Sonar

Sonar (sound navigation and ranging) is a technique that uses sound propagation (usually
underwater, as in submarine navigation) to navigate, measure distances (ranging), communicate
with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water, such as other vessels.[2] Two types
of technology share the name "sonar": passive sonar is essentially listening for the sound made
by vessels; active sonar is emitting pulses of sounds and listening for echoes. Sonar may be
used as a means of acoustic location and of measurement of the echo characteristics of
"targets" in the water. Acoustic location in air was used before the introduction of radar. Sonar
may also be used for robot navigation,[3] and SODAR (an upward-looking in-air sonar) is used for
atmospheric investigations. The term sonar is also used for the equipment used to generate and
receive the sound. The acoustic frequencies used in sonar systems vary from very low
(infrasonic) to extremely high (ultrasonic). The study of underwater sound is known as
underwater acoustics or hydroacoustics.

French F70 type frigates (here, La Motte-Picquet) are fitted with VDS (Variable Depth Sonar) type DUBV43 or DUBV43C
towed sonars

Sonar image of the Soviet Navy minesweeper T-297, formerly the Latvian Virsaitis, which was shipwrecked on 3
December 1941 in the Gulf of Finland[1]

The first recorded use of the technique was by Leonardo da Vinci in 1490 who used a tube
inserted into the water to detect vessels by ear.[4] It was developed during World War I to counter
the growing threat of submarine warfare, with an operational passive sonar system in use by
1918.[2] Modern active sonar systems use an acoustic transducer to generate a sound wave
which is reflected from target objects.[2]

History

Although some animals (dolphins, bats, some shrews, and others) have used sound for
communication and object detection for millions of years, use by humans in the water is initially
recorded by Leonardo da Vinci in 1490: a tube inserted into the water was said to be used to
detect vessels by placing an ear to the tube.[4]

In the late 19th century an underwater bell was used as an ancillary to lighthouses or lightships
to provide warning of hazards.[5]
The use of sound to "echo-locate" underwater in the same way as bats use sound for aerial
navigation seems to have been prompted by the Titanic disaster of 1912.[6] The world's first
patent for an underwater echo-ranging device was filed at the British Patent Office by English
meteorologist Lewis Fry Richardson a month after the sinking of Titanic,[7] and a German
physicist Alexander Behm obtained a patent for an echo sounder in 1913.[8]

The Canadian engineer Reginald Fessenden, while working for the Submarine Signal Company in
Boston, Massachusetts, built an experimental system beginning in 1912, a system later tested in
Boston Harbor, and finally in 1914 from the U.S. Revenue Cutter Miami on the Grand Banks off
Newfoundland.[7][9] In that test, Fessenden demonstrated depth sounding, underwater
communications (Morse code) and echo ranging (detecting an iceberg at a 2-mile (3.2 km)
range).[10][11] The "Fessenden oscillator", operated at about 500 Hz frequency, was unable to
determine the bearing of the iceberg due to the 3-metre wavelength and the small dimension of
the transducer's radiating face (less than 1⁄3 wavelength in diameter). The ten Montreal-built
British H-class submarines launched in 1915 were equipped with Fessenden oscillators.[12]

During World War I the need to detect submarines prompted more research into the use of
sound. The British made early use of underwater listening devices called hydrophones, while the
French physicist Paul Langevin, working with a Russian immigrant electrical engineer Constantin
Chilowsky, worked on the development of active sound devices for detecting submarines in
1915. Although piezoelectric and magnetostrictive transducers later superseded the
electrostatic transducers they used, this work influenced future designs. Lightweight sound-
sensitive plastic film and fibre optics have been used for hydrophones, while Terfenol-D and
PMN (lead magnesium niobate) have been developed for projectors.

ASDIC
ASDIC display unit from around 1944

In 1916, under the British Board of Invention and Research, Canadian physicist Robert William
Boyle took on the active sound detection project with A. B. Wood, producing a prototype for
testing in mid-1917. This work for the Anti-Submarine Division of the British Naval Staff was
undertaken in utmost secrecy, and used quartz piezoelectric crystals to produce the world's first
practical underwater active sound detection apparatus. To maintain secrecy, no mention of
sound experimentation or quartz was made – the word used to describe the early work
("supersonics") was changed to "ASD"ics, and the quartz material to "ASD"ivite: "ASD" for "Anti-
Submarine Division", hence the British acronym ASDIC. In 1939, in response to a question from
the Oxford English Dictionary, the Admiralty made up the story that it stood for "Allied Submarine
Detection Investigation Committee", and this is still widely believed,[13] though no committee
bearing this name has been found in the Admiralty archives.[14]

By 1918, Britain and France had built prototype active systems. The British tested their ASDIC on
HMS Antrim in 1920 and started production in 1922. The 6th Destroyer Flotilla had ASDIC-
equipped vessels in 1923. An anti-submarine school HMS Osprey and a training flotilla of four
vessels were established on Portland in 1924.

By the outbreak of World War II, the Royal Navy had five sets for different surface ship classes,
and others for submarines, incorporated into a complete anti-submarine system. The
effectiveness of early ASDIC was hampered by the use of the depth charge as an anti-submarine
weapon. This required an attacking vessel to pass over a submerged contact before dropping
charges over the stern, resulting in a loss of ASDIC contact in the moments leading up to attack.
The hunter was effectively firing blind, during which time a submarine commander could take
evasive action. This situation was remedied with new tactics and new weapons.

The tactical improvements developed by Frederic John Walker included the creeping attack. Two
anti-submarine ships were needed for this (usually sloops or corvettes). The "directing ship"
tracked the target submarine on ASDIC from a position about 1500 to 2000 yards behind the
submarine. The second ship, with her ASDIC turned off and running at 5 knots, started an attack
from a position between the directing ship and the target. This attack was controlled by radio
telephone from the directing ship, based on their ASDIC and the range (by rangefinder) and
bearing of the attacking ship. As soon as the depth charges had been released, the attacking
ship left the immediate area at full speed. The directing ship then entered the target area and
also released a pattern of depth charges. The low speed of the approach meant the submarine
could not predict when depth charges were going to be released. Any evasive action was
detected by the directing ship and steering orders to the attacking ship given accordingly. The
low speed of the attack had the advantage that the German acoustic torpedo was not effective
against a warship travelling so slowly. A variation of the creeping attack was the "plaster" attack,
in which three attacking ships working in a close line abreast were directed over the target by the
directing ship.[15]

The new weapons to deal with the ASDIC blind spot were "ahead-throwing weapons", such as
Hedgehogs and later Squids, which projected warheads at a target ahead of the attacker and
still in ASDIC contact. These allowed a single escort to make better aimed attacks on
submarines. Developments during the war resulted in British ASDIC sets that used several
different shapes of beam, continuously covering blind spots. Later, acoustic torpedoes were
used.

Early in World War II (September 1940), British ASDIC technology was transferred for free to the
United States. Research on ASDIC and underwater sound was expanded in the UK and in the US.
Many new types of military sound detection were developed. These included sonobuoys, first
developed by the British in 1944 under the codename High Tea, dipping/dunking sonar and
mine-detection sonar. This work formed the basis for post-war developments related to
countering the nuclear submarine.

SONAR

During the 1930s American engineers developed their own underwater sound-detection
technology, and important discoveries were made, such as the existence of thermoclines and
their effects on sound waves.[16] Americans began to use the term SONAR for their systems,
coined by Frederick Hunt to be the equivalent of RADAR.[17]

US Navy Underwater Sound Laboratory

In 1917, the US Navy acquired J. Warren Horton's services for the first time. On leave from Bell
Labs, he served the government as a technical expert, first at the experimental station at Nahant,
Massachusetts, and later at US Naval Headquarters, in London, England. At Nahant he applied
the newly developed vacuum tube, then associated with the formative stages of the field of
applied science now known as electronics, to the detection of underwater signals. As a result,
the carbon button microphone, which had been used in earlier detection equipment, was
replaced by the precursor of the modern hydrophone. Also during this period, he experimented
with methods for towing detection. This was due to the increased sensitivity of his device. The
principles are still used in modern towed sonar systems.

To meet the defense needs of Great Britain, he was sent to England to install in the Irish Sea
bottom-mounted hydrophones connected to a shore listening post by submarine cable. While
this equipment was being loaded on the cable-laying vessel, World War I ended and Horton
returned home.

During World War II, he continued to develop sonar systems that could detect submarines,
mines, and torpedoes. He published Fundamentals of Sonar in 1957 as chief research
consultant at the US Navy Underwater Sound Laboratory. He held this position until 1959 when
he became technical director, a position he held until mandatory retirement in 1963.[18][19]

Materials and designs in the US and Japan

There was little progress in US sonar from 1915 to 1940. In 1940, US sonars typically consisted
of a magnetostrictive transducer and an array of nickel tubes connected to a 1-foot-diameter
steel plate attached back-to-back to a Rochelle salt crystal in a spherical housing. This assembly
penetrated the ship hull and was manually rotated to the desired angle. The piezoelectric
Rochelle salt crystal had better parameters, but the magnetostrictive unit was much more
reliable. High losses to US merchant supply shipping early in World War II led to large scale high
priority US research in the field, pursuing both improvements in magnetostrictive transducer
parameters and Rochelle salt reliability. Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP), a superior
alternative, was found as a replacement for Rochelle salt; the first application was a replacement
of the 24 kHz Rochelle-salt transducers. Within nine months, Rochelle salt was obsolete. The
ADP manufacturing facility grew from few dozen personnel in early 1940 to several thousands in
1942.

One of the earliest application of ADP crystals were hydrophones for acoustic mines; the
crystals were specified for low-frequency cutoff at 5 Hz, withstanding mechanical shock for
deployment from aircraft from 3,000 m (10,000 ft), and ability to survive neighbouring mine
explosions. One of key features of ADP reliability is its zero aging characteristics; the crystal
keeps its parameters even over prolonged storage.

Another application was for acoustic homing torpedoes. Two pairs of directional hydrophones
were mounted on the torpedo nose, in the horizontal and vertical plane; the difference signals
from the pairs were used to steer the torpedo left-right and up-down. A countermeasure was
developed: the targeted submarine discharged an effervescent chemical, and the torpedo went
after the noisier fizzy decoy. The counter-countermeasure was a torpedo with active sonar – a
transducer was added to the torpedo nose, and the microphones were listening for its reflected
periodic tone bursts. The transducers comprised identical rectangular crystal plates arranged to
diamond-shaped areas in staggered rows.

Passive sonar arrays for submarines were developed from ADP crystals. Several crystal
assemblies were arranged in a steel tube, vacuum-filled with castor oil, and sealed. The tubes
then were mounted in parallel arrays.

The standard US Navy scanning sonar at the end of World War II operated at 18 kHz, using an
array of ADP crystals. Desired longer range, however, required use of lower frequencies. The
required dimensions were too big for ADP crystals, so in the early 1950s magnetostrictive and
barium titanate piezoelectric systems were developed, but these had problems achieving
uniform impedance characteristics, and the beam pattern suffered. Barium titanate was then
replaced with more stable lead zirconate titanate (PZT), and the frequency was lowered to
5 kHz. The US fleet used this material in the AN/SQS-23 sonar for several decades. The SQS-23
sonar first used magnetostrictive nickel transducers, but these weighed several tons, and nickel
was expensive and considered a critical material; piezoelectric transducers were therefore
substituted. The sonar was a large array of 432 individual transducers. At first, the transducers
were unreliable, showing mechanical and electrical failures and deteriorating soon after
installation; they were also produced by several vendors, had different designs, and their
characteristics were different enough to impair the array's performance. The policy to allow
repair of individual transducers was then sacrificed, and "expendable modular design", sealed
non-repairable modules, was chosen instead, eliminating the problem with seals and other
extraneous mechanical parts.[20]
The Imperial Japanese Navy at the onset of World War II used projectors based on quartz. These
were big and heavy, especially if designed for lower frequencies; the one for Type 91 set,
operating at 9 kHz, had a diameter of 30 inches (760 mm) and was driven by an oscillator with
5 kW power and 7 kV of output amplitude. The Type 93 projectors consisted of solid sandwiches
of quartz, assembled into spherical cast iron bodies. The Type 93 sonars were later replaced
with Type 3, which followed German design and used magnetostrictive projectors; the projectors
consisted of two rectangular identical independent units in a cast iron rectangular body about 16
by 9 inches (410 mm × 230 mm). The exposed area was half the wavelength wide and three
wavelengths high. The magnetostrictive cores were made from 4 mm stampings of nickel, and
later of an iron-aluminium alloy with aluminium content between 12.7% and 12.9%. The power
was provided from a 2 kW at 3.8 kV, with polarization from a 20 V, 8 A DC source.

The passive hydrophones of the Imperial Japanese Navy were based on moving-coil design,
Rochelle salt piezo transducers, and carbon microphones.[21]

Later developments in transducers

Magnetostrictive transducers were pursued after World War II as an alternative to piezoelectric

ones. Nickel scroll-wound ring transducers were used for high-power low-frequency operations,
with size up to 13 feet (4.0 m) in diameter, probably the largest individual sonar transducers ever.
The advantage of metals is their high tensile strength and low input electrical impedance, but
they have electrical losses and lower coupling coefficient than PZT, whose tensile strength can
be increased by prestressing. Other materials were also tried; nonmetallic ferrites were
promising for their low electrical conductivity resulting in low eddy current losses, Metglas
offered high coupling coefficient, but they were inferior to PZT overall. In the 1970s, compounds
of rare earths and iron were discovered with superior magnetomechanic properties, namely the
Terfenol-D alloy. This made possible new designs, e.g. a hybrid magnetostrictive-piezoelectric
transducer. The most recent of these improved magnetostrictive materials is Galfenol.

Other types of transducers include variable-reluctance (or moving-armature, or electromagnetic)

transducers, where magnetic force acts on the surfaces of gaps, and moving coil (or
electrodynamic) transducers, similar to conventional speakers; the latter are used in underwater
sound calibration, due to their very low resonance frequencies and flat broadband
characteristics above them.[22]

Active sonar
Principle of an active sonar

Active sonar uses a sound transmitter (or projector) and a receiver. When the two are in the
same place it is monostatic operation. When the transmitter and receiver are separated it is
bistatic operation.[23] When more transmitters (or more receivers) are used, again spatially
separated, it is multistatic operation. Most sonars are used monostatically with the same array
often being used for transmission and reception.[24] Active sonobuoy fields may be operated
multistatically.

Active sonar creates a pulse of sound, often called a "ping", and then listens for reflections
(echo) of the pulse. This pulse of sound is generally created electronically using a sonar
projector consisting of a signal generator, power amplifier and electro-acoustic
transducer/array.[25] A transducer is a device that can transmit and receive acoustic signals
("pings"). A beamformer is usually employed to concentrate the acoustic power into a beam,
which may be swept to cover the required search angles. Generally, the electro-acoustic
transducers are of the Tonpilz type and their design may be optimised to achieve maximum
efficiency over the widest bandwidth, in order to optimise performance of the overall system.
Occasionally, the acoustic pulse may be created by other means, e.g. chemically using
explosives, airguns or plasma sound sources.

To measure the distance to an object, the time from transmission of a pulse to reception is
measured and converted into a range using the known speed of sound.[26] To measure the
bearing, several hydrophones are used, and the set measures the relative arrival time to each, or
with an array of hydrophones, by measuring the relative amplitude in beams formed through a
process called beamforming. Use of an array reduces the spatial response so that to provide
wide cover multibeam systems are used. The target signal (if present) together with noise is
then passed through various forms of signal processing,[27] which for simple sonars may be just
energy measurement. It is then presented to some form of decision device that calls the output
either the required signal or noise. This decision device may be an operator with headphones or
a display, or in more sophisticated sonars this function may be carried out by software. Further
processes may be carried out to classify the target and localise it, as well as measuring its
velocity.

The pulse may be at constant frequency or a chirp of changing frequency (to allow pulse
compression on reception). Simple sonars generally use the former with a filter wide enough to
cover possible Doppler changes due to target movement, while more complex ones generally
include the latter technique. Since digital processing became available pulse compression has
usually been implemented using digital correlation techniques. Military sonars often have
multiple beams to provide all-round cover while simple ones only cover a narrow arc, although
the beam may be rotated, relatively slowly, by mechanical scanning.

Particularly when single frequency transmissions are used, the Doppler effect can be used to
measure the radial speed of a target. The difference in frequency between the transmitted and
received signal is measured and converted into a velocity. Since Doppler shifts can be
introduced by either receiver or target motion, allowance has to be made for the radial speed of
the searching platform.

One useful small sonar is similar in appearance to a waterproof flashlight. The head is pointed
into the water, a button is pressed, and the device displays the distance to the target. Another
variant is a "fishfinder" that shows a small display with shoals of fish. Some civilian sonars
(which are not designed for stealth) approach active military sonars in capability, with three-
dimensional displays of the area near the boat.

When active sonar is used to measure the distance from the transducer to the bottom, it is
known as echo sounding. Similar methods may be used looking upward for wave measurement.

Active sonar is also used to measure distance through water between two sonar transducers or
a combination of a hydrophone (underwater acoustic microphone) and projector (underwater
acoustic speaker). When a hydrophone/transducer receives a specific interrogation signal it
responds by transmitting a specific reply signal. To measure distance, one transducer/projector
transmits an interrogation signal and measures the time between this transmission and the
receipt of the other transducer/hydrophone reply. The time difference, scaled by the speed of
sound through water and divided by two, is the distance between the two platforms. This
technique, when used with multiple transducers/hydrophones/projectors, can calculate the
relative positions of static and moving objects in water.

In combat situations, an active pulse can be detected by an enemy and will reveal a submarine's
position at twice the maximum distance that the submarine can itself detect a contact and give
clues as to the submarines identity based on the characteristics of the outgoing ping. For these
reasons, active sonar is not frequently used by military submarines.

A very directional, but low-efficiency, type of sonar (used by fisheries, military, and for port
security) makes use of a complex nonlinear feature of water known as non-linear sonar, the
virtual transducer being known as a parametric array.

Sonar pings (0:04)

Recording of active sonar pings.

Problems playing this file? See media help.

Project Artemis

Project Artemis was an experimental research and development project in the late 1950s to mid
1960s to examine acoustic propagation and signal processing for a low-frequency active sonar
system that might be used for ocean surveillance. A secondary objective was examination of
engineering problems of fixed active bottom systems.[28] The receiving array was located on the
slope of Plantagnet Bank off Bermuda. The active source array was deployed from the
converted World War II tanker USNS Mission Capistrano.[29] Elements of Artemis were used
experimentally after the main experiment was terminated.

Transponder

This is an active sonar device that receives a specific stimulus and immediately (or with a delay)
retransmits the received signal or a predetermined one. Transponders can be used to remotely
activate or recover subsea equipment.[30]

Performance prediction
A sonar target is small relative to the sphere, centred around the emitter, on which it is located.
Therefore, the power of the reflected signal is very low, several orders of magnitude less than the
original signal. Even if the reflected signal was of the same power, the following example (using
hypothetical values) shows the problem: Suppose a sonar system is capable of emitting a
10,000 W/m2 signal at 1 m, and detecting a 0.001 W/m2 signal. At 100 m the signal will be
1 W/m2 (due to the inverse-square law). If the entire signal is reflected from a 10 m2 target, it will
be at 0.001 W/m2 when it reaches the emitter, i.e. just detectable. However, the original signal
will remain above 0.001 W/m2 until 3000 m. Any 10 m2 target between 100 and 3000 m using a
similar or better system would be able to detect the pulse, but would not be detected by the
emitter. The detectors must be very sensitive to pick up the echoes. Since the original signal is
much more powerful, it can be detected many times further than twice the range of the sonar
(as in the example).

Active sonar have two performance limitations: due to noise and reverberation. In general, one or
other of these will dominate, so that the two effects can be initially considered separately.

In noise-limited conditions at initial detection:[31]

SL − 2PL + TS − (NL − AG) = DT,

where SL is the source level, PL is the propagation loss (sometimes referred to as transmission
loss), TS is the target strength, NL is the noise level, AG is the array gain of the receiving array
(sometimes approximated by its directivity index) and DT is the detection threshold.

In reverberation-limited conditions at initial detection (neglecting array gain):

SL − 2PL + TS = RL + DT,

where RL is the reverberation level, and the other factors are as before.

Hand-held sonar for use by a diver

The LIMIS (limpet mine imaging sonar) is a hand-held or ROV-mounted imaging sonar for use
by a diver. Its name is because it was designed for patrol divers (combat frogmen or clearance
divers) to look for limpet mines in low visibility water.

The LUIS (lensing underwater imaging system) is another imaging sonar for use by a diver.

There is or was a small flashlight-shaped handheld sonar for divers, that merely displays
range.

For the INSS (integrated navigation sonar system)

Upward looking sonar

An upward looking sonar (ULS) is a sonar device pointed upwards looking towards the surface
of the sea. It is used for similar purposes as downward looking sonar, but has some unique
applications such as measuring sea ice thickness, roughness and concentration,[32][33] or
measuring air entrainment from bubble plumes during rough seas. Often it is moored on the
bottom of the ocean or floats on a taut line mooring at a constant depth of perhaps 100 m. They
may also be used by submarines, AUVs, and floats such as the Argo float.[34]

Passive sonar

Passive sonar listens without transmitting. It is often employed in military settings, although it is
also used in science applications, e.g., detecting fish for presence/absence studies in various
aquatic environments – see also passive acoustics and passive radar. In the very broadest
usage, this term can encompass virtually any analytical technique involving remotely generated
sound, though it is usually restricted to techniques applied in an aquatic environment.

Identifying sound sources

Passive sonar has a wide variety of techniques for identifying the source of a detected sound.
For example, U.S. vessels usually operate 60 Hz alternating current power systems. If
transformers or generators are mounted without proper vibration insulation from the hull or
become flooded, the 60 Hz sound from the windings can be emitted from the submarine or ship.
This can help to identify its nationality, as all European submarines and nearly every other
nation's submarine have 50 Hz power systems. Intermittent sound sources (such as a wrench
being dropped), called "transients," may also be detectable to passive sonar. Until fairly recently,
an experienced, trained operator identified signals, but now computers may do this.

Passive sonar systems may have large sonic databases, but the sonar operator usually finally
classifies the signals manually. A computer system frequently uses these databases to identify
classes of ships, actions (i.e. the speed of a ship, or the type of weapon released), and even
particular ships.

Noise limitations

Passive sonar on vehicles is usually severely limited because of noise generated by the vehicle.
For this reason, many submarines operate nuclear reactors that can be cooled without pumps,
using silent convection, or fuel cells or batteries, which can also run silently. Vehicles' propellers
are also designed and precisely machined to emit minimal noise. High-speed propellers often
create tiny bubbles in the water, and this cavitation has a distinct sound.

The sonar hydrophones may be towed behind the ship or submarine in order to reduce the effect
of noise generated by the watercraft itself. Towed units also combat the thermocline, as the unit
may be towed above or below the thermocline.

The display of most passive sonars used to be a two-dimensional waterfall display. The
horizontal direction of the display is bearing. The vertical is frequency, or sometimes time.
Another display technique is to color-code frequency-time information for bearing. More recent
displays are generated by the computers, and mimic radar-type plan position indicator displays.

Performance prediction

Unlike active sonar, only one-way propagation is involved. Because of the different signal
processing used, the minimal detectable signal-to-noise ratio will be different. The equation for
determining the performance of a passive sonar is[35][31]

SL − PL = NL − AG + DT,

where SL is the source level, PL is the propagation loss, NL is the noise level, AG is the array gain
and DT is the detection threshold. The figure of merit of a passive sonar is

FOM = SL + AG − (NL + DT).

Performance factors

The detection, classification and localisation performance of a sonar depends on the

environment and the receiving equipment, as well as the transmitting equipment in an active
sonar or the target radiated noise in a passive sonar.

Sound propagation

Sonar operation is affected by variations in sound speed, particularly in the vertical plane. Sound
travels more slowly in fresh water than in sea water, though the difference is small. The speed is
determined by the water's bulk modulus and mass density. The bulk modulus is affected by
temperature, dissolved impurities (usually salinity), and pressure. The density effect is small.
The speed of sound (in feet per second) is approximately:
 4388 + (11.25 × temperature (in °F)) + (0.0182 × depth (in feet)) + salinity (in parts-per-
thousand ).

This empirically derived approximation equation is reasonably accurate for normal

temperatures, concentrations of salinity and the range of most ocean depths. Ocean
temperature varies with depth, but at between 30 and 100 meters there is often a marked
change, called the thermocline, dividing the warmer surface water from the cold, still waters that
make up the rest of the ocean. This can frustrate sonar, because a sound originating on one side
of the thermocline tends to be bent, or refracted, through the thermocline. The thermocline may
be present in shallower coastal waters. However, wave action will often mix the water column
and eliminate the thermocline. Water pressure also affects sound propagation: higher pressure
increases the sound speed, which causes the sound waves to refract away from the area of
higher sound speed. The mathematical model of refraction is called Snell's law.

If the sound source is deep and the conditions are right, propagation may occur in the 'deep
sound channel'. This provides extremely low propagation loss to a receiver in the channel. This
is because of sound trapping in the channel with no losses at the boundaries. Similar
propagation can occur in the 'surface duct' under suitable conditions. However, in this case there
are reflection losses at the surface.

In shallow water propagation is generally by repeated reflection at the surface and bottom,
where considerable losses can occur.

Sound propagation is affected by absorption in the water itself as well as at the surface and
bottom. This absorption depends upon frequency, with several different mechanisms in sea
water. Long-range sonar uses low frequencies to minimise absorption effects.

The sea contains many sources of noise that interfere with the desired target echo or signature.
The main noise sources are waves and shipping. The motion of the receiver through the water
can also cause speed-dependent low frequency noise.

Scattering

When active sonar is used, scattering occurs from small objects in the sea as well as from the
bottom and surface. This can be a major source of interference. This acoustic scattering is
analogous to the scattering of the light from a car's headlights in fog: a high-intensity pencil
beam will penetrate the fog to some extent, but broader-beam headlights emit much light in
unwanted directions, much of which is scattered back to the observer, overwhelming that
reflected from the target ("white-out"). For analogous reasons active sonar needs to transmit in a
narrow beam to minimize scattering.

Bubble clouds shown under the sea. From ref.[36]

The scattering of sonar from objects (mines, pipelines, zooplankton, geological features, fish
etc.) is how active sonar detects them, but this ability can be masked by strong scattering from
false targets, or 'clutter'. Where they occur (under breaking waves;[37] in ship wakes; in gas
emitted from seabed seeps and leaks[38] etc.), gas bubbles are powerful sources of clutter, and
can readily hide targets. TWIPS (Twin Inverted Pulse Sonar)[39][40][41] is currently the only sonar
that can overcome this clutter problem.

Comparison of Standard Sonar and TWIPS in finding a target in bubbly water. Adapted from ref.[39]

This is important as many recent conflicts have occurred in coastal waters, and the inability to
detect whether mines are present or not present hazards and delays to military vessels, and also
to aid convoys and merchant shipping trying to support the region long after the conflict has
ceased.[39]

Target characteristics

The sound reflection characteristics of the target of an active sonar, such as a submarine, are
known as its target strength. A complication is that echoes are also obtained from other objects
in the sea such as whales, wakes, schools of fish and rocks.

Passive sonar detects the target's radiated noise characteristics. The radiated spectrum
comprises a continuous spectrum of noise with peaks at certain frequencies which can be used
for classification.

Countermeasures

Active (powered) countermeasures may be launched by a submarine under attack to raise the
noise level, provide a large false target, and obscure the signature of the submarine itself.

Passive (i.e., non-powered) countermeasures include:

Mounting noise-generating devices on isolating devices.

Sound-absorbent coatings on the hulls of submarines, for example anechoic tiles.

Military applications

Modern naval warfare makes extensive use of both passive and active sonar from water-borne
vessels, aircraft and fixed installations. Although active sonar was used by surface craft in World
War II, submarines avoided the use of active sonar due to the potential for revealing their
presence and position to enemy forces. However, the advent of modern signal-processing
enabled the use of passive sonar as a primary means for search and detection operations. In
1987 a division of Japanese company Toshiba reportedly[42] sold machinery to the Soviet Union
that allowed their submarine propeller blades to be milled so that they became radically quieter,
making the newer generation of submarines more difficult to detect.

The use of active sonar by a submarine to determine bearing is extremely rare and will not
necessarily give high quality bearing or range information to the submarines fire control team.
However, use of active sonar on surface ships is very common and is used by submarines when
the tactical situation dictates it is more important to determine the position of a hostile
submarine than conceal their own position. With surface ships, it might be assumed that the
threat is already tracking the ship with satellite data as any vessel around the emitting sonar will
detect the emission. Having heard the signal, it is easy to identify the sonar equipment used
(usually with its frequency) and its position (with the sound wave's energy). Active sonar is
similar to radar in that, while it allows detection of targets at a certain range, it also enables the
emitter to be detected at a far greater range, which is undesirable.

Since active sonar reveals the presence and position of the operator, and does not allow exact
classification of targets, it is used by fast (planes, helicopters) and by noisy platforms (most
surface ships) but rarely by submarines. When active sonar is used by surface ships or
submarines, it is typically activated very briefly at intermittent periods to minimize the risk of
detection. Consequently, active sonar is normally considered a backup to passive sonar. In
aircraft, active sonar is used in the form of disposable sonobuoys that are dropped in the
aircraft's patrol area or in the vicinity of possible enemy sonar contacts.

Passive sonar has several advantages, most importantly that it is silent. If the target radiated
noise level is high enough, it can have a greater range than active sonar, and allows the target to
be identified. Since any motorized object makes some noise, it may in principle be detected,
depending on the level of noise emitted and the ambient noise level in the area, as well as the
technology used. To simplify, passive sonar "sees" around the ship using it. On a submarine,
nose-mounted passive sonar detects in directions of about 270°, centered on the ship's
alignment, the hull-mounted array of about 160° on each side, and the towed array of a full 360°.
The invisible areas are due to the ship's own interference. Once a signal is detected in a certain
direction (which means that something makes sound in that direction, this is called broadband
detection) it is possible to zoom in and analyze the signal received (narrowband analysis). This
is generally done using a Fourier transform to show the different frequencies making up the
sound. Since every engine makes a specific sound, it is straightforward to identify the object.
Databases of unique engine sounds are part of what is known as acoustic intelligence or ACINT.

Another use of passive sonar is to determine the target's trajectory. This process is called target
motion analysis (TMA), and the resultant "solution" is the target's range, course, and speed. TMA
is done by marking from which direction the sound comes at different times, and comparing the
motion with that of the operator's own ship. Changes in relative motion are analyzed using
standard geometrical techniques along with some assumptions about limiting cases.

Passive sonar is stealthy and very useful. However, it requires high-tech electronic components
and is costly. It is generally deployed on expensive ships in the form of arrays to enhance
detection. Surface ships use it to good effect; it is even better used by submarines, and it is also
used by airplanes and helicopters, mostly to a "surprise effect", since submarines can hide under
thermal layers. If a submarine's commander believes he is alone, he may bring his boat closer to
the surface and be easier to detect, or go deeper and faster, and thus make more sound.

Examples of sonar applications in military use are given below. Many of the civil uses given in
the following section may also be applicable to naval use.

Anti-submarine warfare

Variable depth sonar and its winch

Until recently, ship sonars were usually with hull mounted arrays, either amidships or at the bow.
It was soon found after their initial use that a means of reducing flow noise was required. The
first were made of canvas on a framework, then steel ones were used. Now domes are usually
made of reinforced plastic or pressurized rubber. Such sonars are primarily active in operation.
An example of a conventional hull mounted sonar is the SQS-56.

Because of the problems of ship noise, towed sonars are also used. These have the advantage
of being able to be placed deeper in the water, but have limitations on their use in shallow water.
These are called towed arrays (linear) or variable depth sonars (VDS) with 2/3D arrays. A
problem is that the winches required to deploy/recover them are large and expensive. VDS sets
are primarily active in operation, while towed arrays are passive.

An example of a modern active-passive ship towed sonar is Sonar 2087 made by Thales
Underwater Systems.

Torpedoes

Modern torpedoes are generally fitted with an active/passive sonar. This may be used to home
directly on the target, but wake homing torpedoes are also used. An early example of an
acoustic homer was the Mark 37 torpedo.

Torpedo countermeasures can be towed or free. An early example was the German Sieglinde
device while the Bold was a chemical device. A widely used US device was the towed AN/SLQ-25
Nixie while the mobile submarine simulator (MOSS) was a free device. A modern alternative to
the Nixie system is the UK Royal Navy S2170 Surface Ship Torpedo Defence system.

Mines

Mines may be fitted with a sonar to detect, localize and recognize the required target. An
example is the CAPTOR mine.

Mine countermeasures

Mine countermeasure (MCM) sonar, sometimes called "mine and obstacle avoidance sonar
(MOAS)", is a specialized type of sonar used for detecting small objects. Most MCM sonars are
hull mounted but a few types are VDS design. An example of a hull mounted MCM sonar is the
Type 2193 while the SQQ-32 mine-hunting sonar and Type 2093 systems are VDS designs.

Submarine navigation

Submarines rely on sonar to a greater extent than surface ships as they cannot use radar at
depth. The sonar arrays may be hull mounted or towed. Information fitted on typical fits is given
in Oyashio-class submarine and Swiftsure-class submarine.

Aircraft
AN/AQS-13 Dipping sonar deployed from an H-3 Sea King

Helicopters can be used for antisubmarine warfare by deploying fields of active-passive

sonobuoys or can operate dipping sonar, such as the AQS-13. Fixed wing aircraft can also deploy
sonobuoys and have greater endurance and capacity to deploy them. Processing from the
sonobuoys or dipping sonar can be on the aircraft or on ship. Dipping sonar has the advantage
of being deployable to depths appropriate to daily conditions. Helicopters have also been used
for mine countermeasure missions using towed sonars such as the AQS-20A.

Underwater communications

Dedicated sonars can be fitted to ships and submarines for underwater communication.

Ocean surveillance

The United States began a system of passive, fixed ocean surveillance systems in 1950 with the
classified name Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) with American Telephone and Telegraph
Company (AT&T), with its Bell Laboratories research and Western Electric manufacturing entities
being contracted for development and installation. The systems exploited the SOFAR channel,
also known as the deep sound channel, where a sound speed minimum creates a waveguide in
which low frequency sound travels thousands of miles. Analysis was based on an AT&T sound
spectrograph, which converted sound into a visual spectrogram representing a time–frequency
analysis of sound that was developed for speech analysis and modified to analyze low-
frequency underwater sounds. That process was Low Frequency Analysis and Recording and the
equipment was termed the Low Frequency Analyzer and Recorder, both with the acronym
LOFAR. LOFAR research was termed Jezebel and led to usage in air and surface systems,
particularly sonobuoys using the process and sometimes using "Jezebel" in their
name.[43][44][45][46] The proposed system offered such promise of long-range submarine
detection that the Navy ordered immediate moves for implementation.[44][47]

Lofargram writers, one for each array beam, on a NAVFAC watch floor.

Between installation of a test array followed by a full scale, forty element, prototype operational
array in 1951 and 1958 systems were installed in the Atlantic and then the Pacific under the
unclassified name Project Caesar. The original systems were terminated at classified shore
stations designated Naval Facility (NAVFAC) explained as engaging in "ocean research" to cover
their classified mission. The system was upgraded multiple times with more advanced cable
allowing the arrays to be installed in ocean basins and upgraded processing. The shore stations
were eliminated in a process of consolidation and rerouting the arrays to central processing
centers into the 1990s. In 1985, with new mobile arrays and other systems becoming
operational the collective system name was changed to Integrated Undersea Surveillance
System (IUSS). In 1991 the mission of the system was declassified. The year before IUSS
insignia were authorized for wear. Access was granted to some systems for scientific
research.[43][44]

A similar system is believed to have been operated by the Soviet Union.

Underwater security

Sonar can be used to detect frogmen and other scuba divers. This can be applicable around
ships or at entrances to ports. Active sonar can also be used as a deterrent and/or disablement
mechanism. One such device is the Cerberus system.
AN/PQS-2A handheld sonar, shown with detachable flotation collar and magnetic compass

Hand-held sonar

Limpet mine imaging sonar (LIMIS) is a hand-held or ROV-mounted imaging sonar designed for
patrol divers (combat frogmen or clearance divers) to look for limpet mines in low visibility
water.

The LUIS is another imaging sonar for use by a diver.

Integrated navigation sonar system (INSS) is a small flashlight-shaped handheld sonar for divers
that displays range.[48][49]

Intercept sonar

This is a sonar designed to detect and locate the transmissions from hostile active sonars. An
example of this is the Type 2082 fitted on the British Vanguard-class submarines.

Civilian applications

Fisheries

Fishing is an important industry that is seeing growing demand, but world catch tonnage is
falling as a result of serious resource problems. The industry faces a future of continuing
worldwide consolidation until a point of sustainability can be reached. However, the
consolidation of the fishing fleets are driving increased demands for sophisticated fish finding
electronics such as sensors, sounders and sonars. Historically, fishermen have used many
different techniques to find and harvest fish. However, acoustic technology has been one of the
most important driving forces behind the development of the modern commercial fisheries.

Sound waves travel differently through fish than through water because a fish's air-filled swim
bladder has a different density than seawater. This density difference allows the detection of
schools of fish by using reflected sound. Acoustic technology is especially well suited for
underwater applications since sound travels farther and faster underwater than in air. Today,
commercial fishing vessels rely almost completely on acoustic sonar and sounders to detect
fish. Fishermen also use active sonar and echo sounder technology to determine water depth,
bottom contour, and bottom composition.

Cabin display of a fish finder sonar

Companies such as eSonar, Raymarine, Marport Canada, Wesmar, Furuno, Krupp, and Simrad
make a variety of sonar and acoustic instruments for the deep sea commercial fishing industry.
For example, net sensors take various underwater measurements and transmit the information
back to a receiver on board a vessel. Each sensor is equipped with one or more acoustic
transducers depending on its specific function. Data is transmitted from the sensors using
wireless acoustic telemetry and is received by a hull mounted hydrophone. The analog signals
are decoded and converted by a digital acoustic receiver into data which is transmitted to a
bridge computer for graphical display on a high resolution monitor.

Echo sounding
Echo sounding is a process used to determine the depth of water beneath ships and boats. A
type of active sonar, echo sounding is the transmission of an acoustic pulse directly downwards
to the seabed, measuring the time between transmission and echo return, after having hit the
bottom and bouncing back to its ship of origin. The acoustic pulse is emitted by a transducer
which receives the return echo as well. The depth measurement is calculated by multiplying the
speed of sound in water (averaging 1,500 meters per second) by the time between emission and
echo return.[50][51]

The value of underwater acoustics to the fishing industry has led to the development of other
acoustic instruments that operate in a similar fashion to echo-sounders but, because their
function is slightly different from the initial model of the echo-sounder, have been given different
terms.

Net location

The net sounder is an echo sounder with a transducer mounted on the headline of the net rather
than on the bottom of the vessel. Nevertheless, to accommodate the distance from the
transducer to the display unit, which is much greater than in a normal echo-sounder, several
refinements have to be made. Two main types are available. The first is the cable type in which
the signals are sent along a cable. In this case, there has to be the provision of a cable drum on
which to haul, shoot and stow the cable during the different phases of the operation. The second
type is the cable-less net-sounder – such as Marport's Trawl Explorer – in which the signals are
sent acoustically between the net and hull mounted receiver-hydrophone on the vessel. In this
case, no cable drum is required but sophisticated electronics are needed at the transducer and
receiver.

The display on a net sounder shows the distance of the net from the bottom (or the surface),
rather than the depth of water as with the echo-sounder's hull-mounted transducer. Fixed to the
headline of the net, the footrope can usually be seen which gives an indication of the net
performance. Any fish passing into the net can also be seen, allowing fine adjustments to be
made to catch the most fish possible. In other fisheries, where the amount of fish in the net is
important, catch sensor transducers are mounted at various positions on the cod-end of the net.
As the cod-end fills up these catch sensor transducers are triggered one by one and this
information is transmitted acoustically to display monitors on the bridge of the vessel. The
skipper can then decide when to haul the net.
Modern versions of the net sounder, using multiple element transducers, function more like a
sonar than an echo sounder and show slices of the area in front of the net and not merely the
vertical view that the initial net sounders used.

The sonar is an echo-sounder with a directional capability that can show fish or other objects
around the vessel.

ROV and UUV

Small sonars have been fitted to remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and unmanned underwater
vehicles (UUVs) to allow their operation in murky conditions. These sonars are used for looking
ahead of the vehicle. The Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System is a UUV for MCM purposes.

Vehicle location

Sonars which act as beacons are fitted to aircraft to allow their location in the event of a crash in
the sea. Short and long baseline sonars may be used for caring out the location, such as LBL.

Prosthesis for the visually impaired

In 2013 an inventor in the United States unveiled a "spider-sense" bodysuit, equipped with
ultrasonic sensors and haptic feedback systems, which alerts the wearer of incoming threats;
allowing them to respond to attackers even when blindfolded.[52]

Scientific applications

Biomass estimation

Detection of fish, and other marine and aquatic life, and estimation their individual sizes or total
biomass using active sonar techniques. As the sound pulse travels through water it encounters
objects that are of different density or acoustic characteristics than the surrounding medium,
such as fish, that reflect sound back toward the sound source. These echoes provide
information on fish size, location, abundance and behavior. Data is usually processed and
analysed using a variety of software such as Echoview.

Wave measurement
An upward looking echo sounder mounted on the bottom or on a platform may be used to make
measurements of wave height and period. From this statistics of the surface conditions at a
location can be derived.

Water velocity measurement

Special short range sonars have been developed to allow measurements of water velocity.

Bottom type assessment

Sonars have been developed that can be used to characterise the sea bottom into, for example,
mud, sand, and gravel. Relatively simple sonars such as echo sounders can be promoted to
seafloor classification systems via add-on modules, converting echo parameters into sediment
type. Different algorithms exist, but they are all based on changes in the energy or shape of the
reflected sounder pings. Advanced substrate classification analysis can be achieved using
calibrated (scientific) echosounders and parametric or fuzzy-logic analysis of the acoustic data.

Bathymetric mapping

Graphic depicting hydrographic survey ship conducting multibeam and side-scan sonar operations

Side-scan sonars can be used to derive maps of seafloor topography (bathymetry) by moving
the sonar across it just above the bottom. Low frequency sonars such as GLORIA have been
used for continental shelf wide surveys while high frequency sonars are used for more detailed
surveys of smaller areas.
Sub-bottom profiling

Powerful low frequency echo-sounders have been developed for providing profiles of the upper
layers of the ocean bottom. One of the most recent devices is Innomar's SES-2000 quattro multi-
transducer parametric SBP, used for example in the Puck Bay for underwater archaeological
purposes[53]

Gas leak detection from the seabed

Gas bubbles can leak from the seabed, or close to it, from multiple sources. These can be
detected by both passive[54] and active sonar[38] (shown in schematic figure[54] by yellow and red
systems respectively).

Active (red) and passive (yellow) sonar detection of bubbles from seabed (natural seeps and CCSF leaks) and gas
pipelines, taken from ref.[54]

Natural seeps of methane and carbon dioxide occur.[38] Gas pipelines can leak, and it is
important to be able to detect whether leakage occurs from Carbon Capture and Storage
Facilities (CCSFs; e.g. depleted oil wells into which extracted atmospheric carbon is
stored).[55][56][57][58] Quantification of the amount of gas leaking is difficult, and although
estimates can be made use active and passive sonar, it is important to question their accuracy
because of the assumptions inherent in making such estimations from sonar data.[54][59]

Synthetic aperture sonar

Various synthetic aperture sonars have been built in the laboratory and some have entered use
in mine-hunting and search systems. An explanation of their operation is given in synthetic
aperture sonar.

Parametric sonar

Parametric sources use the non-linearity of water to generate the difference frequency between
two high frequencies. A virtual end-fire array is formed. Such a projector has advantages of
broad bandwidth, narrow beamwidth, and when fully developed and carefully measured it has no
obvious sidelobes: see Parametric array. Its major disadvantage is very low efficiency of only a
few percent.[60] P.J. Westervelt summarizes the trends involved.[61]

Sonar in extraterrestrial contexts

Use of both passive and active sonar has been proposed for various extraterrestrial uses.[62] An
example of the use of active sonar is in determining the depth of hydrocarbon seas on Titan,[63]
An example of the use of passive sonar is in the detection of methanefalls on Titan,[64]

It has been noted that those proposals which suggest use of sonar without taking proper
account of the difference between the Earthly (atmosphere, ocean, mineral) environments and
the extraterrestrial ones, can lead to erroneous values[65][66][67][68][69][70]

Ecological impact

Effect on marine mammals

A humpback whale
Research has shown that use of active sonar can lead to mass strandings of marine
mammals.[71] Beaked whales, the most common casualty of the strandings, have been shown to
be highly sensitive to mid-frequency active sonar.[72] Other marine mammals such as the blue
whale also flee away from the source of the sonar,[73] while naval activity was suggested to be
the most probable cause of a mass stranding of dolphins.[74] The US Navy, which part-funded
some of the studies, said that the findings only showed behavioural responses to sonar, not
actual harm, but they "will evaluate the effectiveness of [their] marine mammal protective
measures in light of new research findings".[71] A 2008 US Supreme Court ruling on the use of
sonar by the US Navy noted that there had been no cases where sonar had been conclusively
shown to have harmed or killed a marine mammal.[75]

Some marine animals, such as whales and dolphins, use echolocation systems, sometimes
called biosonar to locate predators and prey. Research on the effects of sonar on blue whales in
the Southern California Bight shows that mid-frequency sonar use disrupts the whales' feeding
behavior. This indicates that sonar-induced disruption of feeding and displacement from high-
quality prey patches could have significant and previously undocumented impacts on baleen
whale foraging ecology, individual fitness and population health.[76]

A review of evidence on the mass strandings of beaked whale linked to naval exercises where
sonar was used was published in 2019. It concluded that the effects of mid-frequency active
sonar are strongest on Cuvier's beaked whales but vary among individuals or populations. The
review suggested the strength of response of individual animals may depend on whether they
had prior exposure to sonar, and that symptoms of decompression sickness have been found in
stranded whales that may be a result of such response to sonar. It noted that in the Canary
Islands where multiple strandings had been previously reported, no more mass strandings had
occurred once naval exercises during which sonar was used were banned in the area, and
recommended that the ban be extended to other areas where mass strandings continue to
occur.[77][78]

Effect on fish

High-intensity sonar sounds can create a small temporary shift in the hearing threshold of some
fish.[79][80][a]

Frequencies and resolutions

The frequencies of sonars range from infrasonic to above a megahertz. Generally, the lower
frequencies have longer range, while the higher frequencies offer better resolution, and smaller
size for a given directionality.

To achieve reasonable directionality, frequencies below 1 kHz generally require large size,
usually achieved as towed arrays.[81]

Low frequency sonars are loosely defined as 1–5 kHz, albeit some navies regard 5–7 kHz also
as low frequency. Medium frequency is defined as 5–15 kHz. Another style of division considers
low frequency to be under 1 kHz, and medium frequency at between 1–10 kHz.[81]

American World War II era sonars operated at a relatively high frequency of 20–30 kHz, to
achieve directionality with reasonably small transducers, with typical maximum operational
range of 2500 yd. Postwar sonars used lower frequencies to achieve longer range; e.g. SQS-4
operated at 10 kHz with range up to 5000 yd. SQS-26 and SQS-53 operated at 3 kHz with range
up to 20,000 yd; their domes had size of approx. a 60-ft personnel boat, an upper size limit for
conventional hull sonars. Achieving larger sizes by conformal sonar array spread over the hull
has not been effective so far, for lower frequencies linear or towed arrays are therefore used.[81]

Japanese WW2 sonars operated at a range of frequencies. The Type 91, with 30 inch quartz
projector, worked at 9 kHz. The Type 93, with smaller quartz projectors, operated at 17.5 kHz
(model 5 at 16 or 19 kHz magnetostrictive) at powers between 1.7 and 2.5 kilowatts, with range
of up to 6 km. The later Type 3, with German-design magnetostrictive transducers, operated at
13, 14.5, 16, or 20 kHz (by model), using twin transducers (except model 1 which had three
single ones), at 0.2 to 2.5 kilowatts. The simple type used 14.5 kHz magnetostrictive
transducers at 0.25 kW, driven by capacitive discharge instead of oscillators, with range up to
2.5 km.[21]

The sonar's resolution is angular; objects further apart are imaged with lower resolutions than
nearby ones.

Another source lists ranges and resolutions vs frequencies for sidescan sonars. 30 kHz provides
low resolution with range of 1000–6000 m, 100 kHz gives medium resolution at 500–1000 m,
300 kHz gives high resolution at 150–500 m, and 600 kHz gives high resolution at 75–150 m.
Longer range sonars are more adversely affected by nonhomogenities of water. Some
environments, typically shallow waters near the coasts, have complicated terrain with many
features; higher frequencies become necessary there.[82]
 See also

Acoustic Doppler current profiler – Meter used to measure water current velocities

Acoustic location – Use of reflected sound waves to locate objects

Acoustic tag – Device that enables detection and tracking of animals

Baffles (submarine) – Areas behind a submarine or ship where sonar cannot hear

Bistatic sonar

Cetacean stranding – Phenomenon in which a whale becomes stuck on a beach, often

causing the whale's death

Diver detection sonar – Acoustic location systems to detect divers and submerged swimmer
delivery vehicles

Echo sounding – Measuring the depth of water by transmitting sound waves into water and
timing the return

Fish finder

Lead zirconate titanate or PZT, a piezoelectric material used for ultrasonic transducers

Gordon Eugene Martin – American physicist (born 1925), sonar physicist

Ocean acoustic tomography – Technique used to measure temperatures and currents over
large regions of the ocean

Passive radar

Radar – Object detection system using radio waves

Reflection seismology – Explore subsurface properties with seismology

Scientific echosounder – Device using sonar technology for the measurement of underwater
physical and biological components

Side-scan sonar – Tool for seafloor mapping

SOFAR channel – Horizontal layer of water in the ocean at which depth the speed of sound is
at its minimum

Submarine navigation

Synthetic aperture sonar

 Tonpilz

Towed array sonar

Underwater acoustics – Study of the propagation of sound in water and the interaction of
sound waves with the water and its boundaries

Upward looking sonar

Explanatory notes

a. Halvorsen et al. (2013) conclude that observed effects were "typically small even though the fish were
near the sonar and remained there for the full duration of three test signals".

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General bibliography

Dring, Thomas R. (March 2018). "A Steep Learning Curve: The Impact of Sonar Technology,
Training, and Tactics on the Initial Years of U.S. Navy Antisubmarine Warfare in World War II".
Warship International. LV (January 2018): 37–57. ISSN 0043-0374 ([Link]
ssn/0043-0374) .

Hackmann, Willem. Seek & Strike: Sonar, Anti-submarine Warfare and the Royal Navy 1914–
54. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1984. ISBN 0-11-290423-8.

Hackmann, Willem D. "Sonar Research and Naval Warfare 1914–1954: A Case Study of a
Twentieth-Century Science" ([Link]
Sonar-Research-and-Naval-Warfare-1914-1954-A-Case) (subscription required). Historical
Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 16#1 (January 1986) 83–110.
doi:10.2307/27757558 ([Link] .

Urick, R. J. (1983). Principles of Underwater Sound (3rd edition). Los Altos: Peninsula
Publishing. ISBN 9780932146625. OCLC 1132503817 ([Link]
3817) .

Fisheries acoustics references

Fisheries Acoustics Research (FAR) ([Link] at the
University of Washington

NOAA Protocols for Fisheries Acoustics Surveys ([Link]

32/[Link]

Acoustics Unpacked ([Link] —A "how to" great reference for

freshwater hydroacoustics for resource assessment

"ACOUSTICS IN FISHERIES AND AQUATIC ECOLOGY" ([Link]

165318/[Link]

"Hydroacoustic Protocol – Lakes, Reservoirs and Lowland Rivers" ([Link]

b/20060721124918/[Link]
5_1202Hydroacoustics-[Link]) (for fish assessment)
 Simmonds, E. John, and D. N. MacLennan. Fisheries Acoustics: Theory and Practice, second
edition. Fish and aquatic resources series, 10. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 2003. ISBN 978-0-
632-05994-2.

Further reading

"Canada: Stable Sonics" ([Link]

m/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804015,[Link]) , Time, October 28, 1946. An interesting
account of the 4,800 ASDIC sonar devices secretly manufactured at Casa Loma, Toronto,
during World War II. Retrieved 25 Sept. 2009.

"Radar of the Deep - SONAR" ([Link]

4#v=twopage&q&f=true) , Popular Science, November 1945, pp. 84–87, 246, 250: one of the
best general public articles on the subject

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sonar.

FFI Facts: Sonars and the marine environment ([Link]

6/[Link] by the
Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI)

Remote Sensing for Coastal Management: Single Beam Sonar ([Link]

0100603084726/[Link] —
Coastal Services Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Retrieved from
"[Link]
title=Sonar&oldid=1064218805"
Last edited 1 month ago by 589q