage to the prefrontal
cortex
touted as treatment, but only made
sick people more manageable
image and article
[Link]
when-faces-made-case-lobotomy
the Brain and
Body
the Brain and Body
Neurons and the Endocrine System
Nervous System--CNS and PNS
CNS consists of brain/spinal cord
PNS consists of somatic/autonomic
interact with one another to function and perform behaviors
the nervous system also interacts with hormones of the
endocrine system
the Brain and Body
Neurons and the Endocrine System
Endocrine System influences mental activity and behavior, regulate
psychological activity
uses glands to release chemicals called hormones into the
bloodstream instead of electrochemical signals
release of hormones into the bloodstream is a slower process
endocrine system determines how much of each hormone is
released
the Brain and Body
Neurons and the Endocrine System
Endocrine System continued
glands include
pituitary, pineal, adrenal, thyroid, testes, ovaries, pancreas
when hormones arrive at their target, they trigger activity that
affects our minds/bodies
moods, physical growth and development, reproduction,
metabolism
Nature and
Nurture
Nature & Nurture
Twins
Monozygotic (mono= one)
genetics are identical because they come from ONE egg
Dizygotic (di = two)
genetics are not identical because they come from TWO eggs
APA Twin Article (video link in article)
[Link]
psychology/studying-twins
Nature & Nurture
natural selection
idea that species change over time
if species adapts to environment, more likely to survive &
pass along adaptations
nature and nurture work together to determine your
characteristics
Nature & Nurture
historically, the concept of nature-nurture has been oppositional
extreme nature leaning = nativistic (inherited characteristics)
extreme nurture leaning = empirical (blank slate to environment)
the study of epigenetics has allowed a more compatible view of
nature and nurture
Nature & Nurture
genes: units of heredity we are born with
set of genes is called genotype
never changes
inherited from biological parents
control physical characteristics
influence predispositions to diseases and characteristics
Nature & Nurture
our environment can influence the expression of our genes
gene expression is called phenotype
phenotype can change
subject to factors such as pollution, diet, malnutrition,
exercise, habits such as smoking
example: you may have a genotype for being 6 feet tall,
but if you experience malnutrition and second-hand
smoking growing up, that phenotype may not fully express
Nature & Nurture
Epigenetics
study of how environment affects expression of heritable traits
environment is viewed as layered over genes
how environment affects gene expression may alter how or
when a gene is expressed
these adaptations to gene expression can be passed on to
future generations
Nature & Nurture
Plasticity
brain changes over lifetime as a reflection of biological and
environmental interactions
growing new neurons
plasticity decreases with age but, the brain can still grow
new connections
production of new neurons is called neurogenesis
Nature & Nurture
Plasticity
changing existing neural connections
neurons that fire together, wire together (Donald Hebb)
connections that are not repeated or beneficial can be
pruned
most pruning occurs by adolescence
Nature & Nurture
Plasticity
brain reorganization
new connections develop between nearby brain regions
new growth may occur after injury (Gage)
more common in children, possibly because their brains are
more plastic?
References
Grison & Gazzaniga. (2022). Psychology in your life. (4th ed.).
W. W. Norton & Company