Module-II

Direct stress
Any engineering design which is built up of a number of members is
in equilibrium under the action of the forces (Active and reactive)

Since the member itself is in equilibrium, the resultant force acting on it must
be zero, but they produce a tendency for the body to be deformed. This action
is resisted by the internal forces of cohesion between particles of the material.

X
Tension Compression

P P P P

X X

P
Rope attached to a crane

Leg of a table X
 Module-II

Stress

Stresses which are normal to the plane on which they act are called direct stress.

𝑃
𝜎= N/m2
𝐴
Strain

Is a measure of deformation produced in the member by the load.

If a rod of length l is in tension and the stretch or elongation produced

is 𝛿𝑙, then the direct strain ε is defined as
𝜹𝒍
𝝐=
𝒍
 Module-II

Hooke’s law

Strain is proportional to the stress producing it

𝜎 𝛼 𝜖 E = Modulus of Elasticity
(Young’s Modulus)
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜖

𝑃𝑙
𝐸=
𝐴 δ𝑙
 Module-II

D
E

C
A Proportional limit
Stress

B
A B Elastic limit

C Yield point

D Ultimate stress

E Breaking point

Strain
 Module-II

Factor of safety
Stress calculated from- magnitude and position of application of the load,
the dimensions of the member, the properties of the material
Types of load
Dead load
Live load
Fluctuating load
Impact/Shock load

The maximum permissible stress or the allowable stress is determined from a

consideration of the above factors, the social and economic consequences of failure.

Factor of safety = Ultimate stress/Allowable stress

 Module-II

Strain Energy, Resilience

P
The Strain Energy(U) of the bar is defined

Load
as the work done by the load in straining it

1
𝑈 = 𝑃 𝛿𝑙
2

𝑃= 𝜎𝐴 Extension 𝛿𝑙
𝜎 𝛿𝑙
𝜀= =
𝐸 𝑙
1
𝑈 = 𝜎 𝐴 𝜎𝑙/𝐸
2 The Strain Energy per unit
𝜎2 volume is defined as the resilience
𝑈=( )𝐴 𝑙
2𝐸
 Module-II

Shear Stress
P

L M
Equal and opposite parallel forces not in same line,
then there is a tendency for one part to slide over or
shear from the other part across any section LM P

𝜏
𝑃
𝜏= Complimentary
𝐴
𝜏′ Shear Stress
Shear stress is tangential to
the area over which it acts. 𝜏′

𝜏
 Module-II

Shear Strain

φ Shear strain, φ is defined as the change in

the right angle. It is measured in radian

𝜏
𝐺= G = Modulus of Rigidity
∅
 Module-II

A square steel rod 20 mm Χ 20 mm in cross section is to carry an axial load (compressive)

of 100 kN. Calculate the shortening in a length of 50 mm. Take E = 2.14 Χ 108 kN/ m2

A hollow cast-iron cylinder 4 m long, 300 mm outer diameter and thickness of metal 50 mm is
subjected to a central load on the top when standing straight. The stress produced is 75000kN/m2.
Assume E = 1.5 Χ 108 kN/m2 and find i) magnitude of the load
ii) longitudinal strain produced
iii) total decrease in length
 Module-II

A steel wire 2 m long and 3 mm in diameter is extended by 0.75 mm when a weight of P is

suspended from the wire. If the same weight is suspended from a brass wire, 2.5 m long and 2
mm in diameter, it is elongated by 4.64 mm. Determine the modulus of elasticity of brass, if
that of steel is 2 Χ 105 N/ mm2
 Module-II

Poisson’s Ratio

𝜎 P 𝜎

Lateral strain α Longitudinal strain

Poisson’s Ratio (𝛾) = Lateral strain / Longitudinal strain

𝜎
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −𝛾
𝐸
 Module-II

A brass bar having cross sectional area of 1000 mm2 is subjected to axial forces as
shown. Find the total elongation of the bar. Take E = 100 GN/m2

50 kN 80 kN 20 kN 10 kN

0.6 m 1.0 m 1.2 m

 Module-II
A member ABCD is subjected to point load as shown. Calculate:
a) Force P necessary for equilibrium
b) Total elongation of the bar
Take E = 210 Χ 109 N/m2

B 2400 mm2 C
1200 mm2 D
A 600 mm2
50 kN P 200 kN
500 kN

1000 mm 1000 mm 600 mm

 Module-II

For the bar shown in the figure, calculate the reactions produced by the lower support on the bar.
Take E = 200 GN/m2. Also find the stresses in the bars

A
1.2 m A1 = 110 mm2
B

A2 = 220 mm2
2.4 m

C
 Module-II

700 mm length of Aluminium alloy bar is suspended from

the ceiling so as to provide a clearance of 0.3 mm between
A
it and a 250 mm length of steel bar as shown in figure.
Take Aal =1250 mm2 , As = 2000 mm2 500 mm
Eal = 70 GN/m2 , Es = 210 GN/m2 300 kN
Determine the stress in the Aluminium and Steel bar due to O
a 300 kN load applied at 500 mm away from the ceiling. 200 mm
B
0.3 mm
C
250 mm
D
 Module-II

A copper rod of 40 mm diameter is

surrounded tightly by a cast iron tube of 80
mm external diameter, the ends being firmly
fastened together. When put to a
compressive load of 30 kN, what load will
be shared by each? Also determine the
2m
amount by which the compound bar
shortens if it is 2 m long.
Take Eci = 175 GN/m2
Ec = 75 GN/m2
 Module-II
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Beams and shafts are important structural and mechanical element in engineering.

Beams – members that are slender and support loading that are applied perpendicular to their longitudinal axis.

The deck bridge, the wing of an aircraft, the axle of an automobile, many of the bones of the human body

The Shear force at any section of a beam is the algebraic + -

sum of the lateral components of the forces acting on ෍𝐹 - ෍𝐹
either side of the section +
F F
W1 W2 A W3

R1 A R2
 Module-II

+ +
The Bending moment is the algebraic sum
of the moments about the section of all the ෍𝑀
forces acting on either side of the section.
- -
M M
W1 W2 A W3

R1 R2
A

Where the type of bending is changing from sagging to hogging, the BM

must be zero and this point is called the point of inflexion or contraflexure.
 Module-II
Relation between w, F and M

x
M+δM
F ෍ 𝑀𝑐 = 0
w.δx
O C
M
F+δF M+(F.δx/2)+(F+δF).(δx/2) = M+δM
δx
F = (dM/dx)
Let F = shear force at x
F+ δF = shear force at x+δx ෍𝐹 = 0
M = bending moment at x
M+δM = bending moment at x+δx
w = rate of loading w.δx + (F+δF) = F
w. δx = total load
w = -(dF/dx)
 Module-II

l Draw the S.F and B.M diagram for the

cantilever beam shown in the figure.
W

-W

-Wl
 Module-II

Draw the S.F and B.M diagram for the

cantilever beam shown in the figure.
l

Wl

(Wl2)/2
 Module-II
30 kN 50 kN A beam 10m long is simply supported at its ends and
carries concentrated loads of 30 kN and 50 kN at distances
of 3m from each end. Draw the S.F and B.M diagram.
Ra 3m 3m Rb
30 kN
M M

Ra Ra
x F x F

30 kN 50 kN
M

Ra
x F
 Module-II
1 kN Draw the SF and BM diagram.
1 kN 2 kN/m 1 kN
1 kN
E D C A
B F F C
1m 1m 2m 1m A A
M M

1 kN 1 kN
1 kN

F D C F E D C
A
M M A
 QRectangle QTriangle Module-II
12 m 6 kN/m
Draw the SF and BM diagram. Also find
9m
the maximum B.M and it’s location

෍ 𝑀𝑏 = 0
2 kN/m
B M
A
Ra 18 m Rb
2 kN/m
A F
Ra
 Module-II
3 kN 2 kN
6 kN 3 kN/m
D C Draw the SF and BM diagram for the
B
A beam shown. Also calculate the maximum
1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5m 2.4m
BM and the point at which it occurs
 Module-II

5 kN/m

C B Draw the SF and BM diagram for the beam shown.

A
2m 1m
 Module-II

Bending Stress

If a length of a beam is subjected to a constant bending moment (shear force is zero), the stresses set
up on any cross section must constitute a pure couple equal in magnitude to the bending moment.

Assumptions
1. Material is homogeneous and isotropic and has the same value of Young’s modulus in
tension and compression.
2. The beam is initially straight, and all longitudinal filaments bend into circular arc with a
common centre of curvature.
3. Transverse cross-section remains plane and perpendicular to the neutral surface after
bending.
4. The radius of curvature is large compared to the dimensions of the cross-section.
5. The stress is purely longitudinal and local effects near concentrated loads will be neglected.
 Module-II

M P Q M
y
N N
R M

NN = N’N’ = R.θ P’Q’ = (R-y).θ

Q’
𝑃𝑄 − 𝑃′ 𝑄′ 𝑅. 𝜃 − 𝑅 − 𝑦 . 𝜃 𝑦 N’
𝜖= = =
𝑃𝑄 𝑅. 𝜃 𝑅 M
P’
𝜎 𝑦 𝜎 𝐸
= = N’
𝐸 𝑅 𝑦 𝑅

Stress is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis

 Module-II

Compression
Normal force on the elemental area dA ,
𝐸
𝜎. 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑅 𝑦 . 𝑑𝐴 dA

Moment of this force about neutral axis,

𝐸
𝑑𝑀 = 𝑅 𝑦. 𝑑𝐴. 𝑦

Tension
Hence the total moment,
𝐸 𝐸
𝑀 = ‫ 𝑦 𝑅 ׬‬2 𝑑𝐴 𝑀= න 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
𝑅

𝐸 𝜎 𝐸 𝑀
𝑀= 𝐼 𝑀 𝐸
𝑅 = = =
𝐼 𝑅 𝑦 𝑅 𝐼

𝑀 𝑀
𝜎= =
𝐼 𝑍
𝑦
 Module-II

A 250 mm (depth) Χ 150 mm (width) rectangular beam is subjected to maximum bending

moment of 750 kN-m. Determine (i) the maximum stress in the beam.
(ii) If the value of E for the beam material is 200 GN/m2, find out the radius of curvature for this
portion of the beam where the bending is maximum.
(iii) The value of the longitudinal stress at a distance of 65 mm from the top surface of the beam.

250 mm

150 mm
 Module-II

A symmetrical section 200 mm deep has a moment of inertia of 2.26 Χ 10-5 m4 about its
neutral axis. Determine the longest span over which, when simply supported , the beam
would carry a UDL of 4 kN/m run without the stress due to bending exceeding 125 MN/m2

4 kN/m
B
A
l
 Module-II

A simply supported beam of span 5 m has a cross section 150 mm Χ 250 mm. If the
permissible stress is 10 N/mm2, find (a) maximum intensity of UDL it can carry.
(b) Maximum concentrated load P applied at 2 m from one end, it can carry.
 Module-II

A beam simply supported at ends and having cross-section as shown in figure is loaded with a
UDL, over whole of its span. If the beam is 8 m long, find the UDL, if maximum permissible
bending stress in tension is limited to 30 MN/m2 and in compression to 45 MN/m2. What are the
actual maximum bending stresses set up in the section?

100 mm

30 mm

120 mm 30 mm

50 mm

120 mm
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for the simply-supported beam shown in
the figure
Draw the shear force diagram and bending moment diagram of the loaded cantilever beam as
shown in Figure
A solid shaft of is to transmit a torque of 25kNm. If the shearing stress is not to exceed 60 Mpa. Find the minimum diameter of
the shaft.

A hollow circular shaft of external diameter 50mm and internal diameter 40mm transmit a torque of 10 kNm. Find the maximum
shear induced in the shaft.

Find the power that can be transmitted by a shaft of 50mm diameter at a speed of 120 rpm. If the shear stress is 60 N/mm 2

A solid circular shaft transmits85kW power at 200 rpm. Find the shaft diameter if the shear stress is 50 MN/m .2

A hollow shaft is to transmit 200kW at 80 rpm. If the shear stress is not to exceed 70 MN/m . and internal diameter is 0.5 of the
2

external diameter. Find the external and internal diameters assuming that maximum torque is 1.6 times the mean.
Find the maximum torque that can be safely applied to a shaft of 120 mm diameter. If the allowable twist is 3o in a length of 1.5m.
Take C = 1 ×5 N/mm10 2
 TORSION
PRESENTED BY:
PRATYASHA MAHAPATRA(B124088)
SWAYAM PRAGYAN SAHOO(B124142)
CONTENTS
 Torsion In Circular Shaft
Equation of Torsion
Polar Moment of Inertia
Torsional Stiffness
Strain Energy in Torsion
Assumptions made
Types of Shaft
Connection of Shafts: Series and Parallel
TORSION IN CIRCULAR SHAFTS
A A’
Consider a shaft rigidly clamped at one end and twisted at the
other end by a torque
T = F.d
applied in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the bar such a
shaft is said to be in torsion. F

d
Here Shaft AA’ is in torsion
ASSUMPTIONS MADE
i. The material is homogeneous and isotropic.
ii. Hooke's law is obeyed by the material.
iii. The cross-section of the shaft remains uniform circular throughout.
iv. The shaft is subjected to pure torque only.
v. The shaft is not subjected to any initial torque.
vi. The transverse sections which were plane before application of torque remain plane even
after application of torque.
EQUATION OF TORSION
𝑑
Arc AB = r𝜃 = l𝜙 (r = 2 ) 𝜏
𝜏
Also, 𝜙= 𝐺 r
𝜏 θ A
By substituting and rearranging we get, Φ C
𝜏 𝐺𝜃 B
= l 𝜏
𝑟 𝑙
d

The torque can be equated to the sum of the moments of the tangential stresses of the elements 2𝜋𝑟𝛿𝑟, i.e.
𝑇 = ‫( 𝜏׬‬2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟)r
on solving we get,
𝐺𝜃
𝑇 = 𝑙
J
on combining the above equations we get,

𝑇 𝜏 𝐺𝜃
= =
𝐽 𝑟 𝑙

where, G = Modulus of rigidity

𝜏 = Shear Stress
J = Polar moment of inertia
r = radius of cross-section of the shaft
T = Torque applied
𝜃 = Angle of twist
l = length of shaft
TORSIONAL STIFFNESS
Torsional Stiffness is defined as the torque per radian twist and is denoted by (k).

𝑇
Torsional Stiffness k =
𝜃
𝑇 𝜏 𝐺𝜃
But as per Torsional Equation, = =
𝐽 𝑟 𝑙

𝑇 𝐺𝐽
Also, Torsional Stiffness k = =
𝜃 𝑙
POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA
The Hooke’s law is obeyed by linear-elastic material. Linear variation in shear stress leads to a linear variation in
shear strain. Hence shear stress τ goes as,
τ = (þ/c) τmax
Now for an element dA at a distance þ from the longitudinal axis,

ⅆ𝐹 = 𝜏 ⅆ𝐴
𝜌
𝑇 = ‫ 𝜏 𝜌 𝐴׬‬ⅆ𝐴 = න 𝜌 𝜏max ⅆ𝐴
𝐶
𝐴
𝜏max 2
𝑇= ‫׬‬𝐴
𝜌 ⅆ𝐴
𝐶

Now this integral represents the polar moment of inertia of the shaft’s cross-sectional area about the
shaft’s longitudinal axis.
𝑇×𝑐
𝜏max =
𝐽
Here ,
τmax = The maximum shear stress in the shaft, which occurs at the outer surface
T = The resultant internal torque acting at the cross section.
J = The polar moment of inertia of the cross sectional area
c = The outer radius of the shaft

Similarly, the shear stress at the intermediate distance þ is,

τ = Tþ/J
 TYPES OF SHAFTS &
THEIR POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

𝜋 4
𝐽= 𝑅 𝜋 4
2 𝑅𝑜 𝐽 = 𝑅0 − 𝑅4
R
2
R
R= Radius of Cross section 𝑅𝑂 = Outer radius
R= Inner radius

CIRCULAR Cross section TUBULAR Cross Section

Example-: External and internal diameter of a propeller shaft are 400mm and 200mm respectively. Find
maximum shear stress developed in the cross section when a twisting moment of 50kN.m is applied. Given G =
0.8 × 103N/mm2. If the span of the shaft is 4m, then find the twisting angle of shaft.
 FOR YOU TO TRY
Q. A hollow shaft of external diameter 200mm and 125mm internal diameter transmits
1600kW at 180 rev/min. Calculate the shear stress at the inner and outer surfaces and the
strain energy per metre length. G = 84,000 N/mm2.
STRAIN ENERGY IN TORSION
Total strain energy of a shaft of length L under the action of torque T is the work done in twisting.
1
U= Tθ T
2

In terms of maximum stress 𝜏=

For solid shaft,
τ2
U= × Volume
4G U

For hollow shaft, 𝜏2 𝐷2+𝑑2

U= × × Volume
4𝐺 𝐷2
Example-: A hollow shaft, subjected to a pure2
torque, attains a maximum shear stress of 𝜏. Given
𝜏
that the strain energy per unit volume is 3𝐺 , calculate the ratio of shaft diameters. Determine the
actual diameter of such a shaft to transmit 4MW at 110 rpm when the energy stored is 20,000 Nm/m3.
G = 80,000 N/mm2.
STRENGTH OF A SHAFT
Maximum torque or power a shaft can transmit is called the Strength of the Shaft.

In case a single shaft is unable to withstand the generated shear stress, more shafts can be
coupled to it(either in series or parallel) in order to meet the need.
 COMPOUND SHAFTS
Two or more shafts can be coupled together to fulfil a certain necessity. This coupling can be done in two
ways as follows:-
i. Shafts in Series
ii. Shafts in Parallel

Shafts in Series: Shafts in Parallel:

• Shafts are connected end to end. • One shaft is inside the other.
• Torque remains same for each shaft. • Total torque is shared by component shafts.
THANK YOU !