Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality.
It
is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some
theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of human understanding.
Some philosophers, including Aristotle, designate metaphysics as first philosophy to
suggest that it is more fundamental than other forms of philosophical inquiry.
Metaphysics encompasses a wide range of general and abstract topics. It investigates
the nature of existence, the features all entities have in common, and their division
into categories of being. An influential division is between particulars and universals.
Particulars are individual unique entities, like a specific apple. Universals are general
features that different particulars have in common, like the color red. Modal
metaphysics examines what it means for something to be possible or necessary.
Metaphysicians also explore the concepts of space, time, and change, and their
connection to causality and the laws of nature. Other topics include how mind and
matter are related, whether everything in the world is predetermined, and whether there
is free will.
Metaphysicians use various methods to conduct their inquiry. Traditionally, they rely on
rational intuitions and abstract reasoning but have recently
included empirical approaches associated with scientific theories. Due to the abstract
nature of its topic, metaphysics has received criticisms questioning the reliability of its
methods and the meaningfulness of its theories. Metaphysics is relevant to many fields
of inquiry that often implicitly rely on metaphysical concepts and assumptions.
The roots of metaphysics lie in antiquity with speculations about the nature and origin of
the universe, like those found in the Upanishads in ancient India, Daoism in ancient
China, and pre-Socratic philosophy in ancient Greece. During the subsequent medieval
period in the West, discussions about the nature of universals were influenced by the
philosophies of Plato and Aristotle. The modern period saw the emergence of various
comprehensive systems of metaphysics, many of which embraced idealism. In the 20th
century, traditional metaphysics in general and idealism in particular faced various
criticisms, which prompted new approaches to metaphysical inquiry.
Definition
[edit]
Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality,
including existence, objects and their properties, possibility and
necessity, space and time, change, causation, and the relation
between matter and mind. It is one of the oldest branches of philosophy.[1][a]
The precise nature of metaphysics is disputed and its characterization has changed in
the course of history. Some approaches see metaphysics as a unified field and give a
wide-sweeping definition by understanding it as the study of "fundamental questions
about the nature of reality" or as an inquiry into the essences of things. Another
approach doubts that the different areas of metaphysics share a set of underlying
features and provides instead a fine-grained characterization by listing all the main
topics investigated by metaphysicians.[4] Some definitions are descriptive by providing
an account of what metaphysicians do while others are normative and prescribe what
metaphysicians ought to do.[5]
Two historically influential definitions in ancient and medieval philosophy understand
metaphysics as the science of the first causes and as the study of being qua being, that
is, the topic of what all beings have in common and to what fundamental categories they
belong. In the modern period, the scope of metaphysics expanded to include topics
such as the distinction between mind and body and free will.[6] Some philosophers
follow Aristotle in describing metaphysics as "first philosophy", suggesting that it is the
most basic inquiry upon which all other branches of philosophy depend in some way.[7][b]
Immanuel Kant conceived metaphysics from the perspective
of critical philosophy as the study of the principles underlying all human thought and experience.
Metaphysics is traditionally understood as a study of mind-independent features of
reality. Starting with Immanuel Kant's critical philosophy, an alternative conception
gained prominence that focuses on conceptual schemes rather than external reality.
Kant distinguishes transcendent metaphysics, which aims to describe the objective
features of reality beyond sense experience, from the critical perspective on
metaphysics, which outlines the aspects and principles underlying all human thought
and experience.[9] Philosopher P. F. Strawson further explored the role of conceptual
schemes, contrasting descriptive metaphysics, which articulates conceptual schemes
commonly used to understand the world, with revisionary metaphysics, which aims to
produce better conceptual schemes.[10]
Metaphysics differs from the individual sciences by studying the most general and
abstract aspects of reality. The individual sciences, by contrast, examine more specific
and concrete features and restrict themselves to certain classes of entities, such as the
focus on physical things in physics, living entities in biology, and cultures
in anthropology.[11] It is disputed to what extent this contrast is a strict dichotomy rather
than a gradual continuum.[12]
Etymology
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The word metaphysics has its origin in the ancient Greek words metá (μετά,
meaning 'after', 'above', and 'beyond') and phusiká (φυσικά), as a short form of ta metá
ta phusiká, meaning 'what comes after the physics'. This is often interpreted to mean
that metaphysics discusses topics that, due to their generality and comprehensiveness,
lie beyond the realm of physics and its focus on empirical observation.[13] Metaphysics
may have received its name by a historical accident when Aristotle's book on this
subject was published.[14] Aristotle did not use the term metaphysics but his editor
(likely Andronicus of Rhodes) may have coined it for its title to indicate that this book
should be studied after Aristotle's book published on physics: literally 'after physics'. The
term entered the English language through the Latin word metaphysica.[13]
Branches
[edit]
The nature of metaphysics can also be characterized in relation to its main branches.
An influential division from early modern philosophy distinguishes between general and
special or specific metaphysics.[15] General metaphysics, also called ontology,[c] takes the
widest perspective and studies the most fundamental aspects of being. It investigates
the features that all entities share and how entities can be divided into
different categories. Categories are the most general kinds, such as substance,
property, relation, and fact.[17] Ontologists research which categories there are, how they
depend on one another, and how they form a system of categories that provides a
comprehensive classification of all entities.[18]
Special metaphysics considers being from more narrow perspectives and is divided into
subdisciplines based on the perspective they take. Metaphysical cosmology examines
changeable things and investigates how they are connected to form a world as a totality
extending through space and time.[19] Rational psychology focuses on metaphysical
foundations and problems concerning the mind, such as its relation to matter and the
freedom of the will. Natural theology studies the divine and its role as the first cause.
[19]
The scope of special metaphysics overlaps with other philosophical disciplines,
making it unclear whether a topic belongs to it or to areas like philosophy of
mind and theology.[20]
Starting in the second half of the 20th century, applied metaphysics was conceived as
the area of applied philosophy examining the implications and uses of metaphysics,
both within philosophy and other fields of inquiry. In areas like ethics and philosophy of
religion, it addresses topics like the ontological foundations of moral claims and religious
doctrines.[21] Beyond philosophy, its applications include the use of ontologies in artificial
intelligence, economics, and sociology to classify entities.[22] In psychiatry and medicine,
it examines the metaphysical status of diseases.[23]
Meta-metaphysics[d] is the metatheory of metaphysics and investigates the nature and
methods of metaphysics. It examines how metaphysics differs from other philosophical
and scientific disciplines and assesses its relevance to them. Even though discussions
of these topics have a long history in metaphysics, meta-metaphysics has only recently
developed into a systematic field of inquiry.[25]
Topics
[edit]
Existence and categories of being
[edit]
Main articles: Existence and Theory of categories
Metaphysicians often regard existence or being as one of the most basic and general
concepts.[26] To exist means to be part of reality, distinguishing real entities from
imaginary ones.[27] According to a traditionally influential view, existence is a property of
properties: if an entity exists then its properties are instantiated.[28] A different position
states that existence is a property of individuals, meaning that it is similar to other
properties, such as shape or size.[29] It is controversial whether all entities have this
property. According to philosopher Alexius Meinong, there are nonexistent objects,
including merely possible objects like Santa Claus and Pegasus.[30][e] A related question
is whether existence is the same for all entities or whether there are different modes or
degrees of existence.[31] For instance, Plato held that Platonic forms, which are perfect
and immutable ideas, have a higher degree of existence than matter, which can only
imperfectly reflect Platonic forms.[32][f]
Another key concern in metaphysics is the division of entities into distinct groups based
on underlying features they share. Theories of categories provide a system of the most
fundamental kinds or the highest genera of being by establishing a comprehensive
inventory of everything.[34] One of the earliest theories of categories was proposed by
Aristotle, who outlined a system of 10 categories. He argued that substances (e.g., man
and horse), are the most important category since all other categories like quantity (e.g.,
four), quality (e.g., white), and place (e.g., in Athens) are said of substances and
depend on them.[35] Kant understood categories as fundamental principles underlying
human understanding and developed a system of 12 categories, divided into the four
classes: quantity, quality, relation, and modality.[36] More recent theories of categories
were proposed by C. S. Peirce, Edmund Husserl, Samuel Alexander, Roderick
Chisholm, and E. J. Lowe.[37] Many philosophers rely on the contrast between concrete
and abstract objects. According to a common view, concrete objects, like rocks, trees,
and human beings, exist in space and time, undergo changes, and impact each other
as cause and effect. They contrast with abstract objects, like numbers and sets, which
do not exist in space and time, are immutable, and do not engage in causal relations. [38]