Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
CHAPTER – 2: CAST IRON
2.1 Method of production- different Cast Irons
Cast iron is one of the oldest ferrous metals in commercial use. It is primarily composed of iron
(Fe), carbon (C) and silicon (Si), but may also contain traces of sulfur (S), manganese (Mn) and
phosphorus (P). It has a relatively high carbon content of 2% to 5%. It is typically brittle and
nonmalleable (i.e. it cannot be bent, stretched or hammered into shape) and relatively weak in
tension. Cast iron members tend to fracture with little prior deformation. Cast iron, however, has
excellent compressive strength and is commonly used for structures that require this property. The
composition of cast iron, the method of manufacture and heat treatments employed are critical in
determining its final characteristics. To achieve the best casting for a particular application
consistent with the component’s requirements, it is necessary to have an understanding of the
various types of cast iron. The general designation of cast iron is meaningless, except when
distinguishing the part from a steel casting. Therefore, a more specific designation should be made.
What is the method of production of cast iron?
Cast iron is made from pig iron, which is the product of melting iron ore in a blast furnace. Cast
iron can be made directly from the molten pig iron or by re-melting pig iron, often along with
substantial quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon (coke) and taking various steps to remove
undesirable contaminants.
Generally, methods used for production of Cast Iron can be classified as:
Using raw materials like: Pig iron, scrap steel, limestone and carbon (coke)
Using Cupola furnace
Electric arc furnace
Electric induction furnace
Usually sand cast, but can be gravity die cast in reusable graphite moulds
Not formed, finished by machining
Page 1 of 14
April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
The method which is used to obtain cast iron from one of its ore:
How is iron extracted from its ore? It's a long process which begins with Concentration through
calcination roasting. Concentration removes the water and other volatile impurities such as sulphur
and carbonates. This concentrated ore is mixed with limestone (CaCO3) and Coke and fed into the
blast furnace from the top.
The process of making ductile cast iron:
Using a blast furnace, the pig iron is melted down and has carbon forced into the material beyond
its normal capacity. Silicon, sulfur, and manganese help the excess carbon form the spherical
graphite nodules as the metal cools in its cast. This process creates a durable, wear-resistant metal.
Different types of iron ore:
There are four main types of iron ore deposit: massive hematite, which is the most commonly
mined, magnetite, titanomagnetite, and pisolitic ironstone. These ores vary in colour from dark
grey, through to deep purple, rusty red and bright yellow.
What is the ore of cast iron?
To produce cast iron, the iron must be extracted from iron ore. The ore is smelted in a blast furnace
where it separates into pig iron and slag. The furnace is heated to around 1800 degrees Celsius in an
oxygen atmosphere and the slag formed rises to the top and can be removed.
Different types of iron ore with percentage:
Magnetite is the best quality of iron ore and contains 72% pure iron. Haematite contains 60% to
70% pure iron ore. Limonite contains 40% to 60% pure iron. Siderite contains many impurities and
has just 40% to 50% pure iron.
Types of cast iron
Grey cast iron - carbon as graphite
White cast iron - carbides, often alloyed
Ductile cast iron
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
nodular, spheroidal graphite
Malleable cast iron
Compacted graphite cast iron
CG or Vermicular Iron
Gray cast iron,
Gray cast iron is one of the most widely used castings and typically contains between 2,5% and 4%
carbon, and between 1% and 3% silicon. With proper control of the carbon and silicon contents and
the cooling rate, the formation of iron carbide during solidification is suppressed entirely, and
graphite precipitates directly from the melt as irregular, generally elongated and curved flakes in an
iron matrix saturated with carbon. Gray CI is the oldest and most common form of CI. As a result,
many people assume it is the only form of CI and the terms “cast iron” and “gray iron” are used
interchangeably. Unfortunately, the brittleness of gray irons also assigned to all CIs.
Ductile cast iron,
When small quantities of magnesium or cerium is added to cast iron, then graphite content is
converted into nodular or spheroidal form and it is well dispersed throughout the material. The
resulting structure possesses properties more like cast steel than like the other grades of cast iron.
Graphite is in spheroidal form instead of in flaky form. Its structure may be modified by alloys
or heat treatment, as in steel to produce austenite, martensite, pearlite, and ferrite structure.
White cast iron,
The white color is due to the fact that the carbon in this iron is in combined form as iron carbide
which is commonly specified as cementite. It is the hardest constituent of iron. It is produced in
cupola furnace by refining or pig iron. The white cast iron may be produced by casting against
metal chills or by regulating analysis. The chills are used when a hard and wear resistance surface is
desired for products such as for wheels, rolls crushing jaw, crusher plates.
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
Malleable cast iron,
Malleable cast irons are produced from white cast irons by a variety of heat treatment processes,
depending upon the final composition and structure required. As their name implies, malleable cast
irons have increased malleability and ductility, increased tensile strength, and increased toughness.
a) Ferritic or Black-heart Malleable cast iron
In this process the white iron castings are heated in airtight boxes out of contact with air at 850-
9500 C for 50-170 hours, depending upon the mass and thickness of the castings. The effect of this
prolonged heating is to break down the iron carbide (cementite) of the white cast iron into small
rosettes of graphite. The name 'black-heart' comes from the darkened appearance of the iron, when
fractured, resulting from the formation of free graphite. It is used in the wheel hubs, break drums,
conduit fitting control levers and pedals.
b) Pearlito – ferritic or White-heart Malleable cast iron
In this process the castings are packed into airtight boxes with iron oxide in the form of high-grade
ore. They are then heated to about 10000 C for between 70 and 100 hours, depending upon the mass
and thickness of the castings. The ore oxidises the carbon in the castings and draws it out, leaving a
ferritic structure near the surface and a pearlitic structure near the centre of the casting. There will
also be some fine rosettes of graphite. White-heart castings behave much as expected of a mild steel
casting, but with the advantage of a very much lower melting point and higher fluidity at the time of
casting. It is used in the wheel hubs, bicycle and motor cycle frame fittings, gas, water and steam
pipe fittings.
c) Pearlitic Malleable cast iron
This process is similar to the black-heart process, as the castings are heated to 850- 9500 C for 50-
170 hours in a non-oxidizing environment. As in the black-heart process the iron carbide
(cementite) breaks down into austenite and free graphite. However, in the pearlitic cast iron process,
rapid cooling
prevents the austenite changing into ferrite and graphite, and a pearlitic structure is produced
instead. Since this 'pearlitic cast iron' also has a fine grain resulting from the rapid cooling, it is
harder, tougher and has a higher tensile strength than black-heart cast iron. However, there is a
marked reduction in malleability and ductility. Pearlitic malleable irons can be produced by
increasing the manganese content of the melt from 1.0-1.5 per cent. This inhibits the production of
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
free graphite and encourages the formation of cementite and pearlite. It is used in the gears,
couplings, axle housing, differential housing and components.
Meehanite or inoculated cast iron
Meehanite (fine graphite flakes) cast iron is an inoculated iron (cast iron is super heated to, say,
15000 C before casting) of a specially made white cast iron. The composition of this cast iron is
graphitized in the ladle with calcium silicide. There are various types of meehanite cast iron namely
heat resisting,
wear resisting and corrosion resisting kind. These materials have high strength, toughness, ductility
and good machinability. It is highly useful for making castings requiring high temperature
applications.
Wrought Iron
Wrought iron is the assumed approximately as purest iron which possesses at least 99.5% iron. It
contains a large number of minute threads of slag lying parallel to each other, thereby giving the
metal a fibrous appearance when broken. It is said as a mechanical mixture of very pure iron and a
silicate slag. This iron is produced from pig iron by re-melting it in the puddling furnace or air
furnace or reverberatory furnace. The molten metal free from impurities is removed from the
furnace as a pasty mass of iron and slag. The balls of this pasty mass, each about 45 to 65 kg in
weight, are formed.
These balls are then mechanically worked to squeeze out the slag and to form it into some
commercial shape. This iron contains practically no carbon and therefore cannot be hardened.
Alloy cast iron
The alloy cast iron is produced by adding alloying elements like nickel, chromium, molybdenum,
copper and manganese in sufficient quantities in the molten metal collected in ladles from cupola
furnace. These alloying elements give more strength and result in improvement of properties. The
alloy cast iron has special properties like increased strength, high wear resistance, corrosion
resistance or heat resistance. The alloy cast irons are extensively used for automobile parts like
cylinders, pistons, piston rings, crank cases, brake drums, parts of .crushing and grinding machinery
etc.
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
2.2 Micro structure, properties, composition, advantages, and applications of
Cast Iron
(a) (b)
Figure: Microstructure of Grey Cast Iron (a) Two dimensional micrograph of an ordinary grey
cast iron in which graphitization is completed and the microstructure contains graphite flakes in a
ferrite matrix;
(b) Three dimensional illustration of graphite flakes in a eutectic cell.
Flake graphite in a matrix of pearlite, ferrite or martensite
Wide range of applications
Low ductility - elongation 0.6%
Grey cast iron forms when
Cooling is slow, as in heavy sections
High silicon or carbon
Typical Properties
When fractured it gives grey color, It can be easily cast, It is marked by presence of flakes of
graphite in a matrix of ferrite and pearlite or austenite; graphite flakes occupy 10% of metal
volume, It can be easily machined and possesses machinability better than steel, It possesses lowest
melting of ferrous alloys, It possesses high vibration damping capacity, It has high resistance to
wear, It possesses high fluidity and hence can be cast into complex shapes and thin sections, It
possesses high compressive strength, It has a low tensile strength, It has very low ductility and low
impact strength as compared with steel.
Depend strongly on casting shape & thickness
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
AS1830 & ASTM A48 specifies properties
Low strength, A48 Class 20, R 120 MPa
m
High carbon, 3.6 to 3.8%
Kish graphite (hypereutectic)
High conductivity, high damping
High strength, A48 Class 60, R 410 MPa
m
Low carbon, (eutectic composition)
Matrix structure
Pearlite or ferrite
Transformation is to ferrite when
Cooling rate is slow
High silicon content
High carbon equivalence
Presence of fine undercooled graphite
Properties of grey cast iron
Machinability is excellent
Ductility is low (0.6%), impact resistance low
Damping capacity high
Thermal conductivity high
Dry and normal wear properties excellent
Applications: The grey iron castings are mainly used for machine tool bodies, automotive cylinder
blocks, pipes and pipe fittings and agricultural implements. The other applications involved are
Machine tool structures such as bed, frames, column etc, Household appliances etc, Gas or water
pipes for underground purposes, Man holes covers, Piston rings, Rolling mill and general
machinery parts, Cylinder blocks and heads for I.C. engines, Frames of electric motor, Ingot mould
and General machinery parts, Sanitary wares.
Its main application in different category:
Engines
Cylinder blocks, liners,
Brake drums, clutch plates
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
Pressure pipe fittings (AS2544)
Machinery beds
Furnace parts, ingot and glass moulds
(a) (b) (c)
Figure: Microstructures of white cast irons:
(a) hypoeutectic consisting of large pearlite colonies + lederburite; (b) eutectic consisting of
entirely lederburite; (c) hypereutectic consisting of pro-eutectic cementite and lederburite
Properties
Its name is due to the fact that its freshly broken surface shows a bright white fracture; It is very
hard due to carbon chemically bonded with iron as iron carbide (Fe3C), which is brittle also, It
possesses excellent abrasive wear resistance, Since it is extremely hard, therefore it is very difficult
to machine, Its solidification range is 2650-2065°F, Shrinkage is 1/8 inch per foot, The white cast
iron has a high tensile strength and a low compressive strength.
Applications
(i) For producing malleable iron castings.
(ii) For manufacturing those component or parts which require a hard and abrasion resistant surface
such as rim of car wheels, wear plates, pump linings, balls etc. . . .
(iii) Railway brake blocks.
Malleable cast Iron
1. Malleable cast iron is like steel than cast iron.
2. It is costly than grey cast iron and cheaper than softer steel.
Graphite in nodular form
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
Produced by heat treatment of white cast iron
Graphite nodules are irregular clusters
Similar properties to ductile iron
See AS1832
Figure: Microstructure of Malleable Cast Iron
Its microstructure:
Uniformly dispersed graphite
Ferrite, pearlite or tempered martensite matrix
Ferritic castings require 2 stage anneal.
Pearlitic castings - 1st stage only
Annealing treatments of malleable cast iron
Ferritic malleable iron
Depends on C and Si
1st stage 2 to 36 hours at 940˚C in a controlled atmosphere
Cool rapidly to 750˚C & hold for 1 to 6 hours
For pearlitic malleable iron
Similar 1st stage above (2 - 36 h at 940˚C)
Cool to 870˚C slowly, then air cool & temper to specification
Harden and temper pearlitic iron for martensitic castings
Properties of malleable cast iron
Similar to ductile iron
Good shock resistance
Good ductility
Good machine ability
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
Applications
Malleable cast iron is generally used to form automobile parts, agriculture implementation, hinges,
door keys, spanners mountings of all sorts, seat wheels, cranks, levers thin, waned components of
sewing machines and textiles machine parts.
Its application for various component manufacturing:
Similar applications to ductile iron
Malleable iron is better for thinner castings
Ductile iron better for thicker castings >40mm
Vehicle components
Power trains, frames, suspensions and wheels
Steering components, transmission and differential parts, connecting rods
Railway components
Pipe fittings AS3673
Properties of Wrought Iron
The wrought iron can be easily shaped by hammering, pressing, forging, etc. It is never cast and it
can be easily bent when cold. It is tough and it has high ductility and plasticity with which it can be
forged and welded easily. Its ultimate strength can be increased considerably by cold working
followed by a period of aging. It possesses a high resistance towards corrosion. It can accommodate
sudden and excessive shocks loads without permanent injury. It has a high resistance towards
fatigue. Its ultimate tensile strength is 2,500 kg/cm2 to 5,000 kg/cm2 and the ultimate compressive
strength is 3,000 kg/cm2. It can be elongated considerably by cold working. It has high electrical
conductivity. The melting point of wrought iron is about 1530°C. It has elongation 20% in 200 mm
in longitudinal direction and 2–5 % in transverse direction. Its poison’s ratio is 0.30. It can be easily
formed when cold, without the outer side cracking at the formed portion.
Applications:
It is used for making chains, crane hooks, railway couplings, and water and steam pipes. It has
application in the form of plates, sheets, bars, structural works, forging blooms and billets, rivets,
and a wide range of tubular products including pipe, tubing and casing, electrical conduit, cold
drawn tubing, nipples and welding fittings, bridge railings, blast plates, drainage lines and troughs,
sewer outfall lines, sludge tanks and lines, condenser tubes, unfired heat exchangers, acid and alkali
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
process lines, diesel exhaust and air brake piping, gas collection hoods, coal equipment, cooling
tower and spray pond piping.
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
2.3 Heat treatment of Cast Iron
In cast iron, the carbon is present in two forms. A stable form shows carbon is present as free
graphite and an unstable form indicates presence of carbon in a combined form (cementite, Fe3C).
Grey cast irons are characterised by the presence of all or most of the carbon in the form of
graphite, white cast irons are characterised by the presence of all the carbon in combined form, i.e.,
in the form of cementite. An iron of borderline composition which freezes partly as a white iron
and partly as a grey iron under prevailing conditions of cooling is termed as mottled iron. Two
more types of cast irons are also widely accepted as separate class owing to their achieved
property. Thus, malleable cast iron derives its name from its ability to bend or undergo permanent
deformation before it fractures. Malleable cast iron is produced by heat-treating (malleablizing) a
white iron casting. The structure indicates presence of temper carbon nodules in a matrix of pearlite
or ferrite. The spheroidal graphite (S.G. iron)or ductile iron shows the presence of graphite in form
of spheroids rather than as flakes. The graphite modification is brought in by treating a melt of grey
iron composition (low S, low P) with a small percentage of magnesium, cerium or other
nodularising agents. The carbon content in the matrix of grey iron is usually about 1%, which is
with the exception of the graphite, is composed of an alloy of iron and carbon. For the majority of
grey iron castings, the most typical structure is either composed of graphite, ferrite and pearlite
(ferrito - pearlitic) or of graphite and pearlite (pearlitic). Cast iron with a structure of graphite and
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
ferrite (ferritic) is very soft, weak and possesses a low resistance to wear, whereas that with a
structure of graphite, pearlite and cementite is very hard and difficult to machine.
The factors which influence the character of the carbon are:
a) the rate of cooling,
b) the chemical composition,
c) the presence of nucleii of graphite and other substances
CAST IRONS - HEAT TREATMENT
Grey Iron Grey irons are amenable to normal heat treatments applied to steel as the metallic matrix
of the grey irons is considered as steel. Thus improvement in machinability, strength, dimension
stability is achieved through heat treatments involving stress-relief annealing, annealing, hardening
and tempering. Stress-Relief: Castings are sometimes found to change dimensions to a considerable
extent. Such dimensional changes are due to residual stresses in the castings arising in the casting
process resulting from non-uniform cooling. To remove any of the residual internal stresses present
and to soften any hard spots and hard corners resulting from chill, castings are subjected to a stress-
relief annealing treatment.
Malleable Iron
Malleable cast irons are produced in two stages, first one involves production of white iron castings
and second stage involving high temperature annealing of these castings. Malleable cast irons are
characterised having all their graphites in the form of nodules and exhibit considerable higher
mechanical properties compared to grey iron.
Nodular Cast Irons
Nodular irons may be heat-treated for one of the following reasons:
(a) to produce matrix structure in accordance to achieve desired mechanical properties for the
different grades of nodular iron.
(b) to graphitize carbides which may be present as a result of poor inoculation, incorrect
composition or segregation in the heat affected zone of welds.
(c) to improve the surface wear and/or friction characteristics.
(d) to improve machinability.
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II (MEng 2202) Note chapter - 2
by melesse workneh (phd) and Mrs meaza y.
(e) to effect stress relief. In order to achieve desired properties, nodular cast irons are subjected to
annealing, normalizing, hardening and tempering and stress-relieving heat treatment.
Austempered ductile iron
The austempered ductile iron emerged as a new class of ductile iron owing to the remarkable
combination of properties attainable in austempered iron. Austempered ductile iron can be twice as
strong as the standard ductile iron grade at the same level of toughness and ductility. In addition
they respond to workhardening treatment at the surface leading to high bending fatigue and wear
resistance. Specific application include automotive gears and crankshaft.
Austempered ductile irons are prepared from alloyed nodular irons. The alloy combinations are
either 0.3% Mo and 1.5% Ni or a combination of 0.5% Mo and 1.4% Cu. The properties are
attained by heating to suitable austenising temperature followed by quenching into a medium which
is maintained at a constant temperature in the bainitic transformation temperature range (205-
4000C) and holding for the time required for transformation to occur.
The desired matrix structure of austempered ductile iron consists of a two phase mixture of acicular
(or bainitic) ferrite austenite. During austempering bainitic ferrites nucleates and grow into
austenite. At the same time carbon is rejected from growing ferrite platelets into the surrounding
austenite. The high silicon content of the ductile iron suppress the formation of cementite phase
normally associated with bainitic transformation, consequently the remaining austenite continues to
absorb carbon as reaction proceeds.
The length of time at the austempering temperature can be quite critical when austempering ductile
iron. Quenching from austempering temperature too early produces martensite as a result of
incomplete stabilization of remaining austenite through carbon enrichment. When held too long the
second stage of austenite decomposition can occur (carbide precipitation). The alloying elements
Cu, Ni, Mo is effective in making the austempering time less critical.
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April, 2024, Adama Science and Technology University, Department of Mechanical Engineering