History: American Revolution

1763 - The first event that led to the American revolution was the French and Indian war.
This lasted from 1754 - 1763. (The Indians mentioned here are Native Americans,
Indegeneous tribal people)

1765 - stamp act

● Stamp act was one of the most aggressive event which triggered the American
revolution
● Committees of Correspondence gather to oppose new taxes; traders boycott taxed
goods
● Purpose of stamp act - ‘no taxation without representation’
● Sons of Liberty organize to fight the new tax - protest, boycott, violence
● 1766 - stamp act repealed
● 1767 - Angered, parliament passes declaratory act and townshend acts
● Declaratory act - the Americans shall agree to what all the British declare
● Townshend act - taxes will be applied on each goods which get imported and exported

1764 - Sugar act taxes sugar and molasses (sugar cane)

● England harasses traders to catch smugglers
● England got control of the east side of the Mississippi River.
● 1st continental congress - Petition - declaration of rights

1770 - The Boston massacre

● Some Americans went to the stores of the Americans and started throwing stones and
vandalizing stores (in Boston).
● A fight turns into an angry mob - British soldiers fire into the crowd
● 5 people die (Crispus Attucks)
● Sam Adams uses event to ignite hatred against British, John Adams defend the soldiers
in the court
● The court did not believe the Americans as they did not have any proof.

1773 - Boston tea Party

● Sons of liberty dump English tea into harbor in protest of taxes
● 342 chests worth of English tea was dumped in the ocean

1774 - Intolerable Acts

● Close Boston harbor, cancel colony charter governments
● Force colonists to house British soldiers
October 1774 - 1st Continental Congress
● Colonial delegates from all colonies (except Georgia) meet to discuss tensions
● Met at Carpenters Hall, Philadelphia
● Write “Declaration of Rights” to King George III in hopes of peace
● Militia was told to prepare for war if needed

- George Washington played a major role in the American revolution and he was called
the founding father of America.
- Benjamin Franklin was also a major player in the American revolution who United many
countries against Britain. (American Gandhi ji)

- Battle of Lexington and concord

● April 18th, 1775 - General Thomas Gage sends British troops to recover colonists
weapon at Concord
● Paul Revere, William Dawes, Samuel Prescott warn the towns - “The Redcoats are
Coming”
● April 19th - minutemen are waiting for British at Lexington
● 8 colonists killed, 10 wounded
● More colonists are waiting at concord - British win and confiscate all weapons of
minutemen

1775 - 2nd continental congress

● Appoint George Washington commander of continental army
● Sign “olive branch petition” as 1 last chance of peace
● Paine’s common sense rallies the people for independence
● July 4th, 1776 - after much debate, the declaration of independence is signed!!!

June 1775 - battle of bunker hill

● Took place in Charlestown
● The british army takes 2 hills: breed's hill, and bunker hill, to get a tactical advantage
● Killed many redcoats but ran out of ammo - retreat
● British won; moral victory

December 25, 1775 - battle of Trenton

● Washington and 2,400 troops surprise and take 900 hessians’ prisoner
● January 2, 1777
● Washington sneaks behind Cornwallis and forced British out of Princeton

March 1776 - Dorchester heights

● Washington uses cannon to force British to retreat from Boston

New York, June 1776

● General Howe arrives with 32,000 troops
● Washington barely escapes to New Jersey
October 1777 - Battle of Saratoga
● Stop British attack from Canada- force general Burgoyne to surrender

Tough winter at valley forge

● Washington’s 12,000 men settle for the winter
● Lack food, warm shelter and basic supplies
● 2000 men died due to lack of supplies (minutemen, full of patriotism, but not skill)
● Receive basic training from persian-russian soldier - Baron Von Steuben

A little help from our friends

● Marquis de Lafayette
- Sails from France with his own money, and soldiers to fight the british.
● Baron Friedrich Von Steuben
- Prussian soldier; trains colonial army in basic military commands
● Molly Pitcher and some free Africans join the fight for independence.
● France joins the fight (May 1778), brings troops and navy
● Spain joins the fight (1779)

A traitor and loyalists

● Benedict Arnold
- One of the Continental Armies greatest generals
- He felt disrespected and got angry with the Congress.
- Became a traitor and supported the British
● Loyalist (Tories)
- Not all colonists wanted independence, many wanted to stay British subjects

Later battles
● Fighting in the south
- England has more loyalists and offer slaves freedom if they fight the colonists
- Colonial army loses battles in Georgia, South Carolina
- Marion’s brigade uses guerilla tactics against British
● Yorktown 1781
- Cornwallis is surrounded by Washington and French forces - forced to surrender, made
to retreat.

Treaty of Paris
● Signed by America, France, Spain, and England in 1783; agree to peace
● America gained independence and liberty

The English

Strengths -
 1. Well trained, very disciplined
2. Better equipped
3. The world's best navy

Weakness -

1. Have to cross Atlantic Ocean

2. Do not know landscape
3. Hire mercenaries

Colonial army

Strengths

1. Believe in their cause

2. Eventually receive help from France and Spain
3. Know the landscape

Weakness

1. Poorly trained
2. Small navy

The strength of the English was the weakness of the Americans, and vice-versa.

American Civil War- An overview

Q. What caused the American Civil War?

The American Civil War was the culmination of the struggle between the advocates and
opponents of slavery that dated from the founding of the United States. This sectional conflict
between Northern states and slaveholding Southern states had been tempered by a series of
political compromises, but by the late 1850s, the issue of the extension of slavery to the western
states had reached a boiling point. The election of Abraham Lincoln, a member of the
antislavery Republican Party, as president in 1860 precipitated the secession of 11 Southern
states, leading to a civil war.

Q. Who were the most important figures in the American Civil War?

Important people during the American Civil War included Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of
the United States, whose election prompted the secession of Southern states; Jefferson Davis,
the president of the Confederacy; Ulysses S. Grant, the most successful and prominent general
of the Union; and Robert E. Lee, Grant’s counterpart in the Confederacy.

Q. How many people died during the civil war?

It is estimated that from 752,000 to 851,000 soldiers died during the American Civil War. This
figure represents approximately 2% of the American population in 1860. The Battle of
Gettysburg, one of the bloodiest engagements during the Civil War, resulted in about 7,000
deaths and 51,000 total casualties.

Q. Who won the American Civil War?

The Union won the American Civil War. The war effectively ended in April 1865 when
Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered his troops to Union General Ulysses S. Grant
at Appomattox Court House in Virginia. The final surrender of Confederate troops on the
western periphery came in Galveston, Texas, on June 2.

History: French Revolution

Enlightenment: cultural drift towards intellectuality

The feudal system: The social and hierarchical construct made by the society in the 18th and
19th century that represented

Bastille: prison, a symbol of royal power and a large storehouse of weapons

Monarchs: King Louis XVI, Queen Marie Antoinette

Reinforcements: 250 barrels of gunpowder were sent to protect the 7 royal prisoners.

Governor de Launay: He was appointed by the king himself and he tried to save the prisoners
from escaping from the bataille prison. In the end he surrenders in front of the third estate. And
the gunpowder was confiscated plus it was the win for the third estate

Dawn of July 14, 1789- battle of bastille :

● Several crowds arrived and attempted to barge in, the soldiers were outnumbered.
● Governor raised a whiteflag and put down the drawbridge on demand of the crowds.
● All the gunpowder was confiscated, and the prisoners were now free.
 ● Governor was thrown out, and beaten and crushed to death.
● In total, 98 people were killed or murdered.
● The prison, in a few months, was turned into rubble.
● First victory of the french revolution.

9 October, 1789
● Peasant women attack the palace of Versailles
● The peasant women marched from Paris to palace of Versailles
● They marched for 20 km
● They wanted to take control of the palace

December of 1792:
● Louis and Marie attempted to escape to Persia; the people of the National Assembly
caught him.

Early 1793:
● King Louis XVI, and Queen Marie Antoinette both were executed and beheaded through
a guillotine
● The National Assembly execute the monarchs

Absolutist Monarchy

Absolute control over the country by the monarchs.

Citizens have no say.
Monarchs make all decisions concerning their country.

Constitutional Monarchy

The monarch rules by the rules of the constitution. Most decisions are made by the citizens,
therefore they are given rights for democracy l

Important leaders in women revolutions

● Mary Wollstonecraft wrote “A Vindication of the Rights of Women.”

● Sophie de Condorcet wrote “Sur l’admission des femmes au droit de cité" (On the
Admission of Women to Civil Rights)
● Gouverneur Morris wrote the French Revolution diary

Enlightenment
 Financial crisis
● France is bankrupt

● Reasons for bankruptcy

● France assisted America

● Louis xvi was very corrupt and used the money for his own self
● Ongoing war with England (Great Britain)
● He was in debt

● Results

● Reign of terror
● 3rd class is getting lack of food and government
● Bread riots (symbol of basic ration and food)

King Louis XVI called for meeting of the estates general to solve crisis

● The third estate was in extreme poverty, they did not have enough money to get food
and shelter after all the taxes to pay.
● He called the meeting in his tennis court
● The people suggested the king to take an oath
● King doesn’t do that
● The people then demanded that the king can have a constitutional monarchy
● King was so shocked (in an angry way) by hearing this suggestion that he locked the
third estate general out of the assembly
● The third estate was enraged, and therefore detached themselves from the feudal
system, and became/created the national assembly.
● This caused a spark, and later led to the Battle of Bastille.

Tithe and taille tax

● Tithe tax states that you have to pay 10% of your agricultural income, (farmers), money
or land (knights), or income (merchants) to the church
● Taille tax states that you have to pay 70% of your income to the federal government.
(Income tax)

Popularized by the printing press

● Second estate philosophers John Locke and Thomas Hobbes

● Locke’s ideologies:
● Thomas’s ideologies:
● The Social Contract book by Jean Jaccques Rousseau
● The Spirit of the laws - Charles Montesquieu
3 constitutions, 5 governments changed

Napoleonic power
● Napoleon was born in 1769
● Napoleon was made the first emperor of France in 1799
● His rule lasted for 7 years
● At 24, he became the general in the France military
● He was called a “war hero”
● His first battle was won in front of austro hungarian empire
● The Austro-Hungarian empire and the Russian empire made a 3rd coalition, but
Napoleon didn’t get defeated
● Napoleon attacked Russia in 1806, and won in 1807
● Persia and Russia made a 4th coalition
● Treaty of Tilsit 1807
● Napoleon successfully attacked Spain and declared Joseph Bonaparte as the king of
Spain in 1808
● 5th coalition was of the British and Austria, they attacked France in 1809, but were
unsuccessful
● He attacked and successfully conquered Egypt (2nd ever battle)
● 1813, 6th coalition - Persia, Russia and Austria united against France (Napoleon)
● These countries defeated Napoleon
● Napoleon fully supported the French Revolution and the ideas of equality, fraternity and
● Napoleon got selected as the people were tired of civil wars
● Robespierre ruled using an anti-catholic extremism and overtly tendencies
● Napoleon announced a new constitution and legal code
● He was only interest in militia
● He said that the best defense is the best offense
● He was a ruler who played a major part in the French Revolution
● He was a tyrant yet a patriot
● He was increasing military but kept on imposing new taxes
● Napoleon’s intentions were solely fame and absolutist monarchy, but the decisions he
made were good for the country
● October 1814 - He was exiled to elba island
● February 1815 - Louis xviii (18) came in power when Napoleon got exiled
● After his exile, he came back and became the emperor for a few months again (February
1815)
● In the final 7 coalition Russia, Austria and Bulgaria went against Napoleon
● 1821 - Napoleon died on St. Helena Island

Reign of terror - September 5 1793 - June 28 1794

● Started when louis XVI gets executed
● After executing, a new leader was needed
● The leader was Maximilian Robespierre
 ● Launcher of reign of terror because lakeside people died under his rule
● He exaggerated the charges on queen
● He was the reason Marie Antoinette was guillotined
● He declared himself as a supreme being and made a festival on his name
● He executed 7 lakh people in just 1 year
● June 28 - 1794 - Maximilian is guillotined

EFrench Revolution: Important dates and Causes

1794: Louis XVI becomes king of France, faces empty treasury and growing discontent within
the society of the Old
Regime.

1789: Convocation of Estates General, Third Estate forms National Assembly, the Bastille is
stormed, peasant revolts in the countryside. Rights of man and citizen, a hypocritical “equality”
bill.

1791: A constitution is framed to limit the powers of the king and to guarantee basic rights to all
human beings. 1792-93: France becomes a republic; the king is beheaded. The overthrow of
the Jacobin republic, a Directory rules
France.

1804: Napoleon becomes emperor of France, annexes large parts of Europe.

1815: Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.

Social Causes Economic causes Political causes

The society was divided The population of France Under Louis XVI, France
into three estates. rose from about 23 million in helped the thirteen American
1715 to 28 million in 1789. colonies to gain their
1) 1st Estate: Clergy (Group independence from the
of persons involved in church This increased the demand common enemy, Britain.
matters) for food grains. However,
production could not keep An extravagant court at the
2) 2nd Estate: Nobility pace with the demand which immense palace of Versailles
(Persons who have a high ultimately increased the also costs a lot.
rank in state administration) prices of the food grains.
To meet its regular expenses,
3) 3rd Estate: (Comprises of The situation became worse such as the cost of
Big businessmen, merchants, whenever drought or hail maintaining an army, the
court officials reduced the harvest. court, running government
offices or universities, the
state was forced to increase
 taxes.

September 1814 - Congress of Vienna

● September 1814 - June 1815

● Conducted in Austria
● The objective was to end the wars and violence
● Started at September 1814, stayed till June 1815
● Succeeded in creating a balance of power and peaceful diplomacy in Europe
● Failed because the countries wanted to take more power and didn’t balance the
amount of power

Industrial Revolution (IR)

Industrial Revolution

● The industrial revolution refers to the greatly increased output of machine made goods
that began in England in the 1700s
● The period of time from mid 1700’s to the early 1900’s was known as the industrial
revolution because of the new technological advancements
● The lifestyle of people from 1720-1820 would have been the same without the industrial
revolution
● Better lifestyle
● Better living conditions
● The development and advancement through a decade was great
● Industrial spies were significant for the revolution.

Longest Revolution ever

- Machinery was advanced
- The advent of machinery was very useful
- 150 years
- Started in 1750
- The innovation and advent of machinery was a continuous process
- Industrial Revolution started in England, Europe
- Bifurcated in 2 waves; 1st in Europe, 2nd in the US
- The first wave was 100 years
- The second wave was 50 years
- Wave 2 was when middle class was a proper distinguished group of community

Adverse Effects of The Industrial Revolution among Blue Collar Workers

 - Lots of water, noise, and air pollution
- Low wages for long working hours
- Child labour - children had to work for 14 hours a day. Forced to work and earn for their
families at a very young age.
- Confined Work spaces were crowded
- Prone to water borne diseases since toxic waste of factories was dumped in water
- Sounds of machines caused noise pollution and hearing problems for the workers
- Blue collared workers (majority) - workers that do physical labor to earn money; they
were less educated/uneducated. Wage was weekly or daily based
- Salary was monthly
- White collared workers (minority) - use their intelligence to earn money
- No ventilation, confined working spaces for the workers

● Other regions were far more advanced than Europe in manufacturing, for instance,
color fast-dyes and heat-resistance dishware. Fine weaving and spinning or even
metallurgy

Invention of Machinery (wave 2, 1850s - early 1900s, USA)

1. Railroad
2. Telegraph
3. Telephone
4. Steamship
5. Harnessing of electricity (bulb)
6. Scientific discoveries
7. Automobiles, minerals and fuels to power it
8. Oil wells
9. Radios

Industrial Revolution wave 1

Population explosion
● Urbanization : The process of migrating from villages to cities in search of employment
(majority of blue collared workers)
● Dues to overpopulation, many diseases started
● Black (bubonic) Plague occurred due to black rats
● Medicine was considered a luxury
● Stricter quarantine measures
● To eliminate black rats, the pharmaceutical industries gave poison doses to rats

Why were industries introduced in society?

● Better lifestyle
 ● longer life-span
● profit-related ventures
● made the life easier
● better medication via pharma industries
● advanced technology
● economic development
● mass-production
● prices decreased
● quality improved
● employment opportunities

Invention of Machinery (wave 1, 1750-1850, Britain)

1. Steam engine - James Watt

2. Powered loom (machine that makes cloth out of thread) - Edmund Cartwright
3. New furnace for making steel - Sir Henry Bessemer
4. Cotton gin (picks seed out of raw cotton) - Eli Whitney
5. Origin of species - Charles Darwin (about evolution)
6. John Kay’s flying shuttle
7. Spinning Jenny - James Hargreaves
8. Carding machines - Ellen Hacking and John Hacking
9. Water frame - Richard Arkwright (hydroelectric power source)
10. Porcelain - Johann Friedrich Böttger

Domestic System Factory System

Methods ● Hand tools ● Machines

Location ● Home ● Factory

Ownership and ● small hand tools owned by ● Large power-driven

Kinds of Tools worker machines owned by the
capitalist

Production ● Small level of production ● Large level of production

Outputs ● Sold only to local market ● Sold to worldwide market
● Manufactured on per order ● Manufactured in
basis anticipation of demand.

Nature of Work ● Worker manufactured entire ● Worker typically made one

Done by Worker item part of the larger whole
● Henry Ford’s assembly line
(early 20th century) kept
workers stationary

Hours of Work ● Worker worked as much as ● Worker worked set daily

 he/she would and could, hours
according to demand

Work ● Worker had multiple ● Worker relied entirely on

Dependence on sources of sustenance - capitalist for his/her
Employer other employers, own income—urban living made
garden or farm, and outside personal farming and
farm labor gardening impractical

Scientific revolution - changed the mentality and scientific way of thing is now believed
● Book - The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin (1850)
● The fight between religion and science is the Scientific Revolution.

Intellectual revolution - encouraged learning and the search for better and newer ways of
doing things

Agricultural revolution - landowners experimented in their enclosures

● Seed drill - able to harvest soil and loosen it then put seeds on it
● Crop rotation - Rotation of the sowing of crops to ensure optimum quality and nutritional
value
● Livestock breeding
● The Threshing Machine - This machine allows the segregation of seeds from the husks
of the grains.

Townshend’s Four-Field System

Charles “Turnip” Townshend came up with a methodology to ensure the proper nutrition of
crops.

Rotation of harvest, making sure the soil is reused.

Crop rotation - ensure the optimum of crops by rotating the crops so that soil is reused.

Revolt of 1857 / Sepoy Mutiny / First War of Independence

East India Company

The East India Company was set up in Calcutta, India in the 1600s.

The British thought Indians uncivilized, and claimed to have come to culture them.
They set up a railway network all over India so that goods from India would be easier to
transport to Britain.

Booming textile industry.

A negative effect of the East India Company was the Divide & Conquer Policy.

The Britishers were prejudiced against the Indians, British employees were paid thrice as much
as Indian employees. Ratio - 3:1

The Nawabs avoided taxes.

Important people: Jhalkari Bai, Jhansi ki Rani, Bajirao, Bahadur Shah Zafar

The first act of revolt was the fact that the Nawabs stopped paying taxes to the East India
company.

Subsidiary alliance means the nawabs and the british generals should have the equal amount of
power of a province.

Nawabs rejected the idea, so the Britishers asked them to pay more taxes

The first revolt of not paying taxes was a fail.

The sepoys were disloyal to the britesher from which the name was given Sepoy Mutiny.

(Spice) trades set by the Britishers:

● Cinnamon
● Cotton
● Jute
● Indigo
● Sugar
● Black salt
● Pepper
● Tea
● Coffee

Tariffs on these simple goods.

Indirect way of earning profit.

The British were illegally extracting our resources from our mines without the consent of the
Nawabs.
They extracted gold, silver, diamonds

Effects of EIC

Pros Cons

Established a proper railway network Divide & Conquer Policy

Better education facilities Prejudice - Imbalanced wages

Better employment opportunities Religious frictions - Conversion to Christianity

Introduction of currency system; Taxation

improvisation of monetary system

Solidification in 1722.

Doctrine of Lapse 1848 - 1856

Any Nawab who dies without an heir/a biological son, his province will directly be taken away by
the EIC.

Indian Renaissance (InR)

Renaissance

- Revival of New Ideas

- Education and Awareness about art, culture, and history

Main idea/theme of the Indian Renaissance was to attain Independence.

The Mutiny created an intrinsic feeling of nationalism and patriotism.

This was because [Indians] became more aware about the adversities put on by the EIC.

The Indian Renaissance commenced in 1859, right after the Mutiny.

Underlying Effect - The failed Mutiny

Immediate Effect - Feeling of nationalism u
Result - The Indian Renaissance
Because of the advent of English (British people) in India, the literacy rate significantly
increased from 10% to 70%.

Important Leaders

Maratha Empire (prevalent in Mid 17th to early 18th century)

- Chhatrapati Shivaji
- Sambhaji
- Pratap Singh
- Raja Ram II
- Tarabai
- Tantia Tope

Mughal Empire

Aurangzeb

- Brutal and ferocious leader of all of the Mughal Empire

- Intimidated by unity of India
- “Sold” India’s control to the British

Rajputana Empire (simultaneously ruling with the Mughals)

- Maharana Pratap
- Prithviraj Chauhan

2 Waves of Nationalism (Pre Independence)

The first wave of nationalism when the Mughal Empire was prevalent in India.
The second wave of nationalism when the British Empire was prevalent in India.

Humanism

Humanism means the love and respect for humanity. The appreciation of compassion, kindness,
sympathy, empathy, generosity, loyalty, and other positive emotional acts of humans.

Social Conditions/Issues in India (during the 18th century)

- Casteism
- Sati Practice
 - Dowry system
- Child Marriage
- Landlord’s Revenue System
- Polygamy
- Religious discrimaination
- Idolatry
- Female infantcide

Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj

- He opposed the idolatry, denounced Sati, polygamy, and abuses of the caste system,
favoured remarraige of Hindu widows, and promoted education.
- He was a renaissance man.

Physics: Sound
Waves

Definition

Waves transfer energy from one place to another through a series of disturbances or vibrations
that carry energy.

Longitudinal waves

- Travel parallel to the medium (horizontal)

- Can only travel through a medium; no sound will be heard in a vacuum.
- Contractions and rarefactions
- 1 c + 1 r = 1 longitudinal wave
- Sound waves

Propagation of sound waves only can happen through physical mediums.

Contractions are where the vibration and pressure is high.

Rarefactions have lower vibration and pressure due to the fact that the waves are more apart
from each other.
Transverse waves

- Travel perpendicular to the medium (vertical)

- These waves travel everywhere, they do not require a medium, but can travel within
some materials.
- Crest and trough
- 1 crest + 1 trough = 1 transverse wave
- Light wave

Light waves are also electromagnetic waves.

Light waves move as transverse waves, they always move at the speed of light, which is
299,792,458 (~300 million) meters per second.

The distance between successive crests or troughs is called the wavelength.

Infrasonic, Sonic, Ultrasonic

- Infrasonic sounds are sounds below 20 Hz.

- Sonic sounds are the ones between the human hearing range: 20 to 20,000 Hz.
- Ultrasonic sounds are above the approximate maximum that humans can hear, so
sounds above 20,000 Hz.

Hearing range is different for many animals.

Frequency and Wavelengths

Intro

● Sound waves have 4 qualities

Quality Determines

Frequency Pitch

Wave Shape Timbre

 Amplitude Volume

Phase How Waves Interact

Frequency and Wave Shapes

● If a string vibrates 200 times a second, we say it has a frequency of 200 Hertz (Hz)
● Frequency is denoted with (ƒ)
● Frequency and wavelength determine the pitch of the sound
● All sound travels at the speed of sound
● Shorter wavelength arrive at your ear more frequently than longer waves
● Lambda (
● Speed = wavelength x frequency
● Wavelength = speed / frequency

A B A/B

NOTE SPEED FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH

Middle C 343 m/s 262 Hz 1.309 m

Middle A 343 m/s 440 Hz 0.780 m

Amplitude (intensity)

- Amplitude is the maximum displacement/distance of points on a wave.

- Meaning, the distance between a trough/crest and the equilibrium position is the
amplitude of a wave.

- An equilibrium line is represented by a horizontal line in the middle of the wave.

- It is the line where there are 0 vibrations.

- Amplitude and loudness

- Greater the amplitude, louder the sound - more energy
- Smaller the amplitude, softer the sound, - less energy

- Higher the frequency, higher the pitch and shorter the wavelength

Loudness (frequency)
 - Loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of vibration producing the sound.

Timbre (quality of sound)

- Sound "quality" or "timbre" describes those characteristics of sound which allow the ear
to distinguish sounds which have the same pitch and loudness

Formulas to remember:

● Speed = wavelength x frequency

● Wavelength = speed / frequency
● Frequency = Number of vibrations / time (s)

Human ear

Structure of ear
● Ear can be divided into 3 parts - outer ear, middle ear and inner ear
● The outer ear starts with the pinna

Geography: Layers of Earth and Plate Tectonics

The Realms

Existence of life on Earth is possible due to 3 particular realms: land, water and air.

The landmass is the solid realm, called the lithosphere. It is the outer solid layer of
the Earth.

The water bodies, i.e. oceans, rivers, lakes, are a liquid realm, called the hydrosphere.

The air around the Earth is the gaseous realm, called the atmosphere.
The zone of contact between these realms, where all forms of life exist, is called
the biosphere.

Layers of the Earth

The Earth’s 4 layers are: crust, mantle, outer core and inner core.

The materials in the inner layers are heavier than the ones of the outer layers. There may be
heavy metals such as iron and nickel around the center.

The density of rocks increases toward the inner core because of the weight of the overlaying
layers. The inner core, by this logic, is solid.

There is no uniformity in the structured layers of Earth.

Crust

The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth. It is brittle, rigid and solid.

Combined with the uppermost mantle, it creates the lithosphere.

The average width of the crust is 60km, making it a fairly thin layer.

The crust has 2 parts within it, the first and upper part being the continental crust, and the
second and lower one being the oceanic crust.

The continental crust is older, thicker, it can’t sink. It is permanent.

It measures 70-80 km, and is not very dense (in comparison to the oceanic crust).
This part of the crust is mainly made of rocks with a composition similar to granite.

The oceanic crust is younger, lighter, and therefore can sink.

It constantly gets destroyed and remade. It measures 10-20 km.
This part of the crust is dense (more in comparison to the continental crust), and it’s made of
basaltic rocks.

The crust’s main elements are: silica, magnesium, and aluminum.

Mantle

The mantle is a very thick layer, with an average depth of 2900 km.

MOHO (Mohorovicic discontinuity) is the boundary between itself and the crust.

It’s full of dense and heavy materials which are: oxygen, iron and magnesium.

This layer’s temperature ranges from 900-2200 degrees celsius. The mantle is indeed very hot,
it’s also hot enough to create magma in the majority of itself.

The lower crust, and upper mantle are semi-solid/relatively solid because of high pressure from
overlying layers.

Volcanoes help the exceedingly high pressure and magma to release, and reach the earth’s
surface through volcanic eruptions. Though, they can only be released when cracks on the crust
appear.

Core

The core is another layer which is divided in 2 parts. They are — inner core, and outer core.

The outer core measures about 2275 km wide.

It is, alike other layers, made up of heavy metals such as iron and nickel.

The core is the hottest part of the Earth. Its temperature can go up to 5000 degrees celsius.

The key difference between the outer and inner core is that the outer layer is in molten state,
and the inner is firm due to lithospheric pressures.

The heavy materials along with the high amount of iron can possibly/potentially be responsible
for the Earth’s magnetism.

Seismic Waves

Studying the seismic waves’ behaviour helps continue to expand the knowledge about the
interior of Earth.

There are 4 kinds of seismic waves: Primary waves (P waves), Secondary waves (S waves),
Love waves, and Rayleigh waves.
P waves :-

They are compressional or longitudinal waves.

They travel in the form of compressions.
Their particle movement is back and forth.
P waves travel at a fast speed.
Destruction caused by P waves is usually less.
Primary waves can travel through all types of mediums.

S waves :-

They are shear or transverse waves.

These waves travel in the form of crests and troughs.
S waves’ particle movement is-- back and forth
S waves travel at a slow speed.
The destruction caused by these waves is great.
The only medium S waves cannot travel through is liquid.

Continental Drift

Alfred Wegner, the german meteorologist, first brought the idea of the “continental drift” in 1912.

He was not the first to notice the similarities of the coastlines of Africa and South America (in the
19th early 20th century), although he was the first to make a serious attempt to publicize the
idea.

What the theory proposed was that all the continents used to be a part of a single
supercontinent called “Pangaea”.

Pangaea broke apart into many different parts which drifted away in different directions about
200 million years ago.

Alfred Wegener had many observations to support his theory. They were:
● Almost all of the adjacent continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.
● The Appalachian mountains of North America reappear as the Northern Highlands in
Europe across the Atlantic Ocean.
● Fossils of tropical animals were found in Antarctica. They could not possibly have
survived Antarctica if it had been in its current position throughout history.
● Rocks of these countries match in composition, contained fossils, age, thickness and
sequence right from the age of 4000 million years to 200 million years:
 ● Rocks in Brazil and West Africa
● Rocks in India and Madagascar
● Rocks in Australia and Antarctica
● Wagner’s hypothesis was not accepted as he could not explain the force that caused the
continents to drift away.

Harry Hess and Moving Continents

The Idea of moving continents was given by Harry Hess in 1962 who noticed the following
occurrences in the Atlantic Ocean near the Mid Atlantic Ridge:
● The crust as the MAR is very thin
● There is a continuous chain of active volcanoes along the MAR
● The oceanic crust in the Atlantic Ocean is not more than 200 million years old
● Rocks on both sides of the ridge are symmetrical in composition, age, and magnetic
properties.
● This idea is known as sea floor spreading.
Continental Drift + Sea Floor Spreading = Plate Tectonic Theory
● Earth’s crust is made up of solid lithospheric plates
● These plates move over a layer called asthenosphere
● Due to continuous eruption of magma from the mantle at the mid-oceanic ridges, new
oceanic crust is added to the existing crust, which causes plates to move apart.
● At the other end, two plates push against each other and the heavier plate subducts
under the lighter one. This area is called the subduction zone.

Plate Boundaries

There are three types of plate boundaries : divergent, convergent, transform.

In divergent plate boundaries, two plates move away from each other. It causes earthquakes
and magma rises from the mantle to the surface.
In convergent plate boundaries, two plates collide causing subduction.
● There are three possibilities: continental-continental collision, continental-oceanic
collision, oceanic-oceanic collision.
At a transform fault, two plates slide past each other.
● Earthquakes can occur.

Earthquakes

An earthquake is the shaking of the earth

● It is caused by sudden movements in the Earth’s crust due to the release of energy as
rocks suddenly break or shift under stress.
Seismic waves - Energy stored in the strained rock, it is released as powerful vibrations. These
vibrations are called seismic waves.
Seismic focus - The place below the earth’s surface where an earthquake originates.
Epicenter - Point on the earth’s surface, directly above the seismic focus.
Earthquakes occur along the faults
● A fault is a fracture between two blocks of rocks.
There are three types of faults :
● A normal fault drops rock on one side of the fault down relative to the other side.
● Along a reverse fault, one rocky block is pushed up relative to the rock on the other side.
● Strike-slip faults have a different type of movement than normal and reverse faults. The
rocky blocks on either side scrape along side by side.

Volcanoes

A mountain or hill, typically conical, having a crater or vent through which lava, rock fragments,
hot vapour, or gas erupt from the earth’s crust.

There are nine parts of a volcano:

● Magma chamber - large underground pool of molten rock.
● Lava - the rock expelled from the volcano during an eruption
● Main vent - A volcano’s main vent is the point in the Earth’s crust where hot magma has
reached the Earth’s surface
● Crater - a circular depression in the ground caused by volcanic activity
● Pyroclastic Flow - moving currents of hot rock and gas
● Ash Cloud - consists of small pieces of pulverised rock and glass created during an
eruption
● Volcanic Bombs - chunks of lava blasted into the air which solidify before they reach the
ground
● Secondary vent - other vents from which lava reaches the surface
● Secondary cone - build up around secondary vents on larger volcanoes

Classification of volcanoes
● Active volcanoes - are those that have erupted in recent periods.
● Dormant volcanoes - are those that have erupted earlier and are expected to erupt
● Extinct volcanoes - are volcanoes that will never erupt again

Biology: microorganisms
Classification of microorganisms based on size
● Microbes are smaller than a naked human eye can see. They are about 1/10 size of a
human cell
● In general, the size of microorganisms can be written as: viruses < bacteria < protozoa <
fungi
● Microbes are measured in the scale of micrometer

Classification of microorganisms based on shape and arrangement

● Based on the shape, microorganisms can be categorized into 4 groups: Ameboid,
coccus, bacillus, spiral.
● The microorganisms that do not have a definite shape and keep on changing its shape
are known as amoeboids.
● The microorganisms which are spherical or oval in shape are known as coccus.
- Mono coccus - remain unattached to other microorganisms and exist single
- Diplococci - occur as a pair of two cells
- Tetrad - arranged in a group of four cells
- Sarcina - occurs in a group of eight cells. They form a cube-like structure.
- Streptococci - arranged in a chain form
- Staphylococci - form grape-like structures.
● Rod-shaped microorganisms are known as bacillus
- Monobacillus - remain unattached to other microorganisms and exist single
- Coccobacillus - shorter in length and appear stumpy
- Diplobacilli - diplobacilli occur in pairs
- Streptobacilli - occur os elongated chains
- Palisades - attaches at angles
● Microorganisms found in curved shape are classified in spiral groups
- Vibrio - comma shaped and not fully twisted
- Spirillum - helical shaped and rigid
- Spirochete - flexible and thin, more helix and spirillum

Classification of microorganisms based on nutrition

Literature: Figures of Speech

Allusion

Meaning - An allusion is used to refer to some other object which is outside the literary work.
This object can be a real or fictional person, event, quote, or any other artistic expression.

Example - “Wow, you’re the Einstein of this generation.”

Here, Einstein, as in Albert Einstein, is being referenced to another person who is likely being or
sounding intelligent, since Einstein was known for his brilliant intellect.

Purpose - The purpose of allusion is to present any complex ideas or emotions in a simpler
manner by comparing it with some other reference.

Anthropomorphism

Meaning - Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics and qualities to animals

or deities (Gods/Goddesses). In examples of anthropomorphism, the animal or deity is actually
behaving like or portrayed similar to a human; such as in the case of talking animals or deities
involving themselves in the affairs of humans as in ancient Greek dramas.

Example - Myths where Gods and Goddesses are present and take part in certain human
affairs. Fables where animals can talk in human languages, and essentially just have a lifestyle
mimicking humans’.

Purpose - It helps simplify and make more sense of complicated entities. It also helps create
vivid, imaginative characters, while still allowing readers to relate to them. Anthropomorphism
can help non-human characters be more likable and easy to understand by giving them human
qualities.

The Ironies

Dramatic Irony

Meaning

Situational Irony

Verbal Irony

Literature: Poem Analysis

Structure Table and its Analysis

Format of Structure Table:

 Stanza Line Sentences

1 No. of lines in the 1st stanza No. of sentences in the 1st

stanza

2 No. of lines in the 1st stanza No. of sentences in the 2nd

stanza

3 No. of lines in the 3rd stanza No. of sentences in the 3rd

stanza

... No. of lines in the stanza No. of sentences in the

stanza

To count a sentence as a sentence it should have either a full stop ‘.’, a question mark ‘?’ or an
exclamation mark ‘!’. Otherwise, it is not a sentence, it is a line.

There can be any number of stanzas, but this is the permanent format.

You can’t mess up the sequence of writing ‘Stanza’ ‘Line’ and ‘Sentence’ in the structure table. It
should always be first ‘Stanza’, then ‘Line’ and lastly, ‘Sentence’.

Analysis:

This is the important part. Analysis will be subjective to each poem depending on the structure
table, and there are some exceptions as well, but here is the basic idea based on what is
normally the case.

Long sentences

If there are (significantly) more lines than sentences, it would mean there are long sentences.
Here’s some things long sentences indicate:

- Description

A poem with long sentences could have heavy descriptions which could make them explanatory.
More description also means more detail, and this could mean that it shows some kind of
emotion deeply, that emotion, or mood would depend on the context.

Bonus if you have to make the structure table after reading the poem. Then, you can see why
the poet uses all this description, on what does all the detail focus.

- Time dragging/slow pace

If there are several lines/phrases/words describing and putting detail into one single topic or
event, it makes the poem slower in pace.

- Rhythm

Long sentences sound smoother and add a fluid, fluent rhythm to the poem.

- How it affects the Mood

Long sentences could make a poem have a relaxed feel. Though they could also be

Short sentences

- Dramaticness

Many stanzas

Multiple topics in the poem

Lexical Sets

Format:

Noun Verb Adjective

(list all (list all the (list all the

the nouns verbs in ,adjectives
in the the poem) in the poem)
poem)

Now, create groupings from these words.

These groupings are basically just groups of words that relate to each other in some way.
You also need to justify these groupings, showing how the words are related.
For eg.

Nature related words - nature, stone, lake, tree

Justification - the words stone, lake, tree are things that are often present in nature, and a part
of it. The word nature also comes in this category since it’s what all this relates to, and is
classified into.

There should be at least 3 words in a lexical set, to count it as a lexical set.

Tone

“Different words with similar meanings can have different connotations.”

Denotation: the exact dictionary definition of a word.

Connotation: the idea or feeling we get from hearing a word, what our mind associates that word
with.

Multiple words may have the same/a similar meaning, but our minds may connect that word to
specific feelings.

The tone of a poem is the attitude (viewpoint or way of thinking) of the poet toward the subject
of the poem.

Tones are conveyed/implied through choice of words and writing style in the poem.

Finding out the connotative meanings of words in poems, along with general analysis of
language used, help us understand the poem’s tone and meaning.

Theme

A theme is an important idea that is present throughout the story. It’s a big idea about the world
expressed through a literary piece.

Themes can be statements that answer certain questions.

Theme ≠ main idea

Theme ≠ summary
A theme is a lesson that one can understand from the story.

Themes are universal. They can apply and relate to everyone, regardless of the events in the
story.
A moral, compared to a theme, is a very specific lesson. A theme doesn’t necessarily have to be
a moral, but it can be one.

Questions that can help figure out the theme:

What did the characters learn?

How did they grow and change?

Why did the characters act the way they did?

What’s different at the end of the story?

What stays with you after finishing the story?

Literature : drama analysis

● Act : act changes when setting changes

● Scenes : scenes are minor changes within one act
● Stage direction : the instructions given before the play begins to the stage team to set
up the (duh) stage
● One-act play : A play which takes place in just one day and at one place itself

Geomorphology: Recapitulation of types of

rocks, the Rock Cycle, and Weathering
Geo = Earth
Morph = Change
Logy = Study

Geomorphology is studying the ongoing changes of the Earth.

It is about the features and landscapes on Earth

 - Mountains
- Valleys
- Hills
- Plains
- Plateaus
- Islands
- Peninsulas
- Deltas

Weathering, Erosion, And Deposition

Weathering is the breaking down of rocks due to factors present in the atmosphere. (factors
such as temperature, frost, humidity, wind etc.)

Erosion is when the weathered material gets transported from one place to another.
(due to natural agents like moving water, ice, wind)

Deposition is the process where the weathered material deposits in a new place and forms
layers upon itself.

The process of this all is known as gradation

Gradation

Type 1: Aggradation
Adding layers… Example: volcanoes, sedimentary rocks, fold mountains, avalanches,
landslides

Type 2: Degradation
Removing layers…. Example: weathering, trenches, avalanches, landslides

Weathering Gradation

● Breakup Of Rocks ● Break up of rocks, transportation and

● Agents Present In The atmosphere deposition
● Main agents are temperature ● Agents present on the surface of the
changes, humidity, and precipitation. Earth.
● Static process, no transportation ● Main agents are running water,
involved. moving ice, wind, waves.
● Basic process for soil formation ● Dynamic process, erosion,
transportation and deposition
involved.
● Responsible for sculpting a variety of
 landforms

Rocks:

Sedimentary - The rocks that are formed due to the deposition of weathered material such as
silts.

Extrusive Igneous - formed when lava cools on the surface of earth (crust)

Intrusive Igneous - made of hardened magma inside a volcano

Metamorphic - The rocks that are made from intense pressure deep down in the mantle
(sedimentary rocks and igneous rocks can both be formed into metamorphic rocks)

Hard rocks and soft rocks

Hard rocks: Hard rocks are rocks that are harder to be weathered. An example of Hard rock is
obsidian
Soft rocks: Soft rocks are easier to be weathered. An example of Soft rock is Limestone and
Brick

Types of Weathering:

Physical/Mechanical:

Type 1 - Freeze and Thaw:

● Freeze and thaw is what happens to a rock when in extreme cold temperatures.
● As the temperature is too cold it causes the rock to freeze and then it is really fragile
which causes it to break slowly and gradually.
● When there are cracks in the rock, water gets into these cracks and freezes, forming ice
in the rock.
● The cracks eventually become bigger until the rock finally weathers.

Type 2 - Exfoliation:

● Due to extreme climates, the heat makes the molecules of the rock expand and in the
night the rock will give of heat and a the rock will contract
● Eventually, the expansion and contraction will start to peels the rock’s outer layer
Chemical

Type 1 - Carbonation :
● Carbonation is when large amounts of CO² molecules mixed with water form a mildly
acidic mixture
● The acid is known as carbonic acid

Type 2 - Oxidation:
● When rock contains lots of iron and the iron rusts; the process is known as oxidation
● This is a chemical weathering process.
● Agent factors - H2O, O2
● Some rocks contain iron compounds which combine with water and form rust or
iron-hydroxide. The rust expands, breaking up the iron-bearing rocks.

Biological

Plant and trees

● When the roots of plant go for search of water, they go inside a rock and break it down
● Tree roots may grow into cracks in the rocks in search of nourishment
● As the roots grow they exert great pressure on the rocks causing them to break.
● Physical weathering caused by any living organism

Animals
● Burrowing animals such as rodents, insects and worms actively contribute to the
weathering process.
● They loosen material and also expose more rock to the other agents of weathering.

Internal and external changes of landforms

Internal

Type 1 - Slow
● Something that takes time to get formed
● Formation of mountains
● Continents drifting
● Islands formation

Type 2 - Abrupt
● Something that happens abruptly
● Volcanic eruption
● Earthquakes
External

Agents - River, wind, glaciers, waves

● These are the agents which help in changing the earth externally
● All of these are in continuous motion

Nature of rocks: Landforms made up of harder and more resistant material would change more
slowly.

Length of time: Generally, older landforms will show more change since the forces have been
working for a longer period of time.

Effects of weathering

● The effect of weathering is to produce a layer of loose material on the surface of earth
● Weathering is the process of soil formation

Movement of weathered material

Soil creep : This is a slow movement of soil, noticed only by the falling of walls or tilting of poles

Landslide : Sudden collapse of a large mass of hillside

● Landslide usually occurs after heavy rains on steep slopes
● As rain water seeps through the weathered particles, it reduces the friction between
them.
● The weight of weathered particle increases
● Landslides may cause obstruction along roads or destroy human settlements, causing
loss of life and property.

Mudflow : It is the flow of weathered material, sodden with water, down a hillside.
● Mudflows are most common in dry mountainous regions
● When such a region receives very heavy rainfall, large amounts of weathered particles
are washed down the slopes which usually have very little vegetation to hold the loose
material.
● The final result is a rapidly moving mass of mud, having the consistency of wet concrete.
● This is because of its high density, a mudflow can easily carry large rocks and boulders.

Work of rivers

Needs of rivers

● Transportation (of goods, organisms, weathered materials etc.)

● Agricultural farming
● Water cycle
 ● Basic needs/uses
● Helps flora and fauna (ecosystems and vegetation)
● Fertile soil
● Hydropower
● More food

Rivers and its parts

● Rivers have three sections: the upper course, the middle course and the lower course
● The speed of the flow of the river also changes as does the work of the river as an agent
of gradation.

Upper Course : In this region, a river usually flows through mountainous regions. The volume of
water is not much, but the gradient being steep, the water flows swiftly.

● The dominant work of the river in this course is that of erosion.

● A swift current can move even large rocks and boulders.
● These break apart as they are knocked around.
● The smaller pieces carried by the river scrape and dig into the river bed.
● Rocks and pebbles keep on rubbing against each other.
● They also rub along the rocky bed of the river resulting in smooth and rounded rocks and
pebbles.
● The river in this course develops typical landforms.

Gorge or I-shaped valley: When a river flows through a mountainous region made up of hard
rock and little rainfall, most of the energy of the river is spent in down-cutting action, resulting in
a narrow valley with almost vertical walls.

The Indus River and many tributaries of the Ganga flow through many deep gorges. A gorge of
considerable size is known as a canyon.

V-shaped valley: When a river flows through a mountainous region made up of relatively soft
rock with plenty of rainfall, the sides or the banks of the river are easily eroded and widened by
increase in volume of the river water from time to time, resulting in a v-shaped valley.

Waterfall: A waterfall is a steep descent of a river over a rocky ledge. When a river flows from
hard rock to soft rock, the softer rock is easily eroded forming a ledge over which the river falls.
As the water falls over the ledge, it creates a depression known as a plunge rock.

Rapids: Rapids are areas of broken, fast-flowing water in a stream or a river that has a slight
gradient. The water tumbles over or around rocks and boulders as it flows swiftly through a
narrow part of the river. A series of rapids, big and small, are known as cascades.
Cataract: The term cataract is used for a series of rapids in a large river. It is often applied to
waterfalls of large volume. The major work of the river as an agent of gradation
is to erode. Transportation also takes place.

The Middle Course: In the middle course, the river enters the plain.

As the gradient decreases, the flow of the river slows down and so does its energy. The volume
of water increases considerably. As the slope of the course flattens, the river cuts less into its
river bed. Instead it widens its banks and its river bed, giving rise to U-shaped valleys.

The main work of the river here is to transport sediment. Deposition also takes place.

The river in the middle course develops some typical landforms.

Alluvial fan: The river drops its load of sand and gravel as the speed of the river decreases
suddenly. The coarse material is dropped near the base of the slope while the finer material is
carried further.

Flood plain: In the middle course, the gradient becomes almost flat. Hence the downward
erosion is reduced. More of the river's energy is directed from side to side. As the river cuts
away at one bank, and then at the other, the valley widens. In this manner, a flat valley covered
with alluvium brought by the river, is created. This is a floodplain, also called an alluvial plain.

Meanders: As the gradient is almost flat, the river

flows in a leisurely manner forming sweeping loops and bends. Where such meanders occur,
the river can be described as a meandering river. ("meander" which means to wander.)

Ox-bow Lake: An ox-bow lake is produced when a meander forms almost a complete circle and
the meandering river cuts across the narrow neck of land. When silt is deposited at the entrance
to this backwater, an ox-bow lake is created.

Braided river: When a river carries an enormous amount of load, it is unable to carry it all the
way to the mouth, and the channel becomes clogged.

This causes the river to divide into many intertwining channels forming islands in the river
channel.e

Such a river is known as a braided river

Lower course
Delta - Delta is a triangular piece of land that develops at the mouth of the river (lower course)
by the deposition of sediment.

Estuary - Estuary is a funnel shaped opening at the mouth of the river.

Tributary - Tributary is when a smaller stream joins a larger one.

Why deltas don’t form in all rivers

● If the river is too short.

● If the mountainous course of the river is very short, the river might not have enough load
to form a delta.
● If the lower course of a river is very swift, the sediment is washed in the ocean.
● If the sea at the mouth of the river is very deep, a delta may not develop.
● If the coast at the mouth is rocky

Tributaries Distributaries

Tributary is when a smaller stream joins a Distributaries are formed when a river is
larger one. forced to break into branches.

It can be found in any It is found only in the lower course.

course of a river.

It is useful for transportation and irrigation It provides a good network

for transportation.

E.g. Yamuna is a tributary of Ganga Padma is the distributary of the Ganga

Estuary Delta

Estuary is a funnel shaped opening at the Delta is a triangular piece of land that
mouth of the river. develops at the mouth of the river by the
deposition of sediment.

It provides very good sites for harbors It is made up of fertile soil. Hence it is very
good for cultivation.

Example: Kolkata at the mouth of Hooghly Example: Delta of Ganga- Brahmaputra.

Main Features Of River

 1. Source - The beginning of a river is called its source.
2. Gradient - A river makes its way to the sea under the influence of gravity. The slope of
the river is known as the gradient of the river
3. Channel- The Bed Through Which the river flows.
4. River valley -The entire low-lying area or the depression through which the river flows.
5. Load - The particles carried by a river. It includes large boulders and rocks, as well as
fine gravel, sand and silt. Also called sediment
6. Basin - The area drained by a single river system.
7. Catchment area - The area from where the river and its tributaries get most of their
water.

Weather And Climate

Weather: Short term

Climate: Long term

The Atmosphere

● The Atmosphere is divided into layers according to major changes in temperature

● Gravity pushes the layers of air down on the earth's surface.
● This push is called air pressure.

Layer Name Description

Troposphere ● Air closest to earth,

● where we live,
● where weather is formed,
● airplanes fly at the top of it
● 10 miles (16 km) above the surface of
the earth
● Tropopause (lies between
troposphere and stratosphere) has jet
stream
● Jet stream: faster air than surrounding
air (runs from west to east)

Stratosphere ● Ozone layer is part of it

● Helps shield the earth from harmful
sun rays
 ● Ozone layer helps in trapping heat
● 30 miles (48 km) above the surface of
the earth
● Convection current takes place

Mesosphere ● Coldest layer (because ozone traps all

heat. No heat is reflected back)
● Meteorites break apart here
● 50 miles (80 km) above the surface of
earth

Thermosphere ● Five times as deep as all the other

layers combines
● Bottom part known as ionosphere
(aurora borealis, northern lights)
● Very hot (up to 2000°C)
● Extremely hot due to harmful UV rays
● 300 Miles (483 km) above the surface
of earth

Exosphere ● Satellites circle the earth here

● Fades into space
● Beyond 300 miles (483 km) above the
surface of earthThis push is called air
pressure.

Structure:

The Atmosphere is divided into layers according to major changes in temperature. Gravity
pushes the layers of air down on the earth's surface. This push is called air pressure. 99% of the
total mass of the atmosphere is below 32 kilometers.

● Troposphere (0 to 12 km) - Contains 75% of the gases in the atmosphere. This is

where you live and where weather occurs. As height increases, temperature decreases.
The temperature drops about 6.5 degrees Celsius for every kilometer above the earth's
surface.

Tropopause is located at the top of the troposphere. The

temperature remains fairly constant here. This layer separates the
troposphere from the stratosphere. We find the jet stream here.
These are very strong winds that blow eastward.

● Stratosphere (12 to 50 km) - The temperature remains fairly constant (-60 degrees
Celsius). This layer contains the ozone layer. Ozone acts as a shield for the earth's
surface. It absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun. This causes a temperature increase
in the upper part of the layer.
 ● Mesosphere ( 50 to 80 km) - The temperature drops in this layer to about -100 degrees
Celsius. This is the coldest region of the atmosphere. This layer protects the earth from
meteoroids. They burn up in this area.

● Thermosphere (80 km and up) - The air is very thin. Thermosphere means "heat
sphere". The temperature is very high in this layer because ultraviolet radiation is turned
into heat. Temperatures often reach 2000 degrees Celsius or more. This layer contains:

Ionosphere - This is the lower part of the thermosphere. It extends

from about 80 to 550 km. Gas particles absorb ultraviolet and X-ray
radiation from the sun. The particles of gas become electrically
charged (ions). Radio waves are bounced off the ions and reflect
waves back to earth. This generally helps radio communication.
However, solar flares can increase the number of ions and can
interfere with the transmission of some radio waves.

● Exosphere - the upper part of the thermosphere. It extends from about 550 km for
thousands of kilometers. Air is very thin here. This is the area where satellites orbit the
earth.

Present Day Composition of Atmosphere:

● A. Nitrogen - 78% - Dilutes oxygen and prevents rapid burning at the earth's surface.
Living things need it to make proteins. Nitrogen cannot be used directly from the air. The
Nitrogen Cycle is nature's way of supplying the needed nitrogen for living things.
● B. Oxygen - 21% - Used by all living things. It is essential for respiration. It is necessary
for combustion or burning.
● C. Argon - 0.9% - Used in light bulbs.
● E. Water Vapor - 0.0 to 1.0% - Essential for life processes. Also prevents heat loss from
the earth.
● D. Carbon Dioxide - 0.03% - Plants use it to make oxygen. Acts as a blanket and
prevents the escape of heat into outer space. Scientists are afraid that the burning of
fossil fuels such as coal and oil are adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
● F. Trace gases - gases found only in very small amounts. They include neon, helium,
krypton, and xenon.

Effects of atmosphere

● Protects the Earth by preventing all the Sun’s radiation form reaching the Earth’s
surface.
● Filters the UV rays.
● Heating up of Earth’s atmosphere to various temperatures produces circulation in the
atmosphere leading to winds and precipitation
Insulation and Terrestrial Radiation

● Insolation: The incoming solar energy intercepted by Earth Is defined as insolation.

● The Sun’s energy travels to the Earth as electromagnetic radiation which can be thought
of as energy moving in short waves.
● Terrestrial Radiation: The insolation radiated out by the Earth is called terrestrial
radiation.

GREENHOUSE GASES EFFECT

● Human activities contribute to global warming by increasing the greenhouse effect.

● The greenhouse effect happens when certain gases—known as greenhouse
gases—collect in Earth’s atmosphere.
● These gases, which occur naturally in the atmosphere, include carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrogen oxide, and fluorinated gases sometimes known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
● Greenhouse gases let the sun’s light shine onto the Earth’s surface, but they trap the
heat that reflects back up into the atmosphere.
● In this way, they act like the insulating glass walls of a greenhouse.
● The greenhouse effect keeps Earth’s climate comfortable.
● Without it, surface temperatures would be cooler by about 33 degrees Celsius (60
degrees Fahrenheit), and many life forms would freeze.
● Since the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s and early 1800s, people have been
releasing large quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
● Greenhouse gas emissions increased 70 percent between 1970 and 2004.

CAUSES
● Most of the carbon dioxide that people put into the atmosphere comes from burning
fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas.
● Cars, trucks, trains, and planes all burn fossil fuels. Many electric power plants also burn
fossil fuels.
● Another way people release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere is by cutting down
forests.
● Decaying plant material, including trees, releases tons of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
● Living trees absorb carbon dioxide.
● By diminishing the number of trees to absorb carbon dioxide, the gas remains in the
atmosphere.

EFFECTS
● Even slight rises in average global temperatures can have huge effects.
● The biggest, most obvious effect is that glaciers and ice caps melt faster than usual.
● The meltwater drains into the oceans, causing sea levels to rise and oceans to become
less salty.
● Ice sheets and glaciers advance and retreat naturally.
● As Earth’s temperature has changed, the ice sheets have grown and shrunk, and sea
levels have fallen and risen.
● Ancient corals found on land in Florida, Bermuda, and the Bahamas show that the sea
level must have been five to six meters (16-20 feet) higher 130,000 years ago than it is
today.
● Earth doesn’t need to become oven-hot to melt the glaciers.
● Northern summers were just three to five degrees Celsius (five to nine degrees
Fahrenheit) warmer during the time of those ancient fossils than they are today.

GLOBAL WARMING

● Global warming is the long-term warming of the planet’s overall temperature.

● Though this warming trend has been going on for a long time, its pace has significantly
increased in the last hundred years due to the burning of fossil fuels.
● As the human population has increased, so has the volume of fossil fuels burned.
● Fossil fuels include coal, oil, and natural gas, and burning them causes what is known as
the “greenhouse effect” in Earth’s atmosphere.

OZONE DEPLETION

● The ozone layer is one layer of the stratosphere, the second layer of the Earth’s
atmosphere.
● The stratosphere is the mass of protective gases clinging to our planet.
● The stratosphere gets its name because it is stratified, or layered: as elevation
increases, the stratosphere gets warmer.
● The stratosphere increases in warmth with elevation because ozone gases in the upper
layers absorb intense ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
● Ozone is only a trace gas in the atmosphere—only about 3 molecules for every 10
million molecules of air.
● Like a sponge, the ozone layer absorbs bits of radiation hitting Earth from the sun.
● Even though we need some of the sun's radiation to live, too much of it can damage
living things.
● The ozone layer acts as a shield for life on Earth.
● Ozone is good at trapping a type of radiation called ultraviolet radiation, or UV light,
which can penetrate organisms’ protective layers, like skin, damaging DNA molecules in
plants and animals.
 ● There are two major types of UV light: UVB and UVA.
● UVB is the cause of skin conditions like sunburns, and cancers like basal cell carcinoma
and squamous cell carcinoma.
● People used to think that UVA light, the radiation used in tanning beds, is harmless
because it doesn’t cause burns.
● However, scientists now know that UVA light is even more harmful than UVB,
penetrating more deeply and causing a deadly skin cancer, melanoma, and premature
aging.
● The ozone layer, our Earth’s sunscreen, absorbs about 98 percent of this devastating UV
light.
● The ozone layer is getting thinner.
● Chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a reason we have a thinning ozone
layer.
● A chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is a molecule that contains the elements carbon, chlorine,
and fluorine.
● CFCs are everywhere, mostly in refrigerants and plastic products.
● The CFCs start eating away at the ozone layer once they get blown into the
stratosphere.
● Ozone molecules, which are simply made of three joined oxygen atoms, are always
being destroyed and reformed naturally.
● But CFCs in the air make it very difficult for ozone to reform once it’s broken apart.
● The ozone layer, which only makes up 0.00006 percent of Earth’s atmosphere, is getting
thinner and thinner all the time.
● “Ozone holes” are popular names for areas of damage to the ozone layer. This is
inaccurate.
● Ozone layer damage is more like a really thin patch than a hole.
● The ozone layer is thinnest near the poles.

ELEMENTS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Latitude

● The temperature decreases as the distance from the equator increases.

● The amount of rain also decreases from the equator to the poles (since the rate of
evaporation depends on the temperature).

Height Above Sea-Level

● As height increases, the density of air decreases. Thus, the amount of heat absorbed
decreases with height.
● Therefore, temperature decreases with an increase in height (above the surface of the
earth)
● Windward and leeward sides
Land and Sea Contrast

● Land and sea get heated differently

● Land - Conduction
● Sea - Convection
● Water allows the heat to penetrate to a greater depth, thus the heat is distributed over a
large area.
● Land does not allow the heat to pass below the surface, so the heat remains
concentrated on the surface

Wind Direction

● Warm westerlies (lower latitudes)

● Polar winds (higher latitudes)
● On shore winds (bring plenty of rain)
● Off shore winds (do not bring rain)

Direction of Mountain Ranges

● Mountains act as barriers to the movement of wind.

● They keep the temperature cooler.

Ocean Currents

● Ocean currents transfer heat from lower latitudes to higher latitudes.

Vegetation

● Vegetation decreases the temperature by releasing moisture in the air.

● It also plays a role in increasing rainfall.

Air pressure

Types of wind
● Permanent wind: These winds don’t change their course
● Seasonal wind: These are the winds from each season
● Variable wind: Have a limited time period. (Last a couple of days) eg. : storms, tornadoes

Air pressure benefits

● The atmospheric pressure gives rise to wind systems of the earth
 ● Air movement is caused due to difference in pressure, creates cloudy or clear skies,
brings rain or fine weather
● The give important clues to weather forecasting

The scale
● Air pressure is measured in Hectopascals (hPa)
● Can be measured using the Barometer

Factors affecting atmospheric pressure

Altitude
● Atmospheric pressure decrease with increase in altitude
● Air is compressible. Earth’s gravity pulls the molecules of air and other gases
downwards, towards the ground.
● The lowest layer is the most compressed and hence the densest.

Temperature
● Atmospheric pressure decreases with an increases in temperature
● When the temperature rises, air expands. The molecules of air move far apart (become
less dense) and hence exert less pressure

Water Vapor
● Most air (humid exerts less pressure than dry air
● Moist (humid) air is lighter than dry air.
● A given volume of humid air contains comparatively less nitrogen and oxygen than dry
air, and is lighter or less dense.
● Hence it exerts less pressure.

Effects of air pressure

A. Winds are caused due to differences in air pressure.

● Warm air is light.

● As it rises, it cools and spreads.
● Once it has cooled, the air starts to sink back to Earth.
i. The region where air rises, an area of low pressure is
created.
ii. The region where air sinks, an area of high pressure is
Created.

B. Atmospheric pressure influences weather

● Upward and downward movement of air creates cloudy or clear skies.
● As air rises and creates an area of low pressure, water vapor in the air condenses and
forms clouds.
 i. Low pressure is, therefore, associated with cloudy skies and wet weather.
ii. High pressure is normally associated with clear and sunny skies.

C. Weather Forecasting

● Fluctuations in air pressure indicate weather changes.

● For example, rapidly falling pressure indicates that a low pressure system is
approaching, which may bring rain.

Isobars

Chemistry - symbols and formulae

Symbols and formulae

● Letters from the alphabet are used to represent chemical elements

● An element’s chemical symbol is a single capital letter or a capital letter followed by a
lowercase letter.
● The periodic table shows the chemical symbols for all the different elements.

Elements
● An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into any other substance.
● Every element is made up of its own type of atom.
● Example : gold, hydrogen, oxygen

Symbols
● Elements are represented by letters from the alphabet.
● These letters are also known as symbols.
● The symbol for an element is either a single capital letter or a capital letter followed by a
lowercase letter.
 ● Example - hydrogen (H), Helium (He), Sodium (Na)

The periodic table

● There are 118 chemical elements and they are listed on the periodic table in a specific
order.
● 94 chemical elements occur naturally on Earth and in the universe.
● 24 elements are made using nuclear reactions.

Compounds
● A compound is a substance that contains atoms of two or more different elements.
● The elements are chemically bonded together in a specific ratio of atoms.
● The formula of a compound shows how many atoms of each element are bonded
together.
● The formula is made up of symbols and numbers
● The numbers are written as subscripts, which means they are smaller than the symbol,
and slightly lower down.
● For example, the formula for water is H₂O.

Molecules
● Most molecules are made of two or more non-metal atoms bonded together.

The structure of compounds

● Compounds made from a metal and a nonmetal, like sodium chloride, do not form
molecules.
● For compounds made from metals and non-metals, the ratio is simplified down as much
as possible.
● In this example, the formula is NaCl instead of Na₈Cl₈.
● Calcium chloride has the formula CaCl₂, so there are twice as many chlorine atoms
present as calcium atoms.

Nonmetal elements
● Many non-metal elements are made from molecules, and these have a chemical formula
which shows how many atoms are bonded to each other in their molecules.
● Here are some common examples. Most are made from two atoms in each molecule.
○ H₂ – hydrogen
○ O₂ – oxygen
○ Cl₂ – chlorine
○ N₂ – nitrogen
● Metals don’t form molecules, so always use just the element symbols
● For example, Mg for magnesium, not Mg₂ or Mg₄
 Metals Non-Metals

Eg. Iron, Aluminum, Platinum, Potassium, Eg. Hydrogen, Plastic, Wood, Oxygen,
Sodium, Copper Carbon

- Hard - May not be hard

- Solid - Solids/Liquids/Gasses

- Lustrous surfaces - Not lustrous

- Non flexible - May/may not be flexible

- Good conductor of heat and electricity - Not a good conductor of heat and electricity

- Malleability/are malleable (ability to be - Not malleable

converted into thin sheets)

- Ductility/are ductile (ability to be converted - Not ductile

into thin wires)

- Sonorous (ability to produce ringing sound) - Does not produce ringing sound

Biology: Digestive System

Process of Digestion:

Mouth

Teeth - Food is chewed into smaller pieces by teeth that can grind, chew, and tear different
kinds of food.

Tongue - The tongue is an organ consisting of skeletal muscles (voluntary muscles) that move
the food around the mouth to allow for efficient mechanical digestion.

Salivary Glands - Salivary glands at the beneath and back of the tongue secrete saliva which
allows easier swallowing of food and the beginning of chemical digestion.

There are 3 major salivary glands:

- Parotid glands
 - Submandibular glands
- Sublingual glands

Pharynx - Pharynx, also called the throat, is a tubular entrance where the swallowed food will
pass through, and reach the esophagus.

Esophagus

A muscular tube that propels the bolus from the mouth to the stomach.

The esophageal lumen is very flexible which allows bolluses of different sizes to be transported.

The outer two muscles of the esophagus are responsible for peristalsis.

Stomach

The stomach is a muscular and stretchable sac with 3 significant functions:

- Mixes and stores food until it can be further digested.

- Secretes chemicals that help break down food into more digestible forms.
- Controls the passage of food into the small intestine.

It has 5 major parts:

- Cardia
- Fundus
- Body
- Antrum
- Pylorus

Physical Structure of Stomach

- Longitudinal muscle layer on the outside; circular muscle fibre underneath.

- Oblique muscle layer overlaying the gastric mucosa.
- On the inside, there are rugae that allow the stomach to enlarge when food is
consumed.
- The stomach wall contains gastric glands that produce mucus, which is able to protect
the stomach wall from the secreted gastric acid.
- Gastric acid is produced