Nucleus

Introduction

The foundation of nuclear physics can be traced back to the discovery of

radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896. It was observed that unstable
transuranic nuclei emit three distinct types of radiation. In 1909, experiments
confirmed that alpha particles are nothing but doubly charged helium nuclei.

A major breakthrough came in 1911 when Ernest Rutherford conducted

his famous gold foil experiment, which demonstrated that the entire pos-
itive charge of an atom is concentrated in a tiny central region—the nu-
cleus—much smaller than the overall atomic size. Electrons were found to
move in orbits around this nucleus.

Further progress was made in 1932 when James Chadwick discovered the
neutron, a neutral particle with nearly the same mass as the proton. This
led to the modern atomic model, where the nucleus consists of protons and
neutrons, collectively called nucleons, while electrons revolve around the
nucleus in defined orbits.

Scope of Nuclear Physics

Nuclear physics aims to study the fundamental properties of nuclei, their

internal structure, and the interactions governing their motion. This field

3
can be broadly divided into three major areas:

1. Static properties: Investigation of charge, mass, binding energy, nu-

clear radius, ground-state spin and parity, as well as magnetic and
quadrupole moments.
2. Self-induced studies through radioactive decay: Understanding
how nuclei undergo spontaneous transformations.
3. Studies through nuclear reactions: Exploring nuclear behavior
under extreme conditions of excitation energy and angular momentum.

In the following sections, we will focus on the first topic—the static properties
of nuclei. Before proceeding further, let us first introduce the commonly used
units in nuclear physics.

Units in Nuclear Physics

Various physical quantities in nuclear physics are measured using specific

units:

• Distance:
1Å = 10−10 m, 1 fm = 10−15 m
• Energy:
1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 Joule
• Mass:
1 amu = 931.5 MeV/c2
• Particle Masses (in energy units):
me = 511 keV (electron)
mp = 938.26 MeV (proton)
mn = 939.55 MeV (neutron)
mα = 3727 MeV (alpha particle)

4
 • Fundamental Constants:

h̄c = 197 MeV fm

2
e
= 1.44 MeV fm
4π�0

Radius of the Nucleus

Estimating Nuclear Size

Q: How can we determine the size of a nucleus?

We can estimate the order of magnitude of the nuclear radius using a simple
principle. The alpha particles emitted from a nucleus typically have an energy
of about 5 MeV. Since the alpha particle is bound within the nucleus, the
maximum uncertainty in its position must be of the order of the nuclear
radius.

Using Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:

h̄
Δx ≈
Δpx

where Δpx is the uncertainty in momentum. Since the kinetic energy of

the alpha particle is much smaller than its rest mass energy, we can use the
non-relativistic expression for momentum:

√
px = 2mE

where E is the alpha particle’s kinetic energy. Assuming maximum uncer-

tainty in momentum (Δpx = px ):

h̄ h̄c
Δx = =√
Δpx 2mc2 E

5
Substituting numerical values:

197
Δx = √ ≈ 1.02 fm
2 × 3727 × 5

This provides a rough estimate of the nuclear size.

Energy Scale in Atomic vs. Nuclear Processes

The energy scales involved in atomic and nuclear processes differ significantly.
For example, the typical binding energy of an electron in an atom is of the
order of eV, whereas for an alpha particle in a nucleus, it is of the order of
MeV. This represents an energy scale difference of about 106 .

This can be understood from the particle-in-a-box model in quantum me-

chanics, where the energy is given by:

h̄2 π 2 n2
E=
2mL2

Thus, the smaller the spatial confinement (L), the greater the energy.

Experimental Measurement of Nuclear Radius

To measure the radius of any object, scattering experiments are required. A

key condition for obtaining a clear image is that the de Broglie wavelength
of the probing particle must be much smaller than the object’s size (λ � d),
otherwise diffraction effects dominate.

For a typical nucleus, the diameter d is about 10 fm. For an incident particle
with wavelength λ = 10 fm, the momentum is given by:

6
 h 2πh̄c
p= =
λ cλ

2 × 3.14 × 197
pc = ≈ 123.7 MeV
10

Since visible light photons have an energy of about 2 eV, they are unsuit-
able for nuclear size measurements. Gamma rays, though higher in energy,
primarily interact with electrons rather than the nucleus. Thus, two viable
options remain: using protons or electrons.

- A 20 MeV proton has a sufficiently small de Broglie wavelength for nuclear

probing. - However, an electron requires about 100 MeV energy for a com-
parable wavelength. - Despite the difficulty in accelerating electrons to such
high energies, electron scattering is preferred because the electromagnetic in-
teraction with the nucleus is well understood, unlike the strong nuclear force
governing proton interactions.

Electron Scattering and Nuclear Shape

Electron scattering experiments reveal a diffraction pattern, as shown in

Fig. 1. However, unlike a single-slit diffraction pattern, the intensity at the
minima does not drop to zero. This suggests that the nucleus does not have
a sharp boundary; instead, its matter density gradually decreases near the
surface.

The radial charge distribution of various nuclei, obtained from electron scat-
tering, is shown in Fig. 2. The surface thickness t, defined as the distance
over which the nuclear density decreases from 90% to 10% of its central
value, is found to be approximately 2.3 fm for all nuclei. The central density
changes very little from the lightest nuclei to the heaviest

7
 208
Figure 1: Elastic scattering of electrons from Pb (adapted from K. S.
Krane).

Empirical Formula for Nuclear Density

The experimental scattering results are well described by the following em-
pirical form of nuclear density profile:

ρ0
ρ(r) = (r−R m )/a
1+ e

where: - Rm is the radial distance at which the density is half its central
value. - a represents the surface thickness. - The skin thickness t is given by
t = 4.4a ≈ 2.3 fm.

8
Figure 2: Radial charge distribution of different nuclei (adapted from K. S.
Krane).

Nuclear Radius Formula

Assuming that nuclear matter density is constant across different nuclei, the
total volume is proportional to the mass number A:

A
4 3
= constant
3
πRm

Thus, the nuclear radius follows the empirical relation:

R = R0 A1/3

where R0 is a proportionality constant, approximately 1.2 fm.

The root mean square (RMS) radius for a uniformly charged sphere is:

3
�r2 �1/2 = R
5
9
The experimentally measured RMS radii for various nuclei, plotted against
A1/3 , form a straight line, as shown in Fig. 3. The slope of this line provides
an estimate of R0 , which is found to be about 1.2 fm.

Figure 3: The RMS nuclear radius determined from electron scattering ex-
periments. The slope of the straight line gives R0 = 1.2 fm (adapted from
K. S. Krane).

Coulomb Energy and Mirror Nuclei

Another way to calculate the nuclear radius derives from measurements of

the electrostatic energy of the nucleus due to the accumulation of positive
charges in the nuclear volume. Assuming that charge is uniformly distributed
in the nuclear volume, the electrostatic energy is given by

10
 1 3Z 2 e2
EC =
4π�0 5R

This can be calculated as the electrostatic energy due to a charged sphere of

radius R and charge Ze.

�
U = 1/2 �0 E 2 dV

Here, E is the electric field.

� �
1 R 2 2 1 ∞ 2
�0 Ein 4πr dr + �0 Eout 4πr2 dr
2 0 2 R

1 zer
Ein =
4π�0 R3

1 ze
Eout =
4π�0 r2

� R � �2 � ∞ � �2
1 1 zer 1
2 1 ze
Ec = �0 4πr dr + �0 4πr2 dr
2 0 4π�0 R3 2 R 4π�0 r2

�� R � ∞ �
Z 2 e2 r4 1
= dr + dr
8π�0 0 R6 R r2

6Z 2 e2
=
8π�0 .5R

1 3z 2 e2
=
4π�0 5R

Thus, the electrostatic energy is given by

11
 3Z 2 e2
EC =
5R

In the periodic table, there exist pairs of nuclei, called mirror nuclei, that
have the same mass number A such that either nucleus can be obtained from
the other by transforming all the neutrons into protons and all the protons
into neutrons.

Examples include:

3
H ↔3 He, 11
B ↔11 C, 13
C ↔13 N

The binding energy difference between mirror nuclei arises purely from the
Coulomb interaction:

1 3e2 � 2 �
ΔEC = Z − (Z − 1)2
4π�0 5R

1 3e2
= (2Z − 1)
4π�0 5R

Here, Z represents higher atomic number nucleus and N of that nucleus is

Z-1 and A= Z + Z - 1 = 2Z - 1. Therefore,

1 3e2
ΔEC = A
4π�0 5R

Using R = R0 A1/3 This simplifies to,

1 3e2
ΔEC = A
4π�0 5R0 A1/3

1 3e2 2/3
ΔEC = A
4π�0 5R0

12
The experimental values of ΔEC plotted against A2/3 yield a straight line,
as shown in Fig. 4, confirming the validity of this relation.

Figure 4: Coulomb energy differences of mirror nuclei. The slope gives R0 =

1.22 fm (adapted from K. S. Krane).

Measurement of ΔEC

Through β + Decay: One of the mirror nuclei can decay via β + decay,
in which a proton transforms into a neutron and emits a β + particle. The
end-point energy of the β + emission provides the energy difference.

Through Nuclear Reaction: Suppose 11 B is bombarded with a proton,

and a neutron is emitted, forming 11 C. The minimum proton energy required
to initiate this reaction gives the energy difference between 11 C and 11 B.

A plot of ΔEC versus A2/3 results in a straight line, whose slope determines
the value of R0 . From experimental data points, one calculates

R0 = 1.22 fm.

13
Fundamental Interactions

There are four fundamental interactions in nature:

1. Gravitational force
2. Electromagnetic force
3. Strong nuclear force
4. Weak nuclear force

Among these, gravitational force is the weakest. To compare gravitational

and electromagnetic interactions between two protons, we consider:

Gm2p 4π�0 r2
× (1)
r2 e2

10−10 × (10−27 )2
= (2)
(10−19 )2 × 9 × 109

This shows that the gravitational force is 10−36 times weaker than the electro-
magnetic interaction between two protons. Hence, gravitational interactions
are generally neglected in calculations involving nucleons.

All material particles are made of fermions, which are spin- 12 particles. The
interactions between particles are mediated by bosons, which have integral
spin. The exchange particles for the four fundamental interactions are listed
in the table below.

Strong Interaction and Pion Exchange

Inside the nucleus, π ± mesons are exchanged between neutrons (n) and pro-
tons (p):

14
 Interaction Exchange Particle Spin Mass
Gravitational Graviton 2 0
Electromagnetic Photon 1 0
Strong π-mesons 0 140 MeV
Weak W± and Z0 1 80 GeV, 90 GeV

Table 1: Exchange particles for fundamental interactions

n → p, p→n

These transitions occur within a very short time, with velocities close to the
speed of light:

Δs 10−15
Δt = = = 5 × 10−24 s (3)
Δv 3 × 108

Using Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:

ΔEΔt = h̄ (4)

h̄
ΔE = = 130 MeV (5)
Δt

This value is very close to the pion mass (≈ 140 MeV), confirming the role
of pion exchange in strong interactions.

Nuclear Spin

Protons and neutrons move in an average field produced by other nucleons

in an orbit with angular momentum l. Since each nucleon is a fermion with
spin- 12 , the total spin (angular momentum) of a nucleon is the sum of its

15
orbital and spin angular momentum. The total nuclear spin is the sum of
the spins of individual nucleons.

From quantum mechanics, we have:

ˆl2 Y l (θ, φ) = l(l + 1)h̄2 Y l (θ, φ) (6)

m m

ˆlz Y l (θ, φ) = mh̄Y l (θ, φ) (7)

m m

3
ŝ2 χs=1/2
ms = h̄2 χs=1/2
ms (8)
4

ŝz χs=1/2
ms = ms h̄χs=1/2
ms (9)

The total spin operator is:

ĵ = ˆl + ŝ (10)

Since ĵ 2 and ĵz commute with ˆl2 and ŝ2 , the single-particle wavefunction is
characterized by (l, 1/2)j, m with j = l ± 1/2:

Ψ(l, 1/2, j, m) = Yl ⊗ χ1/2 )m

j (11)

As nucleons are fermions with spin s = 12 , their total spin S will be integral
or half-integral depending on whether A is even or odd, respectively. The
orbital angular momentum
� l is always integral, so the total orbital angular
momentum sum L = l is either 0 or an integer.

Therefore, the total angular momentum J = L + S will be integral for even

A and half-integral for odd A, which is in agreement with experimental ob-
servations.

16
It has been observed that all even-even nuclei have J = 0, indicating that
nucleons prefer to pair up. For odd-A nuclei, the total spin is half-integral.

For odd-odd nuclei, the total spin is given by

J = J p + Jn

where Jp and Jn are the spins of the unpaired proton and neutron, respec-
tively.

Nuclear Spin (total angular momentum) measurements reveal very small val-
ues, suggesting that only a few nucleons determine the total spin of the nu-
cleus. This observation forms the basis of the independent particle motion
model.

Parity

Parity involves the reflection of coordinate axes through the origin. A vector
in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) transforms as:

(x, y, z) → (−x, −y, −z)

In spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ), parity transformation results in:

(r, θ, φ) → (r, π − θ, π + φ)

If a wavefunction Ψ(x, y, z) transforms as:

Ψ(−x, −y, −z) = Ψ(x, y, z)

it has **even parity**. If:

17
 Ψ(−x, −y, −z) = −Ψ(x, y, z)

it has **odd parity**.

From the hydrogen atom:

Ψ(r, θ, φ) = Rn (r)Ylm (θ, φ)

where,
Ylm (θ, φ) = eimφ Plm (cosθ)

Since spherical harmonics transform as:

Ylm (π − θ, π + φ) = eimπ+φ Plm (cos(π − θ))

= eimπ eimφ Plm (cos(π − θ))

(−1)m eimφ (−1)l−m Plm (cosθ)

(−1)l Ylm (θ, φ)

we conclude that the **parity of a wavefunction is determined by its orbital

angular momentum**. If l is even, the wavefunction has even parity; if l is
odd, the wavefunction has odd parity.

Identical Particles

In describing the nucleus, we are dealing with identical particles. Let us

consider a two-particle system where the particles are described by their

18
position coordinates r. Particle 1 is at r1 in state ψA , and the second one is
at r2 in state ψB .

•(1)
r 1 , ψA •(2)
r2 , ψB

The eigenstate of the combined system is given by Ψ(r1 , r2 ), which is the

product of the wave functions ΨA (r1 ) and ΨB (r2 ) of the individual particles.
Now, if we interchange particle 1 to position r2 and particle 2 to position r1 ,
the combined wavefunction becomes

Ψ(r2 , r1 ) = ΨB (r1 )ΨA (r2 ).

Since we are dealing with indistinguishable particles, interchanging particle

coordinates should not change any observables. As the observables are ob-
tained by calculating |Ψ|2 , the wavefunction is allowed to have at most a
phase factor after the permutation of particles. Applying the permutation
operator twice should return the original wavefunction, suggesting that the
eigenvalue of P 2 is one. This means

Ψ(r2 , r1 ) = +Ψ(r1 , r2 ) or Ψ(r2 , r1 ) = −Ψ(r1 , r2 ).

If the first condition is satisfied, the wavefunction is called symmetric and is

obeyed by bosons. The second condition results in an antisymmetric wave-
function, which is obeyed by fermions.

Two-Particle Spin Wave Function

If the spin states of the particles are represented by |s, ms �, where s = 1/2
and ms can take values +1/2 and −1/2, then the total spin of the system is
the vector sum of two spins, i.e., S = 0 or S = 1. If we represent spin-up by
α (↑) and spin-down by β (↓), then:

19
 |1, 1� = α(1)α(2)

|1, −1� = β(1)β(2)

|1, 0� = α(1)β(2) or β(1)α(2)

|0, 0� = α(1)β(2) or β(1)α(2)

The first two states are symmetric, but the last two are neither symmetric
nor antisymmetric. We can construct symmetric and antisymmetric wave-
functions as follows:

1
|1, 0� = √ [α(1)β(2) + β(1)α(2)]
2

1
|0, 0� = √ [α(1)β(2) − β(1)α(2)]
2

Thus, the wavefunctions are grouped into two categories. The symmetric
wavefunctions form the spin triplet:

|1, 1� = α(1)α(2)

|1, −1� = β(1)β(2)

1
|1, 0� = √ [α(1)β(2) + β(1)α(2)]
2

20
The antisymmetric wavefunction corresponds to S = 0 and is called the spin
singlet:

1
|0, 0� = √ [α(1)β(2) − β(1)α(2)]
2

Isospin

The concept of isospin is purely mathematical and has no direct physical sig-
nificance. The fact that nuclear forces are charge-independent suggests that
neutrons and protons can be treated on the same footing in nuclear model
calculations. The nearly identical masses of these particles further support
this idea. In fact, their small mass difference is due to the electromagnetic
interaction. The algebra of isospin is exactly the same as spin algebra.

An isospin of 1/2 is assigned to nucleons, with a projection +1/2 for protons

and −1/2 for neutrons. For a nucleus with A nucleons:

� 1 A
T = ti , Tz = (Z − N ) = Z − .
2 2

Isospin of Deuteron

A deuteron consists of a neutron and a proton. The total isospin for a two-
nucleon system can be T = 0 or T = 1. Proton-proton (pp) and neutron-
neutron (nn) systems are represented by T = 1, with isospin projections
Tz = +1 and Tz = −1, respectively. For a neutron-proton (np) system like
the deuteron, Tz = 0. However, this can be obtained from both T = 1 and
T = 0 states.

To determine the isospin of the deuteron, we must examine the symme-

try of its wavefunctions. Since nucleons are fermions, the total wavefunc-
tion—including spatial, spin, and isospin components—must be antisym-

21
metric under particle exchange:

Ψ = ψspace ψspin ψisospin .

The measured ground state spin and parity of the deuteron is 1+ .

There are now two possibilities: - If S = 0, the allowed value of L is 1 so

that L + S = J = 1. - If S = 1, then L = 0, 1, 2 are possible.

Since the parity of the ground state is positive, odd values of L are ruled
out. This leaves S = 1, which is symmetric, and only even values of L are
allowed, making the spatial wavefunction symmetric as well.

Thus, the isospin wavefunction must be antisymmetric to ensure the total

wavefunction is antisymmetric. The antisymmetric isospin state corresponds
to T = 0, so the deuteron is assigned an isospin of T = 0.

Magnetic Moment

Classically, a charged particle moving in a circular orbit is equivalent to a

current, and the magnetic moment of the system is given by

µ = iA

where i is the current and A is the area of the orbit. We can also write
e
µ= ,
tπr2
2πr
where r is the radius of the orbit. The time t can be written as t = v
.
Therefore,
evr
µ= .
2
Multiplying by the mass of the particle, we obtain
e
µ= l.
2m
22
In quantum mechanics, observables are replaced by operators, and therefore,
the magnetic moment of the particle is calculated by evaluating the expec-
tation value of the operator µ̂ in a state of angular momentum l. The calcu-
lated magnetic moment in a state with the highest projection of l is closer to
the measured values, as the angular momentum precesses around the applied
magnetic field and aligns with its direction. This gives the highest projection
of l along the magnetic field, which can be taken as the z-direction:
elh̄
µl = �l, ml = l|µz |l, ml = l� = = lµN .
2m
Here, µN is defined as the unit of nuclear magnetic moment and is given by
eh̄
µN = .
2m

Usually, magnetic moments are expressed in terms of the gyromagnetic ra-

tio, which is defined as the ratio of the magnetic moment to the angular
momentum:
µl = gl lµN .
For a proton, gl = 1, and for a neutron, it is zero.

Apart from orbital motion, nucleons also have spin degrees of freedom, which
do not have a classical analogue. Similar to the magnetic moment due to
orbital motion, we define the magnetic moment due to spin as
µs = gs sµN .
Here, gs is called the spin g-factor. For free protons and neutrons, the mea-
sured values are gsp = 5.587 and gsn = −3.82, respectively. Note that for an
electron, which is considered a point particle, gs is approximately 2. The
significantly different value for the proton, despite having the same charge
as the electron, is due to the finite size of the proton, which hints at its
substructure. The negative value for the neutron is surprising and can be
attributed to the fact that nucleons exchange pions inside the nucleus and
are always surrounded by a pion cloud.

By similar arguments, we can express the magnetic moment of a particle

with total angular momentum j as
µj = gj jµN ,

23
where gj is the g-factor for the state with total angular momentum j.

Therefore, the magnetic moment operator for a single nucleon can be written
as
µ̂ = (gl ˆl + gs ŝ)µN .
To calculate the magnetic moment for a nucleus, we sum the contributions
from all nucleons: �� �
µ̂ = gl lˆi + gs sˆi µN .
i

It becomes very difficult to find an exact expression for gj for a nucleus be-
cause the nuclear interaction is not well known, and we also do not know the
relative alignment of angular momenta. Therefore, we use approximations in
calculating the nuclear magnetic moment.

The single-particle model is quite successful in explaining the ground-state

spin and parity of nuclei. In this model, the ground-state properties of a
nucleus are determined solely by the odd nucleon above the even-even core.
Therefore, the magnetic moment of an odd-A nucleus is due to the unpaired
nucleon. This was first calculated by Schmidt and is known as the Schmidt
model, which is discussed in the following section.

The single-particle model works well for nuclei near closed shells. For nuclei
with a few nucleons outside a core, the collective model is used, in which the
magnetic moment is given by
�� �
µ = g R JR + gl lˆi + gs sˆi µN .
i

Here, the summation is over the few nucleons outside the core. The gyro-
magnetic ratio gR is approximated as
Z
,
gR =
A
and JR represents the angular momentum of the core.

Due to the pairing force, nucleons within a nucleus prefer to pair up, with
their l and s in opposite directions. This leads to maximal overlap and rep-
resents the lowest energy configuration. This is supported by the observation
that the ground-state spin of all even-even nuclei is J = 0.

24
For an angular momentum state J = 0, the calculated magnetic moment
is zero. This can be visualized using the closed triangle rule. The magnetic
moment operator corresponds to a Legendre polynomial of order one. There-
fore, the matrix element is nonzero only if the total spin J, multipole order
l, and final state J � form a closed triangle. Since vector addition of J and
l should result in J, for J = 0, this condition is not satisfied, leading to a
magnetic moment of zero for closed-shell and even-even nuclei.

Schmidt Model

In the Schmidt model, the magnetic moment of an odd-A nucleus is calcu-

lated as the expectation value of the operator µz in a single-particle state
defined by the total angular momentum j with maximum projection m = j:
� �
µ = �j, mj = j|µz |j, mj = j� = gl lˆz + gs sˆz µN .

In space, only the total angular momentum j is well defined, not lz or sz .

When a magnetic field is applied, j precesses around it, maintaining a fixed
jz component. The orbital and spin angular momenta precess around j,
defining their components along j rather than along z. Thus, we find the
time-averaged components of lz and sz to evaluate the expectation value.

The unit vector along j is given by

�j
ĵ =
|j|
so that
sj = �s · ĵ, and lj = �l · ĵ.

(s.j)j
a vector of this component along the direction of j is s�j = |j 2 |
. Similarly
l�j = (l.j)j
|j |2 . Therefore,

� �
(l.j)jz (s.j)jz
µ = �j, mj = j|µz |j, mj = j� = g l 2 + gs µN
|j | |j 2 |

25
As j = l + s, we can write

l.j = 12 [l(l + 1) + j(j + 1) − s(s + 1)] and

s.j = 12 [s(s + 1) + j(j + 1) − l(l + 1)]. Therefore,

Thus, the magnetic moment is given by

1
µ= [gl (l(l + 1) + j(j + 1) − s(s + 1)) + gs (s(s + 1) + j(j + 1) − l(l + 1))] .
2(j + 1)

For nucleons (s = 1/2), we obtain:

For j = l + 1/2: � �
1 gs
µ = gl j− + .
2 2

For j = l − 1/2:
1 j
µ = gl j − (gs − gl ) .
2 j+1

This approach provides reasonable agreement with experimental values, es-

pecially near closed shells.

Example

The measured magnetic moment of 73 Li is 3.45 µN . What would be its mag-

netic moment within single-particle model?

In this nucleus, the odd particle is a proton, and it occupies the 1p3/2 orbital,
which corresponds to a j = l + 12 configuration. According to the single-
particle model, the ground state spin of the nucleus is 32 . Therefore, the
magnetic moment is
µ = 3.79µN .
This agrees well with the experimental result.

26
Figure 5: Magnetic moments measured for odd-proton shell-model nuclei.
The Schmidt line are also [Link] from K S Krane

Experimental measurements for a large number of nuclei show values lying

between the two limits defined by the Schmidt lines. The Schmidt model
predictions match well for nuclei near closed shells, while for deformed nuclei,
significant deviations are observed.

27
Figure 6: Magnetic moments measured for odd-neutron shell-model nuclei.
The Schmidt line are also [Link] from K S Krane

Electric Quadrupole Moment

If a charge is placed at a distance r�a with respect to a coordinate system

and observations are made to find the potential at a distance �r, then the
potential is given by

1 ea
φ(r) = . (12)
4π�0 |�r − r�a |

If the point charge is replaced by a distribution of charges, then the potential

is given by

28
 � 1 ea
φ(r) = , (13)
a
4π� 0 |�
r − r
�a |

where the sum is over the number of charges. This potential results from
the superposition of potentials due to individual charges and is complex
and difficult to calculate. We can write the potential as a superposition of
potentials due to different multipoles of the distribution:

φ(r) = φ(0) (r) + φ(1) (r) + φ(2) (r) + . . . (14)

where the first term is due to a monopole, the second term is due to a dipole,
and the third term is due to a quadrupole of the distribution.

A monopole distribution is given by a charge situated at the origin of the

coordinate system. A pure dipole is represented by two equal and opposite
charges separated by an equal distance from the origin, as shown in the figure
7. A pure quadrupole is also shown in the figure.

Monopole Dipole Quadrupole Multipole

Figure 7: Representation of various pure multipoles.

If a charge e is placed at a distance a from the origin, as shown in Fig. 7d,

then the potential at a distance r can be represented by the sum of that due
to different multipoles, as shown in Fig. 8.

29
+e +e/2 +e/2

+e −e

−e/2 +e/2

Figure 8: A charge displaced from the origin can be represented as a collection

of various multipoles.

1
Now if we expand the term |r−ra |
as a function of ra /r, we have

1 1
=� . (15)
|r − ra | (r − ra ) · (r − ra )

1
=�
(r2 + ra2 − 2([Link] ))

1
= 1/2
r(1 + ( rra )2 − 2( �rr.r2�a ))

Since the measurements are performed at a distance much larger than the
characteristic dimension of the charge distribution, the ratio rra is very small
and can be neglected in the previous expression. Consequently, retaining
terms up to the second order in the Taylor expansion for small ra /r, we
obtain

� �
1 1 �r · r�a
= 1+ 2 . (16)
|r − ra | r r

30
Substituting this into the potential expression, we get
� �
1 � ea � ea ra · r̂
φ(ra /r) = + 2
. (17)
4π�0 a r a
r

The first term is the potential due to a monopole, and the second term is
due to a dipole.

If there is a continuous distribution of charges, then the summation is re-

placed by integration, and the charge is replaced by charge density. The
dipole moment is then given by
�
P = xρ(x, y, z)dv. (18)

In a quantum mechanical system, the charge density is related to the distri-

bution of protons, and the probability density is related to |ψ|2 . Since nuclei
have definite parity, |ψ|2 is always positive. Therefore, the above integration
is an odd function under reflection of the coordinate system, and hence, the
integral vanishes for a symmetric charge distribution. As a result, the electric
dipole moment for a nucleus is zero.

The next term in the Taylor expansion can be expressed in component form
as:

� �
1 α β ∂ ∂ 1
x x
2 a a ∂xα ∂xβ r

Here, α and β take values 1, 2, and 3, representing the three coordinate axes.
The variables xa and x are the components of ra and r, respectively, along
these coordinate axes.

Now, let us calculate:

� �
αβ ∂ ∂ 1
δ
∂xα ∂xβ r

31
 � �
1 2
=∇
r

� �
1
=∇·∇
r

� � � �
r̂ �r
=∇· − 2 =∇· − 3
r r

� � � �
1 1
= − 3 (∇ · r) + ∇ ·r
r r3

3 3
= 3
− 3 =0
r r

Therefore, adding this term in the expression for the potential due to the
quadrupole term does not change the expression. We can then write the
potential as:

� � � � �
1 ∂ ∂ 1
Φ(ra /r) = ea xαa xβa − ra2 δ αβ
a
3 ∂xα ∂xβ r

Here, we have multiplied by ra2 to maintain the same dimensionality as the

first term in the expression.

We define the quadrupole moment operator as:

� � �
Qαβ = ea 3xαa xβa − ra2 δ αβ
a

The operator contains even powers of x and is symmetric under reflection of

axes. Hence, unlike the electric dipole moment, the expectation value of this
operator is nonzero, meaning the quadrupole moment exists for a nucleus.

32
This operator is a rank-2 tensor and contains nine independent parameters.
However, since the operator is symmetric, the off-diagonal elements satisfy:

Q21 = Q12 , Q31 = Q13 , Q23 = Q32

This reduces the number of independent parameters to six. Additionally, the

trace of the operator is zero:

Qαα = 0 or Q11 + Q22 + Q33 = 0

Expanding this:

3x2 − ra2 + 3y 2 − ra2 + 3z 2 − ra2 = 0

Since x2 + y 2 + z 2 = ra2 , the trace condition imposes an additional constraint,

leaving only two out of the three diagonal elements as independent parame-
ters. In total, we now have five independent parameters.

Quadrupole moments are calculated in the body-fixed frame. If we choose

the principal axes as the coordinate axes, the off-diagonal matrix elements
can be set to zero. Furthermore, assuming an axially symmetric shape where
one axis is longer or shorter than the others, which have the same length, we
obtain:

1
Qxx = Qyy = − Qzz
2

Thus, we only need to determine the expectation value of the Qzz operator.

The potential due to quadrupole is given by

�r � � �
a 1 ∂ ∂ 1
Φ = Qαβ α β (19)
r 6 ∂x ∂x r

33
Now,

� � � β�
∂ ∂ 1 ∂ x
= − 3 (20)
∂xα ∂xβ r ∂x α r

� � � �
∂ 1 ∂ � � 1
=− x + α xβ 3
β
(21)
∂xα r3 ∂x r

xα β 1
=3 5
x − δ αβ 3 (22)
r r

The potential becomes

�r � � α �
a 1 x β αβ 1
Φ = Qαβ 3 5 x − δ (23)
r 6 r r3

Now, since Qαβ δ αβ = 0 as the trace of the operator is zero, the potential
simplifies to

�r � 1 xα xβ
a
Φ = Qαβ 5 (24)
r 2 r

1 � �
= 5
Qxx x2 + Qyy y 2 + Qzz z 2 (25)
2r

Using equation (??),

� �
1 1 � 2 2
� 2
= 5 − Qzz x + y + Qzz z (26)
2r 2

1 � 2 2
�
= Q zz 3z − r (27)
4r5
34
In spherical polar coordinates z = r cos θ,

�r � 1 � � 1
a 2
Φ = Q zz 3 cos θ − 1 = Qzz P2 (cos θ) (28)
r 4r3 4r3

This shows that the quadrupole operator is a rank 2 tensor, which is deter-
mined by the order of the Legendre polynomial.

Now, the quadrupole moment of the nucleus is obtained by taking the ex-
pectation value of the operator Qzz in a state with total angular momentum,
i.e.,

�J, M = J|Qzz |J, M = J� . (29)

As discussed above in the case of magnetic moment, the matrix element of

the Qzz operator will be non-zero if J, 2, and J form a closed triangle. It is
clear that the matrix element is nonzero only if J ≥ 1.

Intrinsic and Spectroscopic Quadrupole Moment

The expectation value of the Qzz operator is calculated in the body-fixed

frame and is called the intrinsic quadrupole moment Q0 . The experimental
values are measured in the lab frame. In order to compare calculated val-
ues with experimental results, one needs to use coordinate transformations
between the body-fixed and lab frames. In a rotating nucleus, the angular
momentum J is aligned along the symmetry axis of the nucleus (z̄), which
is tilted about the z-axis of the lab frame by an angle β. The spectroscopic
quadrupole moment defined in the lab frame, Q, is related to the intrinsic
quadrupole moment, Q0 , through the following relation:
1� �
Q= 3 cos2 β − 1 Q0 . (30)
2

From Fig. 9, we have

M
cos β = � . (31)
J(J + 1)

35
Figure 9: The spectroscopic (Lab) quadrupole moment can be obtained using
a semiclassical approach of averaging intrinsic (body-fixed frame) quadrupole
moment over the precession of J about the laboratory z-axis.

Thus, we can write

� �
1 M2
Q(J, M ) = 3 − 1 Q0 . (32)
2 J(J + 1)

The quadrupole moment is defined in a state J with its maximum projection

M = J, and we can express Q(J, J) in ??as Q,

(2J − 1)
Q= Q0 (33)
(2J + 2)

It is evident that Q is zero for J = 1/2 for any value of Q0 .

The ratio of quadrupole moments for two angular momentum projections M1

and M2 of J can be expressed as

Q(M1 ) 3M12 − J(J + 1)

=
Q(M2 ) 3M22 − J(J + 1)

36
If M2 is equal to J, the maximum projection of J, and M1 represents any
projection M , then we can write the previous expression as

3M 2 − J(J + 1)
Q(M ) = Q(J)
2J 2 − J

Here, Q(J) is the spectroscopic quadrupole moment.

Quadrupole Moment in Single-Particle Model

In the single-particle model, the ground state of the nucleus is described by a

single-particle state. If the angular momentum of the odd-particle is aligned
along the z-direction, then the particle is moving in an orbit in the x-y plane
for which the z value is zero. Therefore, we can write the quadrupole moment
operator
�Q̂� = 3z 2 − r2
which becomes
−�r2 �.
The mean-squared radius can be calculated as
3 3
�r2 � = R2 = R02 A1/3 .
5 5

Quadrupole Moment of a Spheroid

Let us consider an ellipsoidal shape of the nucleus with semi-major axis a

and semi-minor axis c. We also assume that there exists an axial symmetry
around the longest axis, also called the symmetry axis. In this calculation, we
assume cylindrical symmetry of the system, which is closer to our physical
system, and we will use cylindrical coordinates ρ, φ, Z for its description.
Also, we assume that the nuclear density is constant over the whole volume:
Ze
ρ(r) = 4 = ρc .
3
πac2

37
The equation of the ellipsoid is given by

x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2 = 1.
c2 c a

In cylindrical coordinates, ρ2 = x2 + y 2 , so the above equation becomes

ρ2 z 2
+ = 1.
c 2 a2
Therefore, the quadrupole moment is
� � �
Q0 = (3z 2 − r2 )ρ(r)dτ,
ρ φ Z

where dτ = ρdρdφdz and r2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 . Thus,

� � �
Q0 = (3z 2 − x2 − y 2 − z 2 )ρ0 ρdρdφdz.
ρ φ Z

� 2
�
The limits of the integration are ρ goes from 0 → 1 − az 2 c2 , φ from 0 → 2π,
and z varies from −a to +a. Hence,
�� � �
2 2
Q0 = 2πρ0 (2z − ρ )ρdρdz .
ρ Z

By evaluating the integral and putting the value for ρc , we get

2
Q0 = Ze(a2 − c2 ).
5
For a prolate shape (a > c), Q0 has positive values, and for an oblate shape
(a < c), Q0 will be negative.
2 2
By defining the mean square radius Rm 2
= a +c
2
and the eccentricity η =
a2 −c2
a2 +c2
, we can also write the intrinsic quadrupole moment as

4 2
Q0 = ZeηRm .
5
38
If we assume the deformation to be small, i.e., the deviation from spherical
shape is small, we can write a = R(1 + δ). From volume conservation, we
can write
4 3 4
πR = πac2 ,
3 3
which simplifies to
R3 R2
c2 = or c2 = .
a 1+δ
Therefore, we can write the intrinsic quadrupole moment as
� �
2 R2
Q0 = Ze R(1 + δ) − ,
5 1+δ
or
6
Q0 = ZeR2 δ.
5

Example: Quadrupole Moment for the State J = 7− of 176

71 Lu

The quadrupole moment for the state J = 7− of 176

71 Lu is 7 eb. We need to
find the axes ratio.

First, we need to determine the intrinsic quadrupole moment Q0 , where

2J − 1
Q= Q0 .
2J + 2
This gives Q0 = 8.61 eb.

As the radius R = R0 A1/3 with R0 = 1.2, we have R = 6.72 fm. Then,

5Q0
δ= = 0.22.
6ZR2
Therefore,
a
= 1.35.
c

39
40