Implementing

❖ Introduction: Objectives must be converted into action; otherwise, they remain dreams. (Peter F. Drucker) Effective thinking begins with
clarity about goals. Good program management requires:
– Attention to goals and objectives.
– Evaluation of alternative strategies and their likely effects.
Decision-making is integral to program management. Core tasks for administrators include:
1. Organizing
2. Leading
3. Implementing
Implementation involves carrying out, fulfilling, and completing programs and policies. Key distinction:
– Policy: A guiding principle or idea.
– Program: A set of actions to achieve policy objectives.
The primary challenge in government is converting policies into actionable programs.
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❖ Three Perspectives on Implementation:-
I. Complexity of Joint Action: Programs generally involve many actors, every one of whom retains their potential for causing friction. Program
implementation involves various individuals, the least important of whom may delay things and sometimes make them go wrong. If PA is the
realm of uncertainty & chance, it is even more the realm of differing priorities, conflicting values, confusion, exhaustion, and distrust. Two
factors converge to delay-and, in many instances, stifle administrative efforts to secure the joint action required in program implementation:-
– Multiplicity of participants and
– Multiplicity of perspectives.
• Economic Development Administration's (EDA'.s) efforts in Oakland- Case Study
• Several reasons why participants can agree on the ends of a program and still oppose (or merely fail to facilitate) the means for effecting
those ends:-
– 1. Direct incompatibility with other commitments.
– 2. No direct incompatibility but a preference for other programs.
– 3. Simultaneous commitments to other projects.
– 4. Dependence on others who lack a sense of urgency.
– 5. Differences of opinion on leadership and the proper organizational role.
– 6. Legal and procedural differences.

Multiplication model of ordinary probability theory

How to deal with Multiplicity:-
- Persistence: Programme elements into package, rather
than isolated items
- bandwagon effect: gaining additional support for a
proposal simply because it seems to be winning approval
- Policy Reduction

II. Implementation as a System of Games: Implementation process can be viewed as a system of "games". Game framework illuminates the
process by directing attention to the players, their stakes, their strategies and tactics, their resources, the rules of play (which stipulate the
conditions for winning), the rules of fair play, the nature of communication among the players, and the degree of uncertainty surrounding the
outcome. An insightful definition of implementation: a process of assembling the elements required to produce a particular programmatic
outcome and the playing out of a number of loosely interrelated games whereby these elements are withheld from or delivered to the
program. The following list identifies some of the more common implementation games:-
– Tokenism. The "attempt to appear to be contributing to a program element publicly while privately conceding only a small ('token') contribution."
– Massive Resistance. Obstructing program implementation by withholding critical program elements or by overwhelming the capacity of the administrative
agency to enforce punishment for noncompliance.
– Easy Money. A game played by parties in the private sector who wish to make off with government money in exchange for program elements of too little
value.
– Up for Grabs. Often the mandate for a program will identify a lead agency and provide a modest budget but will fail to clearly prescribe what other
element might be involved and for what expected purpose. "In this confused situation, the few unambiguously mandated elements are up for grabs by a
number of potential clientele groups to be converted into political resources."
– Piling on. As onlookers see a program moving successfully in its intended direction, "some see it as a new political resource, an opportunity to throw their
own goals and objectives onto the heap." The net effect of a large number of additional objectives added to the program is that the program may triple in
size.
– Tenacity. This game can be played by anyone; all it requires is the ability and will to stymie (stop or hinder) the progress of a program until one's own
terms are satisfied. Although no one player may want to kill the program, the net effect of many actors playing tenacity may be just that.
– Territory. All bureaucratic organizations struggle to ensure that some other organization is not given a program element that is perceived to be in "their"
jurisdiction.
– Not our problem. Although bureaus may try to expand their territories, "this drive normally evaporates as soon as the bureau recognizes that the program
will impose a heavy workload or that it will take the bureau into an area of controversy.
III. Implementation as a Process to be Managed: No doubt the implementation of public policy is a complex process-certainly more complex
than many policymakers imagined it to be-and no doubt the process involves a lot of game playing. But, in the final analysis, implementation
is a process that can be managed. Surely, "better managed" are the two favorite words of every politician. How can programme be better
managed:-
– First strategic question: Who will run the programme?
– Second strategic question: How will the Programme operate?
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❖ Strategic Questions
I. First Strategic Question: Who will implement the program or project?
• Governmental Operations
– Contractors
– Grants
– Franchise
– Partnership
– Voucher
– Voluntary Service
– Divest
Market Operations: privatize did not appear in dictionary until 1983. Broadly speaking, it symbolizes a new way of thinking about government's
role in addressing a society's needs. Privatization is the act of reducing the role of government, or increasing the role of the private sector, in an
activity or in the ownership of assets. To privatize means to move from left to right, from one arrangement to another, along the continuum.

1) Govt: have four instruments through which they can directly influence society and the economy and achieve public purpose:
▪ Regulations - Authoritative decrees, backed with legitimate power of state
▪ Services. Govts provide directly to citizens range from defense to education to recreation, from fire
and police protection to air traffic control. Which sector would best produce the desired results.
According to Osborne and Gaebler,
• Public Sector:
– Policy management
– Regulation
– Enforcement of equality
– Prevention of discrimination
– Prevention of exploitation
– Promotion of social cohesion
• Nonprofit sector:
– Social tasks
– Tasks that require volunteer labor
– Tasks that generate little profit
– Promotion of individual responsibility
– promotion of community
– promotion of commitment to welfare of others
• Private Sector:
– Economic tasks
– Investment tasks
– Profit generation
– Promotion of self-sufficiency
▪ Money: Besides regulation and services, governments also provide citizens, organisations, and other governments with money. About 56
% dollars collected in taxes by the federal government is recycled back to citizens as transfer payments.
Transfer payments payments made to individuals for which no services or goods are rendered in return. 3 key money transfer payments in
US system are:-
– Welfare, (Ehsaas Kifalat)
– Social Security, and
– Unemployment insurance.
Income redistribution also includes a large amount of income transfers in-kind, as opposed to money transfers. Some income transfers in-
kind are food stamps, Medicare and Medicaid, government health care services, and subsidized public housing.
▪ Taxes Governments also use tax codes to encourage or discourage certain behaviours. A variety of deductions permit individuals and
corporations who engage in favorite activities—such as capital investment, purchase of homes, or charitable giving—to retain funds that
otherwise would be paid in taxes. Such deductions are often referred to as tax loopholes, though the more appropriate term is tax
expenditure, since granting tax relief for an activity is the same as subsidizing that activity directly through an expenditure program.
Governments take as well as give. For example, if government wants to discourage certain activities—such as the use of carbon fuels and
tobacco products—it can raise taxes on those activities
Contracting: All sorts of governments are contracting for all sorts of goods and services. The public sector contracts with the private and nonprofit
sectors for the design, construction, and maintenance of roads and bridges; for the production of nuclear weapons; for the management of prisons
and the delivery of services within prisons; for information technology; for the management of public schools; for educating, training, and placing
welfare recipients and displaced workers in jobs; for child support enforcement; and for a host of other social services. Eighty percent (80%) of the
largest cities in the United States contract out vehicle towing, and half contract out solid-waste collection. Over the past several decades, as society
has debated government's make-or-buy decision, public agencies have shifted more toward the buy alternative.
• Advantages Greater efficiency due to stiff competition, Frees public administrators from routine details, May increase flexibility
• Dis-Advantages: Harder to tell where the public sector begin and where to end, Costs may actually rise, Contracting permits the
expansion of government activities without giving the impression that government has expanded, Collusion among bidders for contracts,
At a certain point, government can contract out so much technical stuff that it no longer has the human resources-or, the brainpower- to
effectively monitor the contractors, Some activities just seem inappropriate for the private sector.
• The Process: 2 laws govern contracting in the federal government
– The Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 and its defense-oriented equivalent, (PPRA in Pakistan)
– The Armed Forces Procurement Act of 1947.
These two laws have been implemented through the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) in a process supervised by the Office of Federal
Procurement Policy in the Executive Office of the President. FAR establishes two basic methods of obtaining "full and open competition":
a) Sealed bidding, Characterized by a rigid adherence to formal procedures, aims to provide all bidders an opportunity to compete
for the contract on equal footing. Sealed bids are solicited when four conditions are met:-
– Time permits the solicitation, submission, and evaluation of sealed bids.
– The award will be made on the basis of price.
– It is not necessary to conduct discussions with the responding offerors about their bids.
– There is a reasonable expectation of receiving more than one sealed bid.
The Process
– Single stage bidding Single envelope bidding – Price as well technical details in one envelope
– Two sealed envelope bidding – Technical details (non-amendable) and prices in separate envelopes, opened sequentially
– Two stage bidding (Prime Minister Wheelchairs Scheme)
– Stage -I technical details (amendable),
– Followed by Stage – II price bidding
b) Competitive Negotiation - The Process: A more flexible process, if one of the four
conditions is missing, the Contracting Officer (CO) will award the contract using
competitive negotiation. Unlike sealed bidding, the CO may engage in discussions
with offerers and, in evaluating proposals, he or she may also consider non-cost
factors such as managerial experience, technical approach, and past performance.
The negotiating process begins when the CO issues a Request for Proposals (RFP).
The RFP must, at a minimum, state the agency's need, anticipated terms and
conditions of the contract, information the contractor must include in the
proposal, and factors that the agency will consider in evaluating the proposals.
2) Grants: a form of gift that entails: Certain obligations on the part of the grantee & Expectations
on the part of the grantor.
• a grant by the federal government has been a continuing means of providing states, localities, public and private institutions, and
individuals with funds to support projects the federal government considers useful. In recent years, grants have been made to business
enterprises to support public purposes. The grant arrangement involves the government subsidizing private firms' production, creating a
profit opportunity by lowering the firms' costs of production. Two examples of grants are wage subsidies to encourage hiring of
disadvantaged workers and capital subsidies to encourage plant locations in economically distressed areas
3) Franchise: government assures customers access to a service or product but does not pay the producer for it. Typically, government
designates a private firm as the supplier, and consumers purchase the good or service, usually with some price regulation. A franchise can be
used to provide toll roads (and automobile service and restaurants along them); common utilities such as electricity, gas, and water; intracity
telephone service and cable television; and bus transportation. These examples are exclusive franchises in the sense that the government
does not allow for multiple utilities (each with its own power lines) within its jurisdiction. But nonexclusive or multiple franchises can be
awarded in certain industries, as in the case of taxis and wrecker trucks.
4) Partnership: In contrast to contracting, franchises, grants, or other arrangements between the public sector and the private sector, a
partnership signifies that both sectors share risks and responsibilities to meet critical community needs as defined by the partners. Shared risk
means that both partners could loose resources; it encourages the involvement of both the public sector and private sector in ventures that
neither could successfully attempt alone. Shared responsibilities include joint decision making by representatives of the different groups that
work collaboratively on the project.
5) Vouchers Services: In grant system, the govt subsidizes producer & restricts customer's choice to subsidized private firm, which provides the
medical care, housing, mass transit, or some other good/service. In voucher system, the govt subsidizes customers & permits them to exercise
relatively free choice in the marketplace. Rather than subsidize low-cost housing with grants, the government can simply give the customers
vouchers to apply toward rent at a dwelling of their choice. Thus, part of the payment comes from government and part from the client.
6) Voluntary Services Voluntary associations perform a host of functions, which the Govt is either unwilling or unable to perform. A growing
number of community groups and block groups work to improve the quality of their neighbourhood plugging gaps in the services of city and
county bureaucracy.
7) Divesture reduction of some kind of asset for financial, ethical, or political objectives or sale of an existing business by a firm. A divestment is
the opposite of an investment. Divestment of government assets can be carried out in five ways:-
– Sell the enterprise or asset to a private buyer.
– By issuing and selling shares to the public,
– By selling the enterprise to the managers or, more broadly, to employees.
– Sell the enterprise or assets to its users or its customers.
– By joint venture.
 Implications
– Transaction Costs When the Govt does the action directly, it saves on the transaction costs, which are broadly defined as all the costs
associated with exchange- including the information cost of finding out the price, quality, service record, and durability of a product, plus the
cost of contracting and enforcing the contract. Whether government implements programs directly or indirectly, public officials need to know
the different consequences of using different tools.
– Administrative Feasibility. How difficult will it be to set up and operate the program? Can objectives be defined with enough specificity so
that the objectives of government and those of the producers are congruent? How large an organization will be required?
– Political Feasibility, Will the program attract and maintain key actors with a stake in the program area? Indirect tools, relying on third parties
such as contractors and nonprofit organizations, are usually more difficult to administer but are easier to enact than tools of direct
government action. Tools that use existing structures and relationships—such as a tax structure or price system—require a minimum of
administration but exhibit lower target effectiveness and have difficulty attracting political support.
– Effectiveness. Does the program produce the intended effect in the specified time? Does it reach the intended target group? Is it responsive
to government direction?
– Efficiency. How do the benefits compare with the costs? How susceptible is the program to fraud? Are there enough producers to ensure
competition?
– Equity. Are benefits distributed equitably with respect to region, income, sex, ethnicity, age, and so forth? To what degree do those using the
service pay directly for its benefits?

II. Second Strategic Question: How Will the Programme Operate?

There are at least three ways to run a program:-
a) Case Management: dynamic process that assesses, plans, implements,
coordinates, monitors & evaluates to improve outcomes, experiences, & value.
• Acquisition . The process by which cases enter the pipeline is vital to any
case processing program. Complaints, on site inspection
• Screening ,The screening stage of case management involves determining
the eligibility of potential cases.
• Assignment Once in the pipeline, the case becomes part of the active
caseload (no of cases dealt at one time). It is assigned to a processing unit
where either one caseworker is designated to handle it or several
caseworkers from a pool may handle parts of it.
• Prioritization Whatever the caseworker's title-investigator, inspector, hearing officer, social worker, attorney, adjuster, or something
else-he will need to decide on the case's urgency.
• Scope Definition In a child protection case, a common question is whether to include the entire family or just the child who is the focus of
attention. An agency might, if it chooses, define the case quite broadly and offer families far more in the way of counseling, day care, and
services, such as teaching mothers budgeting skills, hygiene, and how to send their children to school on time.
• Data Collection Data collection refers to issuing subpoenas, administering tests, conducting interviews, and performing any other
information-gathering activity that will help the worker decide how to handle the case.
• Interpretation Data interpretation refers to the review and analysis of these materials. In social service agencies, this process is called
"assessment"; in law enforcement agencies, "determination of probable cause”; and in medical and public health agencies, "diagnosis."
According to experts, some of the factors that could signal to a caseworker that a child might be in a fatal situation are the absence of a
grandmother, a mother living with a ----, or a history of drug abuse.
• Action In enforcement or authorization orgs, action will usually mean holding a hearing or a trial and then reaching a finding or a verdict.
But in a social service agency, the action stage of case management will usually involve a service or a treatment plan designed to achieve
some beneficial effect for the client. Management must ensure that the caseworkers' guidelines are clear in this vital stage of the
process.
• Resolution Sometimes, in licensing or child protection situations, the action stage requires continual monitoring or inspection rather than
a single decision. In such instances, it might be a long while before the case is closed or resolved.
• Evaluation Because all nine of the preceding stages must be selectively monitored, the ultimate stage of the case-processing pipeline is
evaluation. Unfortunately, finding good performance measures is exceedingly difficult. When a worker might be sharing a case with other
workers or, even more likely, working on several cases-of varying levels of difficulty-each day, measuring that worker's performance
obviously becomes difficult. Processing time, a concern of both management and client, can be measured in at least two ways.
Throughput time is the period from the initial acceptance of the case until its ultimate resolution. Direct handling time is the total time
that various employees actually spend on the activities associated with handling a particular case.

b) Total quality management (TQM) a management approach that strives to achieve continuous improvement of
quality through organization-wide efforts based on facts and data. TQM focuses on enhancing efficiency,
transparency, and the effectiveness of public service delivery to meet the needs of citizens. Quality-
improvement efforts that have the same basic goals and processes as TQM but have different names,
encompassed by the TQM:-
– Total Quality Excellence
 – Total Quality Leadership
• Primarily, a business and process tool, can TOM be applied in the public sector?
• One answer is to find the most important aspects of the service from the
customer's point of view.
• A variety of methods are available:
– Informal consultation-in waiting rooms, to customer councils, or
through existing user and interest groups.
– Existing data on performance and complaints.
– Customer surveys or other market research already done. The London
borough of Bromley uses a "quality wheel" as a checklist so service
teams won't miss any possible success factors.
– Examinations of the critical success factors of similar organizations.
– A walk through the system as a customer, to understand it from the
customer's perspective.
• Central Theme The theme of TQM is simply this: the burden of proof of quality
rests not with inspectors but with providers of the service. In other words,
employees, not managers, are responsible for achieving total quality. TQM means
a shift from traditional bureaucratic mindset to a new philosophy Organisations
have traditionally followed the notion of achieving acceptable quality level. In
public sector, this notion has been captured as disparages expression, close
enough for govt work with the new public management (NPM) philosophy, poor
workmanship and lax service have become unacceptable. Members of one
department must learn about the problems in other departments, stop optimizing
their own work, and work with members of other departments as a team
• Quality Circles offer one approach to implementing the TQM philosophy. A
quality circle (QC) is a group of from 6 to 12 volunteer employees who meet
regularly to discuss and solve problems affecting their common work activities.
The idea is that people who do the job know the job better than anyone else and
can make recommendations for improved performance. QCs also push control of
decision making to a lower organizational level. time is set aside during the workweek for these
groups to meet, raise problems, and try to find solutions. The idea is that people who do the job
know the job better than anyone else and can make recommendations for improved
performance. QCs also push control of decision making to a lower organizational level. Circle
members are free to collect data and take surveys. In many organizations, team members are
given training in team building, problem solving, and statistical quality control to enable them to
confront problems and solutions more readily. The groups do not focus on personal gripes and
problems. Often a facilitator is present to help guide the discussion.
- Continuous Improvement)- Kaizen Improving things a little bit at a time, all the time, has the highest
probability of success. The goal is to implement changes smoothly and to learn how to make future
change go even more smoothly. The habit of continuous improvement has to be built into all govt
agencies and has to be made of sustaining if the full promise of reinvention is to be realized. The
approaches organizations take to implement continuous-improvement programs range from very
structured programs using statistical process-control tools to simple suggestion systems relying on brainstorming and "back-of-the-envelope"
analyses.

- The Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Cycle (Deming Wheel). Conveys the sequential and
continual nature of the continuous-improvement process. The plan phase of the cycle
is when an improvement area (theme) and a specific problem with it are identified. It is
also when the analysis is done, using one or more problem-solving tools. Employees use
these tools in conjunction with brainstorming approaches to arrive at an improvement.
– Plan. Typical of many continuous-improvement applications is the identification of
counter measures directed toward eliminating the cause of a problem or the
barrier to a solution.
– Do. The do phase of the PDCA cycle implements the change.
– Experts usually recommend that the change be made on a small scale first and that
any changes in the plan be documented.
– Check. The check phase evaluates data collected during implementation.
– The objective is to see if there is a good fit between the original goal and the actual results.
– Act. The act phase is when improvement is codified as the new standard procedure and replicated in similar processes throughout the
organization.
– Repeat. important-the cycle repeats itself: a new improvement area and specific problem are identified, a change is executed, and so on.
TQM In Pakistan
• Citizen-Centric Services: Punjab Land Records Management Information System (LRMIS) introduced modernized, transparent systems
for managing land records. By digitizing records, this program reduced corruption and inefficiency in a key public service.
• Health Sector: The Sehat Sahulat Program adopts quality management principles by ensuring equitable access to health insurance for
low-income citizens, integrating efficient claim management and customer service systems.
• Education Sector: Initiatives such as the Punjab Education Sector Reform Program (PESRP) emphasize performance-based teacher
management, quality assurance in schools, and data-driven decision-making.
• Transport Sector: The implementation of the Safe City Projects in Islamabad and Lahore demonstrates TQM principles by using modern
technology to enhance traffic management, law enforcement, and public safety.
Challenges
• Bureaucratic Culture: Resistance to change and hierarchical decision-making often undermine TQM efforts.
• Limited Resources: Lack of funds and infrastructure to implement continuous improvement processes.
• Accountability Issues: Weak mechanisms for evaluating performance and ensuring accountability.
• Training Gaps: Insufficient training of public servants in TQM methodologies.
Framework
• Leadership Commitment
• Customer Focus
• Process Orientation
• Continuous Improvement
• Data-Driven Decisions

TQM (ISO-9000)
• International Quality Standards.
• The global economy has been one of the main forces making total quality management in the United States increasingly significant.
• Many countries have endorsed a universal framework for quality assurance called ISO 9000, a set of international standards for quality
management systems established by the International Organization for Standardization in 1987 and revised in late 2000.
• Hundreds of thousands of organizations in 150 countries, including the United States, have been certified to demonstrate their
commitment to quality.
• Europe continues to lead in the total number of certifications, but the greatest number of new certifications in recent years has been in
the United States

c) Compliance Management (less known, but most innovative) Case management and TQM-do not account for the distinctive characteristics of
regulatory responsibilities that involve the delivery of obligations rather than some service. The main objective is to leverage limited resources
through careful planning, control, and targeting. At the heart of compliance management are three core elements:-
 – Clear Focus on Results. This involves an explicit rejection of a principal reliance on traditional output or productivity measures
as a basis for assessing effectiveness; perseverance in the search for more meaningful indicators of agency performance; and a
growing reliance on measurable reductions achieved within specific, well-defined problem areas, as indicators about success.
– Adoption of a Problem-solving Approach. This involves the systematic identification of important hazards, risks assessment,
and prioritization as a rational and publicly defensible basis for resource allocation decisions; and implementing effective,
creative, tailor-made solutions for each problem
– Investment in Collaborative Partnership Such partnerships with industry, unions, employees, industry associations, at all levels
are designed to produce a sense of shared purpose through collaborative agenda setting and prioritization
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❖ Tactical Consideration: Another helpful way to understand implementation is to see it not as a set of strategic management decisions but as a
collection of tools. Program administration is about control, and there is a toolkit for that just like anything else. Essentially, what public
administrators try to do is shape the implementation process by adapting these tools, in many different contexts and combinations, to
accomplish their missions.
1) Scheduling Models: facilitate the coordination of activities of an enterprise and help put resources to better use. Useful for a wide range of
activities, from scheduling a field office tour for a high-ranking official to a very complex job of scheduling activities in the space program.
➢ (Gantt Chart) In 1917, Henry L. Gantt developed a bar chart to describe progress by comparing work done against planned objectives.
• Resources assigned to each task.
• A start and end date for every task.
• The duration (length) of every task. The relationship between tasks.

➢ (CPM Chart)- 1957: Because most events depend on one or more prior events, the charts show the inter relationship of events leading to the
accomplishment of the ultimate objective.
• The critical path is the longest distance, or duration of time, between the start of a project and its completion.
• To determine the critical path, events are organized in sequence.
• The first point to be plotted along the critical path is the final event of the
proposed program.
• From the final event, related events are plotted sequentially backwards,
until the starting point is finally plotted.
• CPM would have several advantages:-
– Because bars are replaced by a network of flow plan, the network
shows how events and activities are related.
– In CPM and PERT charts, events (for example, the point at which
one would "start testing") are often shown as circles.
– Activities are the
time consuming
elements of the
program and are used to connect the various events; they are shown as arrows.
• Thus, the CPM chart reflects all significant program accomplishments and
better approximates the complexity of the program.
➢ PERT
Chart PERT

is a
method
of
analyzing the tasks involved in completing a given project,
especially the time needed to complete each task, and to identify
the minimum time needed to complete the total project. It
 incorporates uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a project while not knowing precisely the details and durations of all the activities.
It is more of an event-oriented technique rather than start- and completion-oriented, and is used more in those projects where time is the
major factor rather than cost. It is applied on very large-scale, one-time, complex, non-routine infrastructure and on Research and
Development projects. PERT and CPM are complementary tools, because "CPM employs one time estimation and one cost estimation for each
activity; PERT may utilize three time estimates (optimistic, expected, and pessimistic) and no costs for each activity.
• Although these are distinct differences, the term PERT is applied increasingly to all critical path scheduling.
2) Backward Mapping (PERT)- US Navy 1958

• The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a statistical tool, designed to schedule, organize, analyze and represent the tasks
involved in completing a given project.
• Commonly used in conjunction with the critical path method (CPM).
• PERT offers a management tool, which relies "on arrow and node diagrams of activities and events:
– Arrows represent the activities or work necessary to reach the
– Events or nodes that indicate each completed phase of the total project.

3) Reengineering, is the redesign of an Organization’s processes to achieve dramatic performance

improvement.
Redesign entails a complete evaluation of processes with a focus on making reduction in the cost and time
necessary for service delivery.

4) Streamlining and Management by Objective (MBO)

• Streamlining Paring down of organizations to remove nonessential layers of supervision and
reorganizing around outcomes-customers, products, and processes-not functions.

5) Management by Objective (MBO). Management by objectives (MBO) is a management technique

often used to develop and carry out tactical plans. At its best, MBO can provide managers within an organization a common sense of purpose
and direction and help ensure that they have challenging careers based on clear objectives. "In brief, the system of management by objectives
can be described as a process whereby the superior and subordinate managers of an organization jointly
identify its common goals, define each individual's major areas of responsibility in terms of the results
expected of them, and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of
each of its members“
• MBO is a process in which managers and subordinates at all levels in an organization sit down together
to jointly set goals, share information, and discuss strategies that could lead to goal achievement, and
regularly meet to review progress toward accomplishing those goals. Thus, MBO is based on goals,
participation, and feedback. On average, organizations that effectively use MBO are 44.6% more
productive than organizations that do not. Organizations where top management is committed to MBO,
where the objective setting begins at the top-the average increase productivity is even higher: 56.5
percent. Overall, there is a 97 % chance that organizations that use MBO will outperform those that do
not use it.
6) Management by Walking Around (MBWA) The management by wandering around (MBWA), also management by walking around, refers to
a style of management which involves managers wandering around, in an
unstructured manner, through the workplace(s), at random, to check with
employees, equipment, or on the status of ongoing work.
Other Considerations
• Expeditor. Employed to ensure that other have the material and equipment
needed to accomplish their tasks and also to coordinate and accelerate the flow of
information among the programmers’s participants However, administrators must
be their own expediters, which is a way of saying that they must follow up.
• Incentives The administrator should also strive to build incentives into a program.
• Participative Decision Making Another way of improving implementation is
participative decision making
• When faced with a policy decision, the top management in a Japanese
organization refers it to a committee of "appropriate people.