Waste Management
UNIT 16 WASTE MANAGEMENT
Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Objectives
16.3 Waste Generation
16.3.1 Scenario
16.3.2 Problems Associated with Waste
16.4 Interlinkages between Waste Generation and Climate Change
16.5 Waste Management Strategies for Climate Change Mitigation
16.6 Technologies for GHG Reduction
16.6.1 Composting
16.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion
16.6.3 Mechanical Biological Treatment
16.6.4 Incineration
16.6.5 Pyrolysis
16.6.6 Gasification
16.6.7 Refuse Derived Fuels
16.6.8 Engineered Landfill
16.6.9 Biofuel and Biodiesel Production
16.6.10 Waste to Energy Technologies
16.7 Waste Hierarchy
16.7.1 Avoiding and Reducing the Generation of Waste
16.7.2 Resource Recovery
16.7.3 Disposal
16.8 Let Us Sum Up
16.9 Key Words
16.10 Suggested Further Reading/References
16.11 Answers to Check Your Progress
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Accelerated urbanization, unprecedented population growth, growing incomes
and changing consumption patterns have resulted in a vast increase in the
amount of solid waste generated worldwide. According to a World Bank
Report by 2025, the world’s urban areas are projected to produce 2.2 billion
tonnes of waste every year which is almost twice the amount (1.3 billion
tonnes) produced in the year 2012. It is estimated that waste is responsible
for up to five percent of global greenhouse emissions, as the methane
emissions that come from waste is an especially potent greenhouse gas.
As waste production from cities is set to almost double by 2020 better
waste management is essential in order to meet the Paris Climate Agreement
goals. Cutting waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and
reuse is the fifth target of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal 12. 31
Human Health, Buildings Greenhouse gases mitigation measures in waste management sector would reduce
and Waste Management
global average temperature increases by 0.5 degree centigrade over the next
50 years.
It is reported that waste disposal and treatment can emit greenhouse gases.
Among the sources of greenhouse gases from waste treatment include
landfill methane, followed by wastewater methane and nitrous oxide and
to a lesser extent, the carbon dioxide. The waste management technologies
adopted till now by many countries are efficient. Nevertheless, there is a
scope to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from waste management sector.
The waste management thus occupies a unique position as a potential
reducer of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and climate change mitigation.
Keeping all this in view, the present unit endeavours to provide an overview
of inter-linkages between waste management and climate change and
discuss briefly various technologies for mitigation of greenhouse gases from
the waste sector.
16.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
z assess the status and trends in waste sector and the associated problems;
z explore the inter-linkages between waste generation and climate
change;
z assess waste management strategies for climate change mitigation;
z discuss various technologies options for greenhouse gas mitigation; and
z explain the role of waste hierarchy in waste management.
16.3 WASTE GENERATION
16.3.1 Scenario
The ever rising population, along with rapid urbanization and industrialization,
economic development, increased trade, increased consumption of goods,
changes in lifestyle, use and throw culture and increasing wealth of the
rising middle class, directly affects the amount of waste generated. As far
as urbanization is concerned, the 21st century will be the century of the
cities. The urban population of the world has grown rapidly. According
to UN data, it is expected to increase up to 9.7 billion by 2050, with nearly
90 per cent of the increase to take place in the urban areas. According
to a recent World Bank report (Waste 2.0, 2018) the World generates 2.01
billion tonnes of municipal solid waste annually, with at least 33 percent
of that is not managed in an environmentally safe manner. Worldwide, waste
generated per person per day averages 0.74 kilogram but ranges widely,
from 0.11 to 4.54 kilograms. Though high income countries only account
for 16 percent of the world’s population, they generate about 34 percent,
or 683 million tonnes, of the world’s waste. Global waste is expected to
grow to 3.40 billion tonnes by 2050.
According to the International Energy Agency, waste generation rates will
32 more than double over the next twenty years in lower-income countries.
Irrespective of the accuracy of these forecasts, these enormous waste volumes Waste Management
will pose a tremendous challenge to many local urban authorities which are
already struggling to manage the waste quantities of today. To date, about 70%
of MSW still ends up on landfills or uncontrolled dumpsites, which often
contaminate surface water, ground water or soil and emit greenhouse gases.
Waste disposal close to coastlines and along rivers pose a risk for land-based
marine littering. Although good examples for the management of sanitary landfills
(SLFs) with substantially reduced negative environmental impacts exist, the search
for new SLF sites is often accompanied by public protests. Moreover, space
for new sites is rarely available near metropolitan areas or urban centres due
to land scarcity, conflicting land use, and rapidly increasing land prices. Proper
treatment and disposal of waste remains highly challenging and often overwhelming
for many municipalities. Segregation at source, collection, transportation, treatment
and proper disposal of MSW has become a very serious concern in many
developing countries. However, despite good progress in the past decades on
recycling of materials such as paper, metal, glass or plastic, the current recycling
levels are still insufficient.
Now as far as Indian statistics is concerned according to CPCB, 2016,
generation of MSW in India is 0.136 million tonnes per day, out of these
0.111 million tonnes per day is collected, 0.026 million tonnes per day
is treated and 0.073 million tonnes per day is landfilled. This shows that
only 75-80% of the municipal waste gets collected and only 22-28% of
this waste is processed and treated. Per capita waste generation rate in
Indian cities ranges between 0.2 to 0.87 Kg/day. The quantity of waste
depends on various aspects for example living standards, food habits,
commercial activity and population.
16.3.2 Problems Associated with Waste
Most wastes that are generated, find their way into land and water bodies
without proper treatment, causing severe water pollution. They also emit
greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide, and add to air pollution.
Any organic waste from urban and rural areas and industries is a resource
due to its ability to get degraded, resulting in energy generation. Solid waste
has direct impact on the health of the community. If the solid waste is
burned out in the open, it produces uncontrolled emissions of pollutants
in the air and ruins the land, making it barren for a long time. More
importantly, the emissions lead to various respiratory issues. If it is left
out in the open, it becomes a breeding ground for various diseases, like
cholera, dengue, malaria, etc. If it is dumped in an unsustainable manner,
it can cause problems for the settlements near the dumpsites as well as
for the rag pickers. Moreover, unsustainable dumping can pollute waterways
or block waste water streams leading to spread of diseases. Open dumpsites
are a major problem. They cause public health issues as well as
environmental ones. The production of methane in such dumpsites makes
it a source of greenhouse gas (GHG). Methane causes fires and explosions
and is a major contributor to global warming. There are also problems
associated with odour and migration of leachates to receiving waters. Odour
is a serious problem, particularly during the summer when average
temperatures in India can exceed 45°C. If the dumpsite is near a water
body, it makes the water body prone to pollution too.
33
Human Health, Buildings Solid wastes generated by domestic, commercial and industrial activities are often
and Waste Management indiscriminately disposed. Unscientific management of such wastes leads to
serious environmental problems. The problems are already acute in cities and
towns, as the disposal facilities are not keeping pace with the quantum of waste
being generated. It is very common to find large heaps of garbage in disorganized
manner at every nook and corner of the cities. Unsanitary method being adopted
for disposal of solid wastes is a serious health concern. Particularly, during rainy
season, run-off and high humid conditions increase the health hazards. The landfill
sites, which are not well maintained, are prone to groundwater contamination
due to leachate percolation. Open dumping of garbage serves as breeding ground
for disease vectors such as flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches, rats and other pests.
High risks of spreading diseases like typhoid, cholera, dysentery, yellow fever,
encephalitis, plague and dengue fever may not be ruled out.
There are three major steps involved in the management of garbage viz.
collection, transportation and disposal (CTD). Modern society produces
massive amount of waste on a daily basis of which a large part is hazardous
and cannot be disposed of using conventional treatment. Big projects are
a night-mare and more prone to failure. Government should try to create
favorable policies for establishment of decentralised solid waste disposal
plants. There is no “one solution” or technology that meets all needs. Some
useful equipment using clean technology to ensure the elimination of waste
without atmospheric pollution and respecting emission standard should be
invented. Improper waste management would negatively impact public
health. Incidences of infections, diseases would increase due to poor waste
management. As regards our country, the challenges pertaining to waste
generation, collection and management are many, as it is projected that
increasing population in particular urban population would increase waste
generation. Further, solid waste management is considered as a major
problem for many urban local bodies in our country. Reducing waste volume
is the most effective and sustainable action but we are not doing this.
Recycling is vital but not everything can be recycled. There will always
be residual waste items that need to be managed after recycling has been
optimized.
16.4 INTERLINKAGES BETWEEN WASTE
GENERATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE
It is reported that waste disposal and treatment can emit greenhouse gases.
Among the sources of greenhouse gases from waste treatment include
landfill methane, followed by wastewater methane and nitrous oxide and
to a lesser extent, the carbon dioxide. The waste management technologies
adopted till now by many countries are efficient. Nevertheless, there is a
scope to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from waste management sector.
The IPCC estimates that solid waste management accounted for around
3% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2010, with most of that
attributable to methane emissions from landfill sites. Methane is released
due to organic matter decomposition in landfills. So the landfill gas is
released due to microbial mediated organic matter breakdown. Optimum
environmental condition within the landfill ecosystem result in increased
microbial activity and consequent increase in landfill gas. Methane is
34 generated in landfills by the anaerobic biodegradation of organic matter (food
and municipal wastes, paper, wood, organic textiles, and leather, etc.). The Waste Management
maximum amount of methane generated during anaerobic decomposition can be
determined from the structural formula presented below:
C6H10O4 + 1.5H2O = 3.25CH4 + 2.75CO2
According to this chemical equation, the biogas generated in a landfill
should consist of ~54% methane and 46% carbon dioxide. For nearly one
billion tons of MSW landfilled, the annual generation of methane is 50
million tons. However, some of the modern landfills are equipped for
capturing some of the generated methane. Therefore, the fugitive emissions
of methane in landfill gas have been estimated at 45 million tons, that
is 4% of the anthropogenic GHG emissions. This contribution is expected
to increase because as estimated that the global rate of MSW generation
will increase based on projected population growth and energy use per
capita.
Minor sources of GHG from the waste sector at the global scale include
combustion of waste, and biological treatment. Uncontrolled burning of
waste is largely continues to be practiced in developing regions, causing
release of CO2. Controlled burning, in waste incinerators, also generates
CO2 emissions. Where incinerators generate energy, they also contribute to
total GHG emissions. Aerobic composting processes directly emit varying
levels of methane and nitrous oxide, depending on how the process is
managed in practice.
16.5 WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
FOR CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION
Waste management provides immense opportunities to mitigate greenhouse
gas emission and towards this end, many environmental friendly technologies
are developed which in addition to reducing greenhouse gas emissions aid
in delivering sustainable living environment. These technologies can directly
reduce GHG emissions through
z landfill gas recovery;
z improved landfill practices;
z controlled composting of organic waste;
z state-of-the-art incineration;
z expanded sanitation coverage; and
z complementary measures (increased recycling, decreased landfilling,
use of alternative waste-management technologies).
Further, waste reduction, recycling, and reuse have huge potential to reduce
GHG emissions through increased resource use efficiency and conservation
of raw materials. In the developing countries, landfill methane emissions
are increasing due to an anaerobic landfilling practices. Steps like engineered
landfill gas recovery and advanced waste management strategies would
greatly reduce GHG emissions from landfill. Further, state-of-the-art
incineration and industrial co-combustion provide additional benefits.
Additionally, thermal processes combined with improved emission controls 35
Human Health, Buildings are gaining importance. Nevertheless, cost is an important barrier in the thermal
and Waste Management process technology.
Reduction of GHG emissions from waste must be looked through the lens
of integrated waste management. In this regard, Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) is an important tool to gauge the impacts of waste management
technologies. Decision support tools including LCA provide opportunities
to adopt mitigation strategies which are cost-effective and sustainable in
the long run. While landfill methane recovery and improved wastewater
treatment technologies decrease GHG emissions directly, controlled aerobic
composting and thermal processes (incineration for waste-to-energy) have
potential to minimise the GHG generation markedly. All said, waste
prevention, reduction, recycling and recovery of material, and re-use exhibit
an increasing prospects for GHG emissions reduction indirectly through
reduced consumption and waste generation; decreased energy demand, etc.
Hence waste management has huge potential with respect to carbon
emission reduction, and it should form an important component of climate
change mitigation strategy.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space below for you answers.
ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1. What are the main problems associated with waste?
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2. How waste is responsible for change in climate?
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16.6 TECHNOLOGIES FOR GHG REDUCTION
16.6.1 Composting
Composting is a microbial mediated aerobic process of decomposition and
stabilization of the organic matter present in the solid waste. It is gaining
importance as a centralized waste management method due to its benefits
in the form of reduction in waste volume and generation of useful value-
added products. Composting is practised either at household level or
municipality level. Composting creates benefits as it is not generating
methane, and also reduces environmental burden. Further, it also meets four
major objectives of waste management such as: “to reduce the volume of
waste, to stabilize waste, to sterilize waste, and to produce a valuable
product from the waste”. The end product of composting is rich in excessive
nutrients called humus or compost. This compost solid product is used to
fertilize crops and combustible gas, mixture of carbon dioxide and methane called
36
biogas, is used to produce heat and/or electric energy. Waste Management
Composting process enable decomposition of organic matter in the presence
of oxygen, resulting in the reduction of volume and mass of waste. Being
an exothermic process, the heat generated increase the temperature of the
compost which aid in destruction of pathogens and weed seeds. It is
important to note that composting process demands the biogenic fractions
of waste. Further, the separation of waste into biogenic and non-biogenic
fractions has beneficial impact on composting process. Concern about
methane release from landfills has resulted in increased interest in
composting as a waste management strategy.
16.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is yet another bacterial driven process, occurring in
the absence of oxygen. Microbial communities decompose the waste and
release carbon dioxide and methane through processes such as “hydrolysis”,
“acidogenesis” and “methanogenesis”. The product of anaerobic digestion
is biogas which contains about 55-65 percentage of methane, is used as
renewable fuel. Nevertheless, anaerobic digestion process depends on the
environmental factors like pH, temperature, moisture; and feedstock
characteristics like carbon to nitrogen ratio, and nitrogen content. Anaerobic
digestion of waste offers a wide range of benefits viz. reduction of waste
volume, nutrient recovery, and use of effluent as compost/fertilizer. Further,
through this method of waste management, even wet waste can be treated.
Energy production is indeed an extremely important benefit. The natural
gas so produced can be used to power the digester, for home use, and
can be sold in the market as well. Currently in India, many biomethanation
plants are working to generate energy from vegetable and food waste.
16.6.3 Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT)
The mixed wastes are treated through mechanical operations and biological
methods with an aim to reduce volume of the wastes. The mechanical
operations such as sorting, shredding, and crushing result in waste fractions
which can be either recycled or treated with biological methods. Mechanical
biological treatment (MBT) of waste is widely implemented method of
waste management. The biological methods in waste management mainly
include aerobic composting, anaerobic digestion, etc. Through MBT, a
reduction of even 40–60% of the organic carbon present originally in the
waste are possible.
16.6.4 Incineration
One of the most common waste treatment technologies is incineration, in which
waste mass is reduced by 70% and waste volume is reduced up to 90%.
Incineration is suitable for high calorific value wastes. Incineration is the controlled
burning of waste at a high temperature. The whole process carried out in three
phases i.e. incineration, energy recovery and control of air pollution. In the first
phase (incineration process), waste is directly burned at 700-1000oC in the
combustion chamber by using flue gas and preheated air. Ultra-hot steam is
produced after combustion of waste and this steam is used to create heat energy.
Turbine is connected to generator which produces energy, heat and bottom ash.
Bottom ash primarily contains of silicon, iron, calcium, aluminium, sodium and 37
Human Health, Buildings potassium. Wastes like municipal solid waste, refuse derived fuel (RDF) are
and Waste Management burned in the incinerator. The advantage of waste incineration include but not
limited to volume reduction of waste; destruction of harmful organisms;
production of electricity and heat.
16.6.5 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the thermal waste method, uses heat at 300-800oC to break down
organic constituents in the anaerobic environment. It produces the synthetic gases
also known as syngas (methane, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and
carbon mono-oxide), liquids and solids residues. The produced syngas can be
utilized in different energy applications such as engines, boilers, turbines, heat
pumps. Small temperature pyrolysis can also be used to generate a synthetic
diesel fuel from plastic waste.
16.6.6 Gasification
Gasification process contains partial combustion of waste to generate energy.
This is accomplished by providing high temperature (>700oC) with a limited
amount of air (i.e. partial combustion). The final product of the gasification
process are char, tar and syngas. Syngas is energy rich content and clean through
gas turbine or engine to produce energy and heat. This process can reduce
about 70% mass and 90% volume of waste.
16.6.7 Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)
RDF technology stipulates safe and eco-friendly disposal of MSW. It is an
alternating fuel which can be used in boilers in place of fossil fuels. Processing
can include separation of recyclables and non-combustible materials, shredding,
size reduction, and pelletizing. RDF pellets is frequently used for pulp, paper
industry, wood industry waste and saw-mill industry
16.6.8 Engineered Landfills
An engineered landfill presents an opportunity for proper waste management
that allows resource recovery from waste. However, for this to be achieved
several technical parameters must be considered when designing a sanitary
landfill. These technical parameters include proper site selection with minimal
environmental and hydrological negative impacts, selection of a liner network
that will not allow the leachate to infiltrate into the ground. Furthermore, there
is need to have an integrated network for monitoring the movement of the waste
as well as quality of the leachate. Anaerobic bacteria in the landfill break down
the organic waste in the absence of oxygen because the landfill is airtight.
Anaerobic breakdown results in biogas production, which contains approximately
70% methane and 25% carbon dioxide with trace amounts of nitrogen, oxygen
and hydrogen sulphide. The biogas composition varies from landfill site to landfill
site and is dependent on the waste types. The biogas can be removed via a
collection network and to attain this, a chain of pipes are fixed within the landfill
to harness the biogas.
16.6.9 Biofuel and Biodiesel Production
New technologies are on the anvil, to convert solid waste into biofuel. The
technology to transform solid waste particularly municipal waste management
into biofuel (ethanol) is technically possible. Improvements in technology in terms
of technical aspects, economic aspects would provide impetus for biofuel
38 production from waste.
16.6.10 Waste to Energy Technologies Waste Management
“Waste to Energy” is a comprehensive term, which refers to a series of
technologies that transform/convert waste particularly non-recyclable portion
of waste into energy (heat, fuels, electricity). Waste to Energy involves
processes like “incineration”, “gasification”, “pyrolysis”, “anaerobic
digestion”, and “landfill gas recovery”. The feedstocks to waste to energy
technologies include but not limited to “municipal solid waste” (MSW);
“construction and demolition (C&D) debris”; “agricultural waste”; and
“industrial waste”. Aided by Kyoto mechanisms such as the Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI), as well
as other measures to increase worldwide rates of landfill CH4 recovery, the
total global economic mitigation potential for reducing landfill CH4
emissions in 2030 is estimated to be >1000 MtCO2-eq (or 70% of estimated
emissions) for waste-to-energy.
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy is actively promoting all the
technology options available for energy recovery from urban and industrial
wastes. MNRE is also promoting the research on waste to energy by
providing financial support for R&D projects on cost sharing basis in
accordance with the R&D Policy of the MNRE. In addition to that, MNRE
also provides financial support for projects involving applied R&D and
studies on resource assessment, technology up-gradation and performance
evaluation.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: i) Use the space below for you answers.
ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1. What are the biological methods for waste management?
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2. Discuss non-biogenic methods of waste management.
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Human Health, Buildings
and Waste Management 16.7 WASTE HIERARCHY
Waste hierarchy is a tool to reckon with, as they aid in creating and organizing
waste management scenarios, which are subsequently analysed to provide
inputs to decision makers. International Solid Waste Association (ISWA
2009): “the waste hierarchy is a valuable conceptual and political
prioritisation tool which can assist in developing waste management
strategies aimed at limiting resource consumption and protecting the
environment”. In effect, as regards the waste management, priority is
provided to “minimization of waste”, “re-use”, “recycling”, “waste-to-
energy”, and “landfill”. The waste hierarchy is a set of priorities for the
efficient use of resources.
16.7.1 Avoiding and Reducing the Generation of Waste
Waste prevention and reduction are provided top priority in waste hierarchy.
This is important as it greatly reduces the demand for raw materials.
Emissions from fossil fuel use are lessened due to the reduction in
transportation of raw materials. Waste prevention is perhaps a critical step
in waste management as it has huge potential to mitigate greenhouse gases
emissions. Avoidance includes action to reduce the amount of waste generated
by households, industry and all levels of government. The highest priority
encourages the community, industry and government to reduce the amount
of virgin materials extracted and used. The goal is to maximise efficiency
and avoid unnecessary consumption through behaviours such as selecting
items with the least packaging or that require the fewest resources to produce
avoiding disposable goods or single-use materials buying products that are
recycled, recyclable, repairable, refillable, re-usable or biodegradable using
leftover food rather than throwing it away.
16.7.2 Resource Recovery
The second priority, resource recovery, maximises options for re-use,
recycling, reprocessing and energy recovery. Where avoiding and reducing
waste is not possible, the next most preferred option is to re-use the materials
without further processing, avoiding the costs of energy and other resources
required for recycling. For example, many household and industrial items
can be repaired, re-used, sold or donated to charities. Re-use (without
further processing) and recycling (processing waste materials to make the
same or different products) keeps materials in the productive economy and
benefits the environment by decreasing the need for new materials and waste
absorption. Where further recycling is not feasible, it may be possible to
recover the energy from the material and feed that back into the economy
where this is acceptable to the community.
Recycling is yet another step in waste management and it is very crucial
for climate change management. For instance, the recycling materials in
addition to saving the energy, reduce resource consumption. Further, a series
of biological treatment technologies are available for converting organic
wastes into valuable organic soil amendments. These soil conditioners aid
in sequestering carbon and subsequently improving the biological properties
40 of soil.
16.7.3 Disposal Waste Management
Some materials may be inappropriate to re-use, recycle or recover for energy
and instead require treatment to stabilise them and minimize their environmental
or health impacts. It include management of all disposal options in the most
environmentally responsible manner.
Table 16.1: The Waste Hierarchy
Goal Attribute Outcomes
Reduce Preventative Most desired
Reuse Predominantly ameliorative,
partly preventative
Recycle Predominantly ameliorative,
partly preventative
Treatment Predominantly assimilative,
partly ameliorative Least desired
Disposal Assimilative
Check Your Progress 3
Note: i) Use the space below for you answers.
ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1. What is waste hierarchy? Give various goals of waste hierarchy in
climate change mitigation.
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16.8 LET US SUM UP
Irrespective of countries, growing population and associated developments
such as urbanization, industrialization contribute largely to waste generation.
Waste management is a critical issue for urban planners and environmental
engineers. It is also a challenge for urban local bodies to collect, recycle,
reuse, and disposal of waste products. In addition, public health issues
related to waste management are critical particularly in over-populated
developing countries. Nevertheless, effective and advanced waste management
techniques provide opportunities in terms of environmental benefits and
greenhouse gases emission reduction. Integrated waste management strategies
must be adopted to cut down the emissions from waste processing and
treatment. The solution for greenhouse gases mitigation in waste management
domain include prevention, recycling, reuse of waste; biological treatment
coupled with energy recovery and production of valuable by-products; and
adoption of engineered and improved landfilling practices. In effect, the hallmark
of waste management include waste prevention, waste minimization, recycling 41
Human Health, Buildings and reuse of wastes. In this unit, we have learnt about the status of waste
and Waste Management sector and associated problems; inter-linkages between waste generation and
climate change; waste management strategies for climate change mitigation; and
various technologies options for greenhouse gas mitigation.
16.9 KEY WORDS
Municipal Waste : Waste originating from, households, commerce
and trade, small businesses, office buildings
and institutions (schools, hospitals, government
buildings).
Hazardous Waste : Categories of waste to be controlled according
to the Basel Convention on the control of
trans-boundary movements of hazardous waste
and their disposal.
Recycling : Any reprocessing of waste material in a
production process that diverts it from the
waste stream, except reuse as fuel.
Anaerobic Digestion : A method of composting that does not require
oxygen. This composting method produces
methane. Also known as anaerobic composting.
Composting : Biological decomposition of solid organic
materials by bacteria, fungi, and other
organisms into a soil-like product.
Energy Recovery : The process of extracting useful energy from
waste, typically from the heat produced by
incineration or via methane gas from landfills.
Incineration : The process of burning solid waste under
controlled conditions to reduce its weight
and volume, and often to produce energy.
Landfill Gases : Gases arising from the decomposition of organic
wastes; principally methane, carbon dioxide,
and hydrogen sulfide.
Refuse-derived Fuel (RDF): Fuel produced from MSW that has undergone
processing.
16.10 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/
REFERENCES
Bogner, J., M. Abdelrafie Ahmed, C. Diaz, A. Faaij, Q. Gao, S. Hashimoto,
K. Mareckova, R. Pipatti, T. Zhang, Waste Management, In Climate Change
2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B.
Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
42
IPCC (2006). IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories: Vol. Waste Management
5 “Waste”, Chapter, IPCC/OECD/IEA, Paris, France.
IPCC (2013) Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical
Science Basis. Contribution of working group I to the Fifth Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-
K. Plattner, [Link], S.K. Allen, [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link] and
[Link] (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom
and New York, NY, USA.
IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability.
Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II
to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea,
T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y .O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma,
E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P .R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White
(eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New
York, USA, 1132 pp.
IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change.
Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-
Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum,
S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C.
von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of
Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K.
Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp.
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16.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Health hazards, groundwater contamination due to leachate percolation,
breeding ground for disease vectors such as flies, mosquitoes,
cockroaches, rats and other pests, high risks of spreading diseases
like typhoid, cholera, dysentery, yellow fever, encephalitis, plague and
dengue fever, etc.
2) The disposal and treatment of waste can produce emissions of several
greenhouse gases (GHGs), which contribute to global climate change.
The most significant GHG gas produced from waste is methane. It is
released during the breakdown of organic matter in landfills. Other forms
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Human Health, Buildings of waste disposal also produce GHGs but these are mainly in the form
and Waste Management
of carbon dioxide (a less powerful GHG).
Check Your Progress 2
1. Biological methods include composting, anaerobic digestion, MBT, etc.
2. Non-biogenic methods include incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, RDF,
etc.
Check Your Progress 3
1. The waste hierarchy is a valuable conceptual and political prioritisation tool
which can assist in developing waste management strategies aimed at limiting
resource consumption and protecting the environment. Goals are reduce,
reuse, recycle, treatment and disposal.
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