Content

• Origin of Life
• Biological Organization
Basic Cell Biology • Cell Theory
• Cell Structure and Function
PS Solanki • Cell Cycle and Cell Division
• Biomolecules

Characteristic of Life
Life – Definition and Regulation
• Homeostasis
– Regulation of the internal environment to maintain a constant state; for
example, electrolyte concentration or sweating to reduce temperature • The oxford dictionary defines life as “the condition that
• Organization distinguishes animals and plants from inorganic matter,
– Being structurally composed of one or more cells including the capacity for growth, reproduction,
• Metabolism functional activity, and continual change preceding death”.
– Maintain energy and regulate life through Catabolism and Anabolism
• Any contiguous living system is called an “organism”.
• Growth
– Maintenance of a higher rate of anabolism than catabolism • Organisms undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis,
• Adaptation possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce
– The ability to change over time in response to the environment and, through natural selection, adapt to their environment
• Response to stimuli (Irritability) in successive generations. More complex living organisms
– A response is often expressed by motion (Chemotaxis, phototaxis in plants) and can communicate through various means.
reaction of body against any stimuls (+ve and –ve).
• Reproduction • These complex processes, called physiological functions,
– The ability to produce new individual organisms, either asexually from a single have underlying physical and chemical bases, as well as
parent organism, or sexually from two parent organisms signalling and control mechanisms that are essential to
3 maintaining life. 4
 Origin of Life Theories about origin of life
• Philosophers and scientists from time • The Oparin-Haldane theory (Abiogenesis)
immemorial have attempted to explain how and • 1920 - British s cie n t is t J . B . S . Halda n e a n d Ru s s ia n
where life originated on this planet earth. biochemist Aleksandr Oparin independently set forth similar
• Today, earth is the only planet where life exists. ideas concerning the conditions required for the origin of
The earth was formed about 4.8 billion years ago life. Both believed that organic molecules could be formed
and life started about 3.8 billion years ago. from abiogenic materials in the presence of an external
• Initially earth was a hot revolving ball of gas energy source (e.g., ultraviolet radiation) and that the
consisting of atoms of various elements. primitive atmosphere was reducing (having very low
amounts of free oxygen) and contained ammonia and water
• Due to the extremely high temperature, the
vapour, among other gases.
atoms of these elements could not combine to
form molecules. • Coacervates - Oparin believed that life developed from
coacervates, microscopic spontaneously formed spherical
• Earth was divided into three-layers
aggregates of lipid molecules that are held together by
– Heavy elements such as iron and nickel were found
electrostatic forces and that may have been precursors of
in the center.
cells
– A comparatively lighter ones like those of
aluminium and silicon formed the middle layer. • Haldane believed that simple organic molecules formed first
– The lightest elements like hydrogen, oxygen and and in the presence of ultraviolet light became increasingly
carbon were found in the outermost layer. complex, ultimately forming cells.
• Different theories were given by various • Haldane and Oparin’s ideas formed the foundation for much
scientists with the time. 5 of the research on abiogenesis that took place in later 6
decades

The Miller-Urey experiment Spark-discharge Apparatus

• 1953 - American chemists Harold C. Urey and
Stanley Miller tested the Oparin-Haldane theory – It consisted of a flask, a gas
and successfully produced organic molecules chamber and a condenser
from some of the inorganic components thought connected in series.
to have been present on prebiotic Earth.
• They combined warm water with a mixture of
– The flask consisted of water,
four gases—water vapour, methane, ammonia, which was boiled thoroughly to
and molecular hydrogen—and pulsed the produce water vapour. The gas
“atmosphere” with electrical discharges. chamber consisted of two
• One week later they found that simple organic tungsten electrodes placed at a
molecules, including amino acids, had formed distance of 0 to 1 cm and
under the simulated conditions of early Earth.
connected to terminals.
• Urey and Miller designed a glass apparatus which
came to be known as Spark-discharge apparatus. – When the electrodes were
connected they produced a high
energy spark of about 75,000
volts.
7 8
 An experiment The Current Scenario
• Prior to the experiment, Urey and Miller evacuated the
entire apparatus.
• Through the inlet, they passed a mixture of ammonia, • Miller, who died in 2007, left unanalyzed
methane and hydrogen in the ratio of 2:2:1 by volume. samples from these experiments with a
• Along with the water vapour produced in the flask, former student, Jeffrey Bada.
these gases were made to enter the spark discharge • Bada, of the Scripps Institution of
chamber when the electrodes were switched on. Oceanography, La Jolla, Calif., and
• Chemical reactions occurred in the spark discharge colleagues used modern techniques such
chamber and the products formed were cooled by as high-performance liquid
circulating water in the condenser. chromatography and time-of-flight mass
• These products were collected from the trap and spectrometry to study the preserved
subjected to analysis. samples.
• The experiment was run continuously for about a week. • These modern techniques, which were
• The products contained many simple organic many times more sensitive than those
compounds which included amino acids like glycine, used in the 1950s, detected a total of 23
alanine and aspartic acid. amino acids, including 7 organosulfur
• This experiment clearly supported the hypothesis that compounds in a sample that Miller had
in the ancient earth primitive gases could have reacted produced by using a gaseous mixture of
with one another to form simple organic molecules, in hydrogen sulfide, methane, ammonia,
the presence of high-energy sources. 9 and carbon dioxide. 10

Modern conceptions of abiogenesis Modern conceptions of abiogenesis…

• Modern concept supports the abiogenetic theory • The habitat for abiogenesis has also been
given by Oparin-Haldane and the Miller-Urey
debated:
experiment.
– Originated from nonlife in hydrothermal vents on the
• Progressing with the same ideas, now the biologists ocean floor.
are working on the different model of evolutions, – deep below Earth’s surface (methane or hydrogen
where they are trying to explain which process abundancy)
occurs first in complex organic molecules whether – even on ocean shores (where proteinoids may have
Self-Replication or the metabolism. emerged from the reaction of amino acids with heat
• Whether these molecules first became self- and then entered the water as cell-like protein
replicating entities lacking metabolic functions or droplets).
first became metabolizing protocells that then
developed the ability to self-replicate. 11 12
Modern conceptions of abiogenesis… Theories of Origin of Life
• Some scientists have proposed that 1. Theory of Special Creation
abiogenesis occurred more than once. 2. Theory of Spontaneous Generation
• Based upon the nature of the abiogenic 3. Theory of Catastrophism
materials different types of life arose and 4. Cosmozoic Theory (Theory of
each lifeform with distinct biochemical Panspermia)
architectures and at various sites.
5. Theory of Chemical Evolution
– Ultimately, however, phosphate-based life
(“standard” life) gained an evolutionary advantage
over all non-phosphate-based life (“nonstandard”
life) and thereby became the most widely
distributed type of life on Earth. 13 14

Theory of Spontaneous
Theory of Special Creation
Generation
• A Mythology based theories which believes that • Living organisms could arise suddenly
all forms of life created by god. It has no and spontaneously from any kind of
scientific basis. It is religion based concept.
non-living matter. They called it
– As per Hindu mythology, Lord Brahma, has
created earth and all life forms. Abiogenesis or Biopoesis
– According to the Christian and Islamic belief, • Supporters: Aristotle, Epicurus, Von
God created this universe, plants, animals and Helmont
human beings in about six natural days.
– The Sikh mythology says that all forms of life • They believed spontaneity as :
including human beings came into being with a – Fly maggots from meat
single word of God. – Fist and Frog from mud
• Special creation theory believes that the things – Insects from dew
have not undergone any significant change
since their creation • Opposed by – Louis pasteur, Fransisco
redi, Spallanzani
15 16
 Theory of Catastrophism Cosmozoic Theory (Theory of Panspermia)

• It is simply a modification of the theory • According to this theory, life has

of Special Creation. It states that there reached this planet Earth from
have been several creations of life by
God, each preceded by a catastrophe
other heavenly bodies such as
resulting from some kind of geological meteorites, in the form of highly
disturbance. resistance spores of some
• According to this theory, since each organisms.
catastrophe completely destroyed the • This idea was proposed by
existing life, each new creation consisted
Richter in 1865 and supported by
of life form different from that of
previous ones. Arrhenius (1908) and other
• Supporters: Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) contemporary scientists.
and Orbigney (1802 to 1837) • The theory did not gain any
support. This theory lacks
evidence, hence it was discarded.
17 18

Theory of Chemical Evolution Content

• This theory was proposed independently by
two scientists - [Link], a Russian
• Origin of Life
scientist in 1923 and J.B.S Haldane, an
English scientist, in 1928. • Biological Organization
• This theory is also known as Materialistic
Theory or Physico-chemical Theory.
• Cell Theory
• According this theory, Origin of life on • Cell Structure and Function
earth is the result of a slow and gradual
process of chemical evolution that • Cell Cycle and Cell Division
probably occurred about 3.8 billion years
ago. • Biomolecules
• The first life arose from a collection of
chemical substances through a progressive
series of chemical reactions.
• Solar radiation, heat radiated by earth and
lighting must have been the chief energy
source for these chemical reactions. 19 20
 Biological organization Biological organization
• Biological organization, or the hierarchy of life, is the The simple standard biological organization scheme, from the lowest
hierarchy of complex biological structures and systems level to the highest level, is
that define life using a reductionistic approach. A-cellular level * The atom
• Each level in the hierarchy represents an increase in and
* The molecule, a grouping of atoms
organizational complexity, with each "object" being Pre-cellular level
primarily composed of the previous level's basic unit. Sub-cellular level
* The organelle, a functional grouping of biomolecules;
biochemical reactions and interactions
• The basic principle behind the organization is the
* The cell, the basic unit of all life and the grouping of
concept of emergence - the properties and functions Cellular level
organelles
found at a hierarchical level are not present and Super-cellular
irrelevant at the lower levels. level
* The tissue, a functional grouping of cells
• Ideally, individual organisms of the same species have (Multicellular
level)
the same arrangement of the same structures.
* The organ, a functional grouping of tissues
– For example, the typical human has a torso with two legs at * The organ system, a functional grouping of organs
the bottom and two arms on the sides and a head on top. It * The organism, the basic living system, a functional
is extremely rare (and usually impossible, due to grouping of the lower-level components, including at least
physiological and biomechanical factors) to find a human one cell
that has all of these structures but in a different * The population, a grouping of organisms of the same
arrangement species
• The traditional hierarchy, as detailed below, extends * The biocoenosis or community, an interspecific grouping
from atoms (or lower) to biospheres. The higher levels of interacting populations
21 * The ecosystem, a grouping of organisms from all 22
of this scheme are often referred to as ecological
biological domains in conjunction with the physical
organization.
(abiotic) environment

Emergent properties Content

• Each level in the hierarchy can be • Origin of Life
described by its lower levels.
– For example, the organism may be
• Biological Organization
described at any of its component levels, • Cell Theory
including the atomic, molecular, cellular,
histological (tissue), organ and organ • Cell Structure and Function
system levels.
• Cell Cycle and Cell Division
– Furthermore, at every level of the
hierarchy, new functions necessary for the • Biomolecules
control of life appear.
– These new roles are not functions that
the lower level components are capable
of and are thus referred to as emergent
properties 23 24
 Cells In Humans
approx.200 Cells
• All living organisms, unicellular or types Blood cells sex cells
multicellular, are made up of cells. The cell is
the simplest unit of matter that is alive and is • Nerve Cell (Neuron)
called as structural and functional unit of life. • Muscle Cell (Myocyte)
• Each cell is amazing world in itself. It takes in • Skin Cells (Epithelial)
nutrients, convert these nutrients into energy, Pancreatic cells
Nerve cells
carry out specialized functions, and they grow • Bone cell (Osteocytes)
with time and self-propagate by reproduction • Fat Cell (Adipocytes)
for survival.
• Cartilage cells
• Each cell differentiates into specific cell type (chondrocytes)
for playing specific role in the life of Fat cells
organism. Means, specific organs for specific • Sex Cells (Gametes) skin cells
function. For eg, Cardiac, Hepatic, Nerve, • Stem Cell
Myeloma etc.
• Blood Cells (RBC,WBC)
• About 300 different types of cell have been
identified so far.
Bone cells Stem cells
25 26

Blood Cells
Cell History
• RBC (Erythrocytes) – Carry oxygen
• Platelets (Thrombocytes) – it form clots to stop bleeding
• WBC (Leukocytes) - Cells of Immunity
• In 1665, the first cell was discovered and
– Lymphocytes ( regulate immune system)
named by Robert Hooke while observing
• T-cells, B-cells and NK cells dead cork samples with a crude lens.
– Monocytes • Anton Von Leeuwenhoek in 1674 first
• Dendritic cells are antigen-presenting cells which are able to mark out cells saw and described a live cell in algae
that are antigens (foreign bodies) that need to be destroyed by
lymphocytes. Spirogyra. Also called Father of
• Macrophages are phagocyte cells which are larger and live longer than Microbiology.
neutrophils. Macrophages are also able to act as antigen-presenting cells.
– Granulocytes (Phagocytic cells, capable to ingest bacteria, virus
etc. )- 60% of total WBC
• Neutrophils ( can ingest upto 20 bacteria in lifetime)
• Eosinophils (involved in allergic reactions and attacks parasites and worms)
• Basophils ( release histamine to control allergy and also triggers
inflammation and heparin, which prevent blood to clot)

27 28
 Cell Theory
• Three components:
– All organisms are composed of one or more cells
(Schleiden and Schwann, 1938-39)
– The Cell is the basic unit of life. (Schleiden and Schwann,
1938-39)
– All cells are produced by division of pre-existing cells
(Virvhow 1858)

29 30

A Timeline - History of Cell Biology

Modern Cell Theory
1595 – Jansen credited with 1st compound microscope
1655 – Hooke described ‘cells’ in cork.
• All known living things are made up of cells. 1674 – Leeuwenhoek discovered protozoa. He saw bacteria some 9 years later.
1833 – Brown descibed the cell nucleus in cells of the orchid.

• The cell is structural & functional unit of all living 1838 – Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory.
1840 – Albrecht von Roelliker realized that sperm cells and egg cells are also cells.

things. 1856 – N. Pringsheim observed how a sperm cell penetrated an egg cell.
1858 – Rudolf Virchow (physician, pathologist and anthropologist) expounds his famous conclusion: omnis cellula
e cellula, that is cells develop only from existing cells [cells come from preexisting cells]
• All cells come from pre-existing cells by division. 1857 – Kolliker described mitochondria.
1879 – Flemming described chromosome behavior during mitosis.
(Spontaneous Generation does not occur). 1883 – Germ cells are haploid, chromosome theory of heredity.
1898 – Golgi described the golgi apparatus.
• Cells contains hereditary information which is 1938 – Behrens used differential centrifugation to separate nuclei from cytoplasm.
1939 – Siemens produced the first commercial transmission electron microscope.
passed from cell to cell during cell division. 1952 – Gey and coworkers established a continuous human cell line.
1955 – Eagle systematically defined the nutritional needs of animal cells in culture.

• All cells are basically the same in chemical

1957 – Meselson, Stahl and Vinograd developed density gradient centrifugation in cesium chloride solutions for
separating nucleic acids.
1965 – Ham introduced a defined serum-free medium. Cambridge Instruments produced the first commercial
composition. scanning electron microscope.
1976 – Sato and colleagues publish papers showing that different cell lines require different mixtures of
• All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life hormones and growth factors in serum-free media.
1981 – Transgenic mice and fruit flies are produced. Mouse embryonic stem cell line established.
occurs within cells. 1995 – Tsien identifies mutant of GFP with enhanced spectral properties
1998 – Mice are cloned from somatic cells.
31 1999 – Hamilton and Baulcombe discover siRNA as part of post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) in plants
32
 Cell Size
Prokaryotic
• Cells differ greatly in size, shape and activities.
• Human eyes have a resolution of about 100 µm. But, most and
of the biological structures are smaller than the unaided
human eye can see.
Eukaryotic Cells
• Mycoplasma, the smallest cell, is only 0.3 µm
(micrometer) in length while bacteria could be 3 to 5 µm.

33 34

Bacterial cell
Prokaryotic Cells • A typical bacterial cell is composed of Cell wall, Plasma membrane, Nucleoid, Ribosomes, Pilli,
Flagella, storage granules and a Capsule. Not all structures are present in all
prokaryotic cells; it may vary from one species to other.
• The prokaryotic cells are represented by
bacteria, blue-green algae (cyanobacteria),
mycoplasma and PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia like
organisms).
• They are generally smaller and multiply more
rapidly than the eukaryotic cells.
• There are four basic shapes of bacteria
– Bacillus (Rod like)
– Coccus (Spherical)
– Vibrio (Comma Shaped)
– Spirillum (Spiral)
35 36
 Bacterial cell • Capsule (or slime layer) Bacterial cell • Cell Wall
– A thick polysaccharide layer outside the – Made up of murein (not cellulose), which
cell wall. is a glycoprotein (also called
Capsule (or slime layer) Cell Wall
– Not present in all bacteria. Found only peptidoglycan).
in some gram +ve bacteria, if a Cell or Plasma membrane – There are two kinds of cell wall, which
Flagella (singular flagellum)
capsule is present, then flagella are not. can be distinguished by Gram staining.
Cytoplasm
– Used for sticking cells together, as a • Gram +ve bacteria have a thick cell wall,
Pilli and Fimbriae stain purple, may have spores and are
food reserve, as protection against
sensitive to penicillin and lysosomes (an
desiccation and chemicals and as antibacterial enzyme found in tears and
protection against phagocytosis. saliva)
• Flagella (singular flagellum) • Gram –ve bacteria have a thin cell wall with
an outer lipid layer, have no spores and stain
– A thin and long filamentous pink – these are thought to be more highly
extension or whip-like protrusion evolved.
that aids in cellular locomotion • Plasma membrane or cell membrane
– It is extended from the cell wall and – Boundary (“wall”) between the cell
used for the motility of bacteria. and the environment. Allows nutrients/
– Bacterial flagellum is composed of regulates movement in and out of the cell.
three parts – filament, hook and basal (“Selectively Permeable”).
body. – Made of phospholipids and proteins like
eukaryotic membranes.
• Pilli and Fimbriae
– Hair-like structures on the surface of • Cytoplasm
the cell that attach to other bacterial – Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that is
cells. Shorter pili called fimbriae help
37
sometimes described as "the cell-matrix".
38
bacteria attach to surfaces. – Contains all the enzymes needed for
all the metabolic reactions, since there
are no organelles

Bacterial cell • Nucleoid Bacterial cell • Mesosomes

– The region of the cytoplasm that – Special intracellular structure which is
contain DNA. It is not surrounded formed by the extensions of plasma
Nucleoid Mesosomes membrane into the cell. These extensions
by nuclear membrane. Sometimes
Plasmid Storage Granules are in the form of vesicles, tubules and
also referred as nuclear body or
lamellae.
Ribosomes nuclear zone.
– They help in cell wall formation, DNA
• Plasmid replication and distribution to daughter
– Small circular DNA, used to cells.
exchange DNA between bacterial – They also help in respiration, secretion
[Link] in genetic engineering, processes, to increase the surface area of
the plasma membrane and enzymatic
they often contain genes giving
content.
resistance to antibiotics.
– In some prokaryotes like cyanobacteria,
• Ribosomes there are other membranous extensions
– The smaller 70S type. Two units into the cytoplasm called chromatophores
50S and 30S. which contain pigments.

– They are the site of protein

• Storage Granules (or Inclusion bodies)
synthesis. – Reserve materials in prokaryotic cells are
stored in the cytoplasm in the form of
– Several ribosomes may attach to a inclusion bodies.
single mRNA and form a chain – These are not bound by any membrane
called polyribosomes or polysome. system and lie free in the cytoplasm, e.g.,
The ribosomes of a polysome 39 phosphate granules, cyanophycean 40
translate the mRNA into proteins. granules and glycogen granules.
– Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and
purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.
 Eukaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
• The structures that make up
a Eukaryotic cell are
determined by the specific
functions carried out by the
cell.
• Thus, there is no typical
Eukaryotic cell.
• Nevertheless, Eukaryotic
cells generally have three
main components:
Animal cell Plant cell – Cell membrane
– Nucleus Figure : Electron micrograph of an ultra-thin
section of a dividing pair of streptococci
41
– Variety of cell organelles. (20,000X). 42

Animal Cell Structure

Animal Cell Structure Cell membrane
• Also called plasma membrane, It is outermost layer and is a double layer of lipids
and proteins that surrounds a cell and separates the cytoplasm.
• Cell membrane • All cells have a cell membrane. It is selectively permeable, which means that it
• Cytoplasm only lets certain molecules enter and exit . It can also control the amount of
• Mitochondria some substances that go into or out of the cell.
• Phospholipids are a main component of the cell membrane. These are lipid
• Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER) molecules made up of a phosphate group head and two fatty acid tails. The
• Golgi Apparatus properties of phospholipid molecules allow them to spontaneously form a double-
layered membrane (phospholipid bilayer).
• Ribosomes
• Nucleus
• Nucleolus
• Chromatin
• Centrosomes (Centrioles)
• Lysosomes
• Microvilli ( sing. Microvillus)
• Peroxisomes (or
microbodies) 43 44
Animal Cell Structure Animal Cell Structure
Cell membrane
• Cell membrane has transmembrane proteins, which are embedded in the Cytoplasm
membrane but stick out on both sides. Some of these proteins are • Cytoplasm refers to the fluid that
receptors which bind to signal molecules, while others are ion channels fills the cell, which includes the
which are the only means of allowing ions into or out of the cell. cytosol along with filaments,
• In addition, the cell membrane contains glycolipids and sterols. One proteins, ions and macromolecular
important sterol is cholesterol, which regulates the fluidity of the cell structures as well as the organelles
membrane in animal cells. When there is less cholesterol, membranes suspended in the cytosol.
become more fluid, but also more permeable to molecules. The amount • The living contents of a cell
of cholesterol in the membrane helps maintain its permeability so that excluding the nucleus and large
the right amount of molecules can enter the cell at a time, not too many vacuoles.
or too few. • Many biochemical processes take
place here, e.g., glycolysis, protein
synthesis.
• The cytoplasm is unusual because it
is unlike any other fluid found in the
physical world.

45 46

Animal Cell Structure Animal Cell Structure

Mitochondria Mitochondria…
• They are a double membrane • The process of cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria.
structure. The outer membrane is During this process, sugars and fats are broken down and energy is
smooth, but the inner membrane is released in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP powers all
folded inwardly to form extended cellular processes, and mitochondria produce a cell’s ATP, so
projections called cristae. mitochondria are commonly known as “the powerhouse of the cell”.
• The two membranes produce two • The aerobic steps of respiration occur here – Krebs Cycle and Electron
inner compartments, the inter-
Transport System.
membrane space between the outer
and inner membranes and the region • The quantity of mitochondria within cells varies with the type of cell.
enclosed by the inner membrane, Liver, muscle and nerve cells are rich in mitochondria. Bone and fat
called the matrix. cells have low numbers of mitochondria.
• Some of the steps of cellular
respiration occur in the matrix of the
mitochondrion. Thus, there are many
enzymes found in the matrix as
well as on the inner membrane.

47 48
 Animal Cell Structure Animal Cell Structure
• Golgi Apparatus
– called the "post office" of the cell or "packaging
o rg an e lle " be cau s e it play s a r o l e i n • Microvilli ( sing. Microvillus)
transporting proteins. – Microvilli are finger-like projections on the outer-
– It is usually connected to an endoplasmic surface of the cell.
reticulum (ER) because it stores and then
– Not all cells have microvilli. Their function is to
transports the proteins produced in the ER
increase the surface area of the cell, which is the
area through which diffusion of materials both
• Lysosomes into, and out of, the cell is possible.
– Lysosomes are tiny sacs filled with digestive or
hydrolytic enzymes that enable the cell to
• Centrosomes (Centrioles)
utilize its nutrients. – The centrosomes contain the centrioles, which
are responsible for cell-division. Centrioles divide
– These hydrolases break down nucleotides, to form spindle fibers during cell division.
proteins, lipids, phospholipids, and also remove – Centrioles are cylindrical structures that are
carbohydrate, sulfate, or phosphate groups from composed of groupings of microtubules
molecules. arranged in a 9 + 3 pattern. The pattern is so
– Responsible for ‘cell death’ – burst to carry out named because a ring of nine microtubule
‘autolysis’. "triplets" are arranged at right angles to one
another.
– Single membrane structure – Centrioles replicate during the interphase stage
of mitosis and meiosis.
49 50

Animal Cell Structure Animal Cell Structure

• Nucleus
– The nucleus contains DNA (genetic
information), which is organized into
chromatin. When the cell prepares to Nucleolus
divide, the chromatin begins to condense – A region (in the nucleus) of
into recognizable structures called
densely stained fibers and
chromosomes. However, chromatin is not
only composed of DNA. It also contains granules adjoining chromatin.
histone proteins that organize the DNA. The nucleolus is responsible for
– One of the main functions of the nucleus is the cell organelles (e.g.
to control the production of proteins in the • lysosomes, ribosomes, etc.).
cell.
Chromatin Ribosomes
– Chromatin is the very fine – In the nucleolus, rRNA is
• Nuclear Membrane thread-like combinations of • Site of protein synthesis.
synthesized and assembled
– The nuclear membrane separates the DNA and protein in non-
nucleus and the nucleolus from the rest of dividing nuclei. The protein with proteins from the • Ribosomes interpret
the contents of the cell. assists in the efficient cytoplasm to form ribosomal cellular information from
packaging and regulation of subunits. The subunits pass
– The nuclear membrane is a double
DNA activity. A human nucleus
the nucleus and so
membrane. In this membrane, there are from the nuclear pores to the
holes, called nuclear pores, which contains 46 such fine threads of synthesize appropriate
chromatin. cytoplasm where they
regulate the passage of materials into and
combine to form ribosomes. proteins, as required.
out of the nucleus.
51 52
Animal Cell Structure Animal Cell Structure
• Peroxisomes (also called microbodies) • Centrosomes (Centrioles)
– Membrane-bound vesicles containing oxidative enzymes that generate and destroy – The centrosomes contain the centrioles, which are responsible for cell-division.
hydrogen peroxide. They are involved in the catabolism of very long chain fatty acids, Centrioles divide to form spindle fibers during cell division.
branched chain fatty acids, D-amino acids and polyamines. – Centrioles are cylindrical structures that are composed of groupings of
– Other known peroxisomal functions include the glyoxylate cycle in germinating microtubules arranged in a 9 + 3 pattern. The pattern is so named because a ring of
seeds ("glyoxysomes"), photorespiration in leaves, glycolysis in trypanosomes nine microtubule "triplets" are arranged at right angles to one another.
("glycosomes"), and methanol and/or amine oxidation and assimilation in some yeasts. – Centrioles replicate during the interphase stage of mitosis and meiosis.

53 54

Animal Cell Structure

Plant Cell
• Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER)
– Single membrane structure. The membrane of the
ER is organized into a network of membranous
tubules and sacs called cisternae.
– The endoplasmic reticulum is where proteins and
lipids are produced within the cell, and is also
concerned with the transport of these materials
within the cell.
– The smooth and rough regions of the ER are
interconnected.
– Rough ER (RER): "Rough" indicates that there are
ribosomes attached to the surfaces of the
endoplasmic reticulum. The RER is in fact an
extension of the outer nuclear membrane. Functions
of the RER include anchorage of newly synthesize
proteins, and the finishing of proteins
– Smooth ER (SER): "Smooth" indicates that there are
no ribosomes attached to the surfaces of the
endoplasmic reticulum. It is a network of pipe-like
interconnected tubes. Functions of the SER include
synthesis of lipids, processing of sugars, and
detoxification of drugs and poisons 55 56
 Plant Cell Structure
Plant Cells – Structural
Cell Wall
Differences • Plant cells have a thick (4-20um) cell wall which
composed of cellulose, Hemi-cellulose, pectin and
• Cell Wall lignin molecules.
• It provides strength to the plant. Visible under light
• Plasma membrane microscope.

• Plasmodesmata
• Vacuole
• Microtubules
• Chloroplasts

57 58

Plant Cell Structure

Cell Wall
Plasmamembrane
• Structure and Property: • also called the plasmalemma.
– Cell Wall is a thick, rigid structure of around 4-20um wide and is • Structure: It is a delicate, thin
visible under light microscope; Cell wall does not have receptors. structure of around 5-10nm wide and is
– it is present in plant cell, bacterial, algae and fungal cell, helps in visible under electron microscope, and
providing shape and rigidity to the cell. it is present in all types of cell, helps
– Metabolically Inactive and non-living. in the passage of molecules and
• Composition: protects the protoplasm.
– Made up of cellulose (plant cell), chitin (fungi), and peptidoglycan • Composition: Made up of lipids and
(bacteria). proteins and carbohydrates.
• Functions • Functions:
– Cell wall provides rigidity to the cell, protect the cell from external – The plasma membrane is flexible
shock and other mechanical forces. enough to move closer to or away from
– It is responsible for cell morphology. the cell wall - according to changes in
the water content of the cytoplasm
– It prevents large molecule to enter into the cell. within the cell.
– Also, prevent the cell from being toxic. – As a differentially-permeable surface,
– Helps in maintaining the osmotic environment of the cell. the plasma membrane controls
59 movement of solutes in and out of the 60
cell.
 Plant Cell Structure Plant Cell Structure
Plasmodesmata Vacuole
• Structure: Plasmodesmata (singular, plasmodesma) are tiny • A cell's vacuole can occupy a large
strands of cytoplasm that pass through pores in plant cell walls, proportion of the total volume of the
forming "connections" or "pathways“ between adjacent cells. cell - e.g. 90% of the volume of some
• A majority of plasmodesmata also contain a narrow tube-like structure mature plant cells.
called the desmotubule, which is derived from the smooth • Each vacuole is enclosed by a vacuolar
endoplasmic reticulum of the connected cells. membrane called the tonoplast.
• Function: • Contents of the vacuole:
– These cell-cell connections are especially important for the survival – Cell sap, which is a solution of salts,
of plant cells during conditions of drought. sugars and organic acids.
– They allow certain molecules to pass directly from one cell to another and are – Enzymes needed for recycling
important in cellular communication. components of cells, e.g. chloroplasts.
– Anthocyanins are sometimes present in
cell vacuoles. These are chemical
pigments responsible for some of the
(non-green) colours of glowers, e.g.
61
reds, blues, purples. 62

Plant Cell Structure Plant Cell Structure

Microtubules • Chloroplasts
– Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis
• Microtubules are hollow rope- and double membrane structure.
like structures composed of the – These two membranes create a thin inter-
membrane space between the membranes,
protein tubulin. and a larger space surrounded by the inner
membrane.
• They facilitate addition of – Within the larger space is another membrane
cellulose to cell wall system arranged into flattened sacs called
thylakoids. The thylakoids are surrounded by
• They form the spindles and cell a fluid called the stroma.
plates of dividing cells – The thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll
and other photosynthetic pigments arranges
• They play a role in cytoplasmic in photosystems, together with stalked
particles, and is the site of photosynthesis
streaming (i.e. moving the fluid and ATP synthesis
cytoplasm within the cell) e.g. – Chloroplasts are very important parts of plant
cells. Some cells include up to 50 chloroplasts.
to/from chloroplasts. – The number of chloroplasts per cell varies
according to the type of cell and its function.
They are plentiful in leaf cells that receive
sunlight - as opposed to root cells that do not
63 receive light. 64
Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
cells
Property Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
Size Small Cells ( < 5µm) Larger cells ( > 10 µm)

Cell type Always unicellular Often multicellular

Nucleus No clear membrane bound nucleus Clean membrane bound nucleus present
present

Organelles No membrane bound organelles Membrane bound organelles presents such

p r e s e n t l i k e E R , G o l g i c o m p l e x , as ER, Golgi bodies, mitochondria etc.
mitochondria etc.

DNA DNA is circular, without proteins DNA is linear and associated with proteins
to form chromatin

Ribosomes Ribosomes are small ( 70S type) Ribosomes are large ( 80S type)

Cytoskeleton No Cytoskeleton Always has a cytoskeleton

Motility Motility by rigid rotating flagellum Motility by flexible waving cilia or flagella
(made up of flagillin) (made up of tubulin )

Cell division Cell division is by binary fission Cell division by mitotic or meiosis

Reproduction Reproduction is always asexual Reproduction is sexual or asexual

65