Chemists in a social and historical context 1

Introduction
Chemistry has a human face. The aim of this book is to present chemists as real people
and not stereotypical ‘mad scientists’ whose lives are completely dominated by
science. It may only take a couple of minutes of a lesson to present the class with a bit
of personal background information which could, for some students, add interest to
the lesson. The history of chemistry is full of serendipitous tales. The influence of
World War II played a major role in the development of plastics, which otherwise may
not have been produced on a commercial scale. In other parts of the world science
was held back, simply because the scientists were coloured and this was socially
unacceptable. In the early days of chemistry, there were few woman chemists as this
too was deemed to be unacceptable. The womans’ place was in the home and
certainly not in the laboratory carrying out experiments. The social context of the time
must be understood to explain why the majority of the early chemists appear to be
white middle-class or upper-class gentlemen. Many of the scientific projects had to be
funded by the chemists themselves, so they already had to be wealthy or have a very
good income. At times science was just the hobby, before it took over. This is not to
say that there were no scholarships available. In fact, there are a number of very
distinguished scientists such as Ernest Rutherford and John Jacob Berzelius who came
from very humble backgrounds.
Today we live in a very different world, where people should be accepted regardless
of race or gender. Science is taught in all schools and young people of today are
encouraged to develop an interest in the subject. There is more money available to
carry out research, although some would say not enough, as we go on living in the
scientific and technological age.
Running throughout this series of books written by Dorothy Warren, there are many
references to different scientists. The scientists are always introduced within the
context of their work at the most appropriate place; for example John Lind is found in
The nature of science book, Alice Hamilton in the Health, safety and risk book, Mario
Molina in the Climate change book and the aluminium pioneers in the Green
Chemistry book. In this resource, the focus is twofold, namely providing strategies for
teaching about people in chemistry and an introduction to some of the chemists who
played a role in the development of major ideas in chemistry, eg theories about the
atom and burning. Roy Plunkett and the discovery of Teflon has been included as an
example of serendipity, Harry Kroto and buckminsterfullerene as an example of a
living chemist and Norbert Rillieux as an example of a successful chemical engineer,
despite being an African-American living in the 19th century.
One of the problems for busy teachers is having a readily available source of
background information about different scientists. There are many Internet sites that
will provide a wealth of biographical information, photographs and scientific
information. The three web sites listed here are worth a visit.
1. The British Society for the History of Science (BSHS) website
[Link] (accessed September 2005). This site links into
several other useful sites. It also provides a discussion forum for teachers as well as
useful contacts such as actors willing to do scientific performances in schools.
2 Chemists in a social and historical context

2. The Nobel Foundation site at [Link] (accessed September

2005) lists all the Nobel Laureates with photographs, biographical and scientific
background information.
3. This week in the history of chemistry
[Link] (accessed September
2005) can be accessed to provide information for any week of the year.
4. European Network for Chemistry, Millennium Project, has a site listing 100
distinguished European chemists from the chemical revolution to the 21st century.
[Link] (accessed September 2005).
5. Chemsoc timeline is a linear based exploration of key events in the history of
science with a particular emphasis on chemistry.
[Link] (accessed September 2005).
Chemists in a social and historical context 3

The atom detectives

Teachers’ notes
Objectives
■ To understand how the model of the atom has developed over time.
■ To learn about some of the chemists involved in developing the model of the atom.
■ To be able to apply today’s accepted model of the atom and draw diagrams to
represent the atoms of the first 40 elements of the periodic table.

Outline
This section looks at how the model of the atom has developed over the last 200 years.
It explores how scientists work together to develop new ideas and how new theories
may, at first, give rise to controversy. It shows how technological advances can lead to
the development of new theories and ideas.

Teaching topics
This material is intended to be used with more able students between the ages of 14
and 16 or post-16 students, when teaching about atomic structure and the Periodic
Table. Understanding the arrangements of subatomic particles in the atom is a high
level concept. In this activity, you can see how the ideas developed as scientific
method and instrumentation developed and other areas of science unfolded. Look at
the student worksheets before reading the detailed notes below.

Background information
Since 5 BC, people have been curious to find out more about different materials and
substances. The theory of Democritus said ‘Substances are different because
homogenous particles have different sizes and shapes and cannot be cut’. This was just
the start of many more theories that would be put forward and then rejected over the
next 2000 years. Many of the early theories of matter were not based upon
experiments. As scientists began to study the relationship between physical
phenomena such as electricity and magnetism they began to develop different models
about atomic structure.

Sources of information
The atomic structure timeline at
[Link]
(accessed September 2005).
The timeline has twenty-two entries, starting in the Greek era and finishing in 1932
with James Chadwick. By clicking on the scientist’s name, personal background
information and portraits can be accessed. A short summary of their contribution to
atomic structure is included with some hot links leading to further information.

Teaching tips
This section is ideal for group work leading to a wall display featuring the history of the
atom. There are five student worksheets each featuring a scientist who made a
significant contribution to the development atomic theory.
■ Dalton
■ Berzelius
■ Thomson
4 Chemists in a social and historical context

■ Rutherford
■ Bohr.
The sixth student worksheet is an information sheet, bringing the theory up-to-date.
Following an introduction to the lesson, the class could be divided into groups of 4
or 5 students. Each group could work through one of the worksheets. To make the
sheets more durable, they could be photocopied onto card and laminated. The
activities at the bottom of the sheet could be carried out and presented as a poster, on
a large piece of paper. The group should also include some background information
about the scientists and what they did.
You will need to tell the class whether you expect models or diagrams of the atoms, or
if they have a free choice. In order to answer all the questions some groups will have to
communicate with others.
At the start of the next lesson, each group could present their posters, in chronological
order, to the rest of the class, highlighting the major aspects of the theory, which could
be summarised.
Eg 1 Berzelius’ relative atomic masses are used today. Berzelius introduced chemical
symbols.
Eg 2 Thomson discovered that the negatively charged electron was part of the atom. It
was 1/1840 the mass of the positively charged particles.
The rest of the lesson could be spent with everyone working on the sheet Modelling
the atom today. You should go through the lithium example with the class and maybe
do one of the other examples with the class. The information for completing question 1
will have been covered in the poster presentations and may already be available. The
rest of the sheet could be completed as homework.
Note: Throughout this material, the term mass has been used unless the accepted
terminology of weigh or weight is more appropriate. Teachers may wish to draw
attention to the difference between mass and weight.

Resources
■ Student worksheets
– John Dalton
– John Jacob Berzelius
– Joseph John Thomson
– Ernest Rutherford
– Niels Bohr
– Present day models of the atom
– Modelling the atom today

Timing
2 hours plus homework

Opportunities for using ICT

■ Using the Internet to find out more about the atom detectives.
■ Word processing and drawing packages to make posters.

Opportunities for using key skills

■ Working together in groups.
■ Communication between groups.
■ Presentation of work to the class.
Chemists in a social and historical context 5

Answers
John Dalton
1.

Solid particle Atmosphere of heat

2. A molecule of ice had less heat surrounding the particle than a molecule of water.
3. He guessed!
4.

Water or CO2

Dalton thought that the water molecule only consisted of one O and one H atom,
so either molecule may be accepted.

John Jacob Berzelius

1.
Element Symbol Relative atomic mass
Chlorine Cl 35.5
Copper Cu 63.5
Hydrogen H 1.0
Lead Pb 207.2
Nitrogen N 14.0
Oxygen O 16.0
Potassium K 39.1
Silver Ag 107.9
Sulfur S 32.1

2. Berzelius because his 1826 values are very close to the ones that are used today.
3. He was able to work out the number of atoms in each molecule.
4. Berzelius believed that atoms were held together by electrostatic attraction. He
thought that some atoms were positively charged and others were negatively
charged.

Joseph John Thomson

1. –
– –
– – – A positively charged sphere
– –
– – –
– –
– – –
– –
– – – Negatively charged electrons
– –
–

The plum pudding model

6 Chemists in a social and historical context

2. Thomson’s model of the atom contained negative particles of electricity (which he

called electrons) embedded in a solid sphere of positive charge. Daltons’ atom was
a solid particle, surrounded by an atmosphere of heat.
3. A very sensitive camera.

Ernest Rutherford
1.

Orbiting electrons

A nucleus of positive charge

“space”

2. The main difference between the two models is that the Thomson model has a
solid sphere with negative charges whereas the Rutherford model has a small solid
nucleus, some ‘space’ and then orbiting electrons, which are separate particles.
3. Rutherford carried out his experiments in the dark so that he could observe the
glow left behind by the radiation and see where the particles went.
4. Rutherford noticed that some of the positively charged radiation bounced back
from the atom in the same direction. Rutherford concluded that this must be due to
another positive force repelling the positive radiation. This large positive force must
come from the centre of the atom.

Niels Bohr
1.

Electron shells

Nucleus containing electrons

Electrons

2. In the Bohr atom the electrons are arranged in definite shells whereas in the
Rutherford model, the electrons just orbit the nucleus. They are free to go wherever
they like.
3. Bohr’s model of the atom was based on theoretical calculations and a good
imagination. Although his model could explain atomic spectra, it was based on
incomplete data. It was thought that the model could not be used to explain the
reactivity of the elements. Many chemists preferred Lewis’ model because it was
based on real experimental chemical data. The Lewis model could be used to
explain the reactivity of the elements. However, it could not be used to explain the
hydrogen spectrum.
Chemists in a social and historical context 7

Modelling the atom today

1.
Particles Charge Relative Mass
Protons positive (+) 1
Neutrons neutral 1
Electrons negative (–) 1/1840

2.

Element Mass No. Atomic No. No. of protons No. of neutrons No. of electrons
Hydrogen 1 1 1 0 1
Carbon 12 6 6 6 6
Neon 20 10 10 10 10
Aluminium 27 13 13 14 13
Potassium 39 19 19 20 19

3. Nucleus containing correct number of protons and neutrons (see table), electrons
arranged in shells 2,8,8,18 etc.
John Dalton
John Dalton (1766–1844)
He was the son of an English weaver from Eaglesfield in
Cumbria. When he wasn’t carrying out investigations, he was
probably teaching at the Presbyterian college in Manchester.
In 1807, John Dalton was the first person to use the word
atom to describe the smallest particle of any element.
What did Dalton do?
Dalton studied gases and discovered that elements combine
with other elements to make compounds. He had to guess how
many atoms joined together to make the compound. He was
able to calculate the relative weights of particles using data
from his own observations and measurements. Individual
particles were too small to weigh. He had to make some
John Dalton assumptions to explain his observations eg the atmosphere of
(Reproduced courtesy of the Library & heat surrounding the solid particle was used to explain why
Information Centre, Royal Society of some elements were solids and some gases. Solid compounds
Chemistry.) had less heat than gaseous ones.

Dalton’s atomic theory of matter, 1807

1. All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
Oxygen
2. Each atom is a solid particle with no spaces, surrounded by an
atmosphere of heat.
Hydrogen
3. Atoms cannot be made or destroyed.
4. Atoms of the same elements are alike with the same mass, colour etc. Carbon

5. Atoms of different elements have different masses, colours etc.

Dalton’s symbols
6. Atoms can join to form larger particles in compounds.

Things to do
1. Make a model or draw a diagram of Dalton‘s atom.
2. How did Dalton explain the different between a molecule of ice and a molecule of
water?
3. How did Dalton known how many atoms were in a molecule?
4. Using Dalton’s symbols, write down the formulae of water and carbon dioxide.

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John Jacob Berzelius
John Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848)
Berzelius was an orphan from Sweden, brought up by a mean
stepfather. He worked on his farm and lived in a room which was also
the potato store. His stepfather made sure that the potatoes did not
freeze during winter, so at least this meant that Berzelius kept warm
too. From high school, he went on to university where he became
interested in experimental chemistry.
What did Berzelius do?
Berzelius heard about Dalton’s theory and set about making his own
relative atomic weight measurements. But, from previous experiments
carried out by Humphrey Davy, he knew how many atoms were in the
compounds. He knew that when electricity was passed through water,
twice as much hydrogen was collected at the negative terminal than
John Jacob Berzelius oxygen at the positive terminal. So he concluded that water was made
(Reproduced courtesy of the from two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
Nobel Foundation.)

Berzelius’ atomic theory Elements Dalton’s atomic Berzelius’ atomic

1. All atoms are spherical. weights 1808 weights 1826
2. All atoms are the same size. Chlorine unknown 35.41
3. Atoms have different weights. Copper 56 63.00
Hydrogen 1 1.00
4. Atoms joined together in fixed proportions, by Lead 95 207.12
an electrochemical reaction. Some atoms are Nitrogen 5 14.05
positive and others are negative. Oxygen 7 16.00
Dalton could not accept Berzelius’ electrochemical Potassium unknown 39.19
combination, but at the same time could not explain Silver 100 108.12
why atoms joined together in fixed proportions. Sulfur 13 32.18

Chemical symbols
Berzelius thought that chemical symbols should be letters. He took the first letter of the
Latin name of each element. When the letters were the same, he used both the first
letter and the next different letter. Berzelius’ symbols are used in today’s Periodic
Table.

Things to do
1. Look up, in a modern data book, the relative atomic masses and the symbols of the
elements listed in the above table. Put your answers in a table.
2. Who do you think had the best method for calculating the relative weights of
atoms, Dalton or Berzelius?
3. What do you think was the key to the successful calculations?
4. How did Berzelius think that atoms joined together to make compounds?

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Joseph John (JJ) Thomson
Joseph John Thomson 1856–1940
Thomson was born near Manchester. His ambition was to be an
engineer but instead he was awarded a scholarship in chemistry. The
scholarship was in memory of John Dalton. At the age of 28,
Thomson became professor at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University.
What did Thomson do?
In 1897 Thomson discovered the electron, while he was investigating
the conductivity of electricity by gases at very low pressures. After
collecting data for twenty years, Thomson was convinced that
electrons were negative particles of electricity. He even measured the
mass of the electron.
However, he still needed more evidence to convince the scientific
world, so he asked Wilson to try and take a photograph of an electron.
It took him until 1911 to build a suitable camera, which was sealed in a
Joseph John Thomson
glass chamber in which electrons could be produced. The experiment
(Reproduced courtesy of the
was successfully carried out and the electron was photographed.
Nobel Foundation.)
JJ Thomson was worried about telling the world his new theory of the atom, because until now the atom was
thought of as a single solid particle.

Thomson’s model of atomic structure – 1899

■ Atoms consisted of rings of negative electrons embedded in a sphere of positive
charge (the plum pudding model).
■ The positive and negative charges balance to make the atom neutral.
■ The mass of the atom was due to the nucleus.
■ The mass of an electron was 1/1840 of the mass of hydrogen, the lightest atom.
■ There were 1840 electrons in an atom of hydrogen.

Things to do
1. Make a model or draw a diagram of JJ Thomson’s model of the atom.
2. What is the main difference between this new model and Dalton’s model?
3. What advances in technology made it possible for Thomson to successfully
complete his investigations?

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Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937)
Rutherford was born near the village of Nelson, New Zealand. His
father was an odd-job man and simple farmer. Rutherford obtained
an honours degree in mathematics and science from the University of
New Zealand before gaining a scholarship that took him to work with
JJ Thomson at the Cavandish laboratory in Cambridge.
What did Rutherford do?
Rutherford studied radioactive atoms and found that they were not
stable. By this time a lot was understood about radiation. Rutherford
carried out his investigation in the dark. He used positively charged
radiation to bombard the atom and watched to see where the radiation
particle went. The radiation always left a glow. The glow showed that
most particles went straight through the atom, some were slightly
Ernest Rutherford deflected, while others bounced back in the same direction.
(Reproduced courtesy of the
Nobel Foundation.) After doing many calculations, Rutherford concluded that the
radiation could only come back if that atom had a hard positively
charged core at the centre of the atom. He called this the nucleus. If the atom was 100 m, the size of a
football pitch, the nucleus would be the size of a pea placed in the centre of the pitch.

Rutherford’s model of atomic theory

1. The atom consists mainly of space.
2. The mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, which is a small core at the
centre of the atom.
3. The nucleus has positive charges.
4. Electrons move around the nucleus like planets orbiting the sun.
5. The atom is neutral as it has the same number of positive charges and negatively
charged electrons.

Things to do
1. Make a model or draw a diagram of Rutherford‘s atom.
2. What was the main difference between Rutherford’s model of the atom and
Thomson’s model?
3. Why did Rutherford carry out his experiments in the dark?
4. What evidence do you think lead Rutherford to conclude that the atom had a
positively charged nucleus?

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Niels Bohr
Niels Bohr (1885–1962)
Niels Bohr was born into a scientific family. His father was a
professor of physiology and his brother a distinguished
mathematician. After obtaining his Ph.D. from the University of
Copenhagen, Denmark, he accepted an invitation to work with
Rutherford, at Cambridge.
Bohr was very intelligent and had an amazing imagination. He was
not afraid to build on the idea of Max Plank, that energy came in little
packets called quanta, and apply this to Rutherford’s model of the
atom.
What helped Bohr?
Bohr based his investigation on Max Plank’s idea. He imagined the
electron orbiting the nucleus unless it was disturbed by some outside
Niels Bohr force, when it jumped to a different energy level. A packet of energy
(Reproduced courtesy of the was either gained or lost.
Nobel Foundation.)

Bohr’s model of the atom (1922)

1. Most of the mass of an atom is in the central nucleus that contains protons.
2. The electrons are arranged in definite shells or energy levels and orbit the nucleus.
3. The electron shells are a long way from the nucleus.
4. When one shell is full a new shell is started. This is called the electronic
configuration.
5. Atoms with full shells are not very reactive.
6. Electrons determine the reactivity of the atom.

Chemists not happy

While Bohr‘s model of the atom could explain the spectrum of the hydrogen atom,
chemists didn‘t think it would explain the reactivity of the other chemical elements.
His theory was based on incomplete physical data and mathematical calculations.
Many chemists favoured Lewis’ theory. The American‘s octet theory was based on real
chemical data. Lewis proposed that the fixed nucleus was surrounded by cubic
shaped electron shells. The electrons were fixed in the corner positions.

Things to do
1. Make a model or draw a diagram of Bohr’s atom.
2. What is the main difference between Bohr’s model of the atom and Rutherford’s
model?
3. Suggest why some chemists preferred Lewis’ model of the atom to Bohr’s.

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Present day models of
the atom
The up-to-date model of the atom is much more complicated than the ones we have
met so far. It is based on what is known as quantum mechanics and the atom is
described by a complicated equation called the Schrodinger equation. It helps to know
a lot of maths, understand probability and have a good imagination to picture
Schrodinger’s model of the atom. However, you don’t need to worry about that until
you go on to further studies of chemistry or physics. Of course, if you are interested to
find out more you can go and look it up yourself.
Today, most people are happy to accept a slightly modified model of Bohr’s atom,
because it can be used to explain the spectra and the reactivity of the elements. The
modified model of the Bohr atom includes neutrons, which were discovered by Sir
James Chadwick in 1932.

Figure 6 James Chadwick

(Reproduced courtesy of the Nobel Foundation.)
The neutron is a neutral particle with the same mass as a proton. It is also found in the
nucleus.
Thanks to the work of many other chemists, we can now use the Periodic Table to find
out the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in the atom of any element.

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Modelling the atom today
Study the following example

Mass number
Number of protons + neutrons
7 Lithium has:
3
Li Nucleus
Atomic number 3 protons (protons + neutrons)
Number of protons 3 electrons
4 neutrons Electrons
No. of electrons = No. of protons
No. of neutrons = Mass No. – Atomic No.
The lithium atom

Where the electrons go

■ The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons.
■ The second and third shells can each hold up to 8 electrons.
■ The fourth shell can hold up to 18 electrons.
The arrangement of electrons in the atom is known as the electronic configuration.
The electronic configuration for Li is 2.1. This means Li has 2 electrons in the first
shell and one in the second shell.

Things to do
1. Complete the following table

Particles Charge Relative Mass

Protons 1
Neutrons neutral
Electrons

2. Complete the following table.

Element Mass No. Atomic No. No. of protons No. of neutrons No. of electrons
Hydrogen 1 1
Carbon 6 6
Neon 20 10 10
Aluminium 13 14
Potassium 39 19

3. For each of the elements in the table above, draw a diagram to show how the
protons, neutrons and electrons are arranged in each atom.

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iv Chemists in a social and historical context

How to use this resource

At the start of the 21st century secondary education yet again underwent changes.
These included the introduction of new curricula at all levels in England, Wales and
Scotland and the Northern Ireland National Curriculum undergoing review. With more
emphasis on cross curricula topics such as health, safety and risk, citizenship,
education for sustainable development, key skills, literacy, numeracy and ICT,
chemistry teachers must not only become more flexible and adaptable in their teaching
approaches, but keep up to date with current scientific thinking. The major change to
the science 11–16 curricula of England and Wales was the introduction of ‘ideas and
evidence in science’, as part of Scientific Enquiry. This is similar to the ‘developing
informed attitudes’ in the Scottish 5–14 Environmental studies, and is summarised in
Figure 1.
In this series of resources, I have attempted to address the above challenges facing
teachers, by providing:
■ A wide range of teaching and learning activities, linking many of the cross-
curricular themes to chemistry. Using a range of learning styles is an important
teaching strategy because it ensures that no students are disadvantaged by always
using approaches that do not suit them.
■ Up-to-date background information for teachers on subjects such as global
warming and Green Chemistry. In the world of climate change, air pollution and
sustainable development resource material soon becomes dated as new data and
scientific ideas emerge. To overcome this problem, the resources have been linked
to relevant websites, making them only a click away from obtaining, for example,
the latest UK ozone data or design of fuel cell.
■ Resources to enable ideas and evidence in science to be taught within normal
chemistry or science lessons. There is a need to combine experimental work with
alternative strategies, if some of the concerns shown in Figure 1, such as social or
political factors, are to be taught. This can be done for example, by looking at the
way in which scientists past and present have carried out their work and how
external factors such a political climate, war and public opinion, have impinged on
it.
■ Activities that will enhance student’s investigative skills.
These activities are intended to make students think about how they carry out
investigations and to encourage them to realise that science is not a black and white
subject. The true nature of science is very creative, full of uncertainties and data
interpretation can and does lead to controversy and sometimes public outcry. Some of
the experiments and activities will be very familiar, but the context in which they are
embedded provide opportunities for meeting other requirements of the curriculum.
Other activities are original and will have to be tried out and carefully thought through
before being used in the classroom. Student activities have been trialled in a wide
range of schools and where appropriate, subsequently modified in response to the
feedback received.
Dorothy Warren
Chemists in a social and historical context v

Scientific method
War Individual
scientists

Technology Serendipity
Scientific enquiry

Using existing
knowledge and
Communication theory

Finance and why Social

funds are Politics and public opinion conditions
sometimes Legislation
withdrawn

Consumer Ethical dilemmas Environmental

demand issues

Health and
safety Accidents

Figure 1 The factors influencing the nature of scientific ideas– scientific enquiry and
the advancement of science

Maximising the potential use of this resource

It is hoped that this resource will be widely used in schools throughout the United
Kingdom. However, as every teacher knows, difficulties can be experienced when
using published material. No single worksheet can cater for the needs of every student
in every class, let alone every student in every school. Therefore many teachers like to
produce their own worksheets, tailored to meet the needs of their own students. It was
not very surprising when feedback from trial schools requested differentiated
worksheets to allow access to students of different abilities. In an attempt to address
these issues and concerns, this publication allows the worksheet text and some
diagrams to be modified. All the student worksheets can be downloaded in Word
format, from the Internet via the LearnNet website,
[Link] (accessed
September 2005). This means that the teacher can take the basic concepts of the
activity, and then adapt the worksheet to meet the needs of their own students.
Towards the end of the teachers’ notes for most activities there are some suggestions as
to how the resource can be adapted to meet the needs of students of different abilities.
There are also some examples of differentiated worksheets included in the resource.
vi Chemists in a social and historical context

It is not envisaged that teachers will use every activity from each piece of work with an
individual class, but rather pick and choose what is appropriate. For example some
activities use high level concepts and are designed to stretch the most able student and
should not be used unchanged with less able students eg The atom detectives and
What happens when things burn?
Activities that involve researching for secondary information on the Internet contain
hyperlinks to appropriate websites. To minimise the mechanical typing of the URLs
and possible subsequent errors, the students can be given the worksheet in electronic
form and asked to type in their answers. The websites are then only a click away.
Appropriate secondary information has been included in the teachers’ notes for use in
class when the Internet or ICT room is unavailable.
Unfortunately, from time to time website addresses do change. At the time of
publication all the addresses were correct and the date that the site was last accessed is
given in brackets. To minimise the frustration experienced when this happens, it is
advisable to check the links before the lesson. If you find that a site has moved, please
email education@[Link] giving full details so that the link can be updated on the
worksheets on the web in the future.

Strategies for differentiated teaching

All students require differentiated teaching and it is not just an issue for those students
with special educational needs. The following definition by Lewis1 has been found to
be quite useful.
‘Differentiation is the process of adjusting teaching to meet the needs of individual
students.’
Differentiation is a complex issue and is very hard to get right. It can be involved in
every stage of the lesson ie during planning (differentiation by task), at the end of the
activity (differentiation by outcome) and ongoing during the activity. Often teachers
modify the activity during the lesson in response to feedback from the class.
Differentiation does not only rely on appropriate curriculum material but is also
concerned with maximizing learning. Student involvement and motivation effect the
learning experience and should be considered and taken into account. It is therefore
not surprising that differentiation is one of the areas of classroom teaching where
teachers often feel under-confident. Most strategies for differentiated lessons are just
applying good teaching practice eg varying the pace of the lesson, providing suitable
resources and varying the amount and nature of teacher intervention and time.2 Rather
than just providing several examples of differentiated activities from the same
worksheet, a list of strategies for differentiated teaching is presented, with some
examples of how they can be used in the classroom. The examples can be found at the
appropriate places in the text.

1. Using a range of teaching styles

A class is made up of different personalities, who probably have preferred learning
styles. Using a range of teaching approaches makes it more likely that all students will
be able to respond to the science that is being taught. The following examples have
been included and can be found at the appropriate place in the resource.
Example What happens when things burn?
Approach 1 – Working in groups and reporting back to the whole class
Approach 2 – A thinking skills lesson
Chemists in a social and historical context vii

2. Varying the method of presentation or recording

Giving the students some choice about how they do their work. There are many
opportunities given throughout the resource.

3. Taking the pupil’s ideas into account

Provide opportunities for students to contribute their own ideas to the lesson. For
example when setting up an investigation allow different students the freedom to chose
which variables they are going to investigate. The use of concept cartoons provides an
ideal opportunity for students to discuss different scientific concepts (see D. Warren,
The nature of science, London: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001.)

4. Preparing suitable questions in advance

Class discussions are important in motivation, exploring ideas, assessment etc. Having
a list of questions of different levels prepared in advance can help to push the class.

5. Adjusting the level of scientific skills required

Example – Using symbol equations or word equations

6. Adjusting the level of linguistic skills required

Example Norman Rillieux – Sparkling white crystals of sugar
Sheet 1 – a high reading age
Sheet 2 – a low reading age
Teachers may like to check the readability of their materials and of the texts they use.
Guidance on this and on the readability of a range of current texts may be found at
[Link] (accessed September 2005).

7. Adjusting the level of demand on the student

Example
What happens when things burn? – both approaches are for the more able student.
Burning theories is much easier to understand and less demanding on students.

References
1. A. Lewis, British Journal of Special Education, 1992, 19, 24–7.
2. S. Naylor, B. Keogh, School Science Review, 1995, 77(279), 106–110.

How scientists communicate their ideas

Effective communication is crucial to the advancement of science and technology. All
around the globe there are groups of research scientists and engineers, in universities
and in industry, working on similar scientific and technological projects.
Communication between these groups not only gives the scientist new ideas for further
investigations, but helps in the evaluation of data. Results from different groups will
either help to confirm or reject a set of experimental data. Communication is vital
when a company wants to sell a new product. Depending on the product the buyer
will want to understand how it works and how to maintain it. Several of the employees
will have to learn how to use the product, and respond quickly to changing technology
and circumstances. Therefore the manufacturers must be able to communicate the
science to prospective buyers.
viii Chemists in a social and historical context

Scientists communicate in a number of ways including:

■ Publication in research journals
■ Presenting papers at scientific conferences
■ Poster presentations at conferences
■ Book reviews by other scientists
■ Publication on the Internet
■ Sales brochures
■ Advertising flyers
■ Television documentaries

Publication in research journals

The article is written. The article must have an abstract, which is a short summary.
It is submitted to a journal.
The article is refereed by other scientists, working in a similar area. This is to check that
the work is correct and original.
The article may be returned to the author to make changes.
The article is accepted and published by the journal.
The article is published.

Presenting papers at scientific conferences

Conference organisers invite scientists to speak on specific topics and projects.
An abstract is submitted to and accepted by the conference organisers.
The conference programme is organised and the speakers notified.
The scientist gives their talks, usually aided by slides, which contain the main points.
There is usually time for questions after the talk.
The written paper is given to the conference organisers.
All the papers are published in the conference proceedings. This is usually a book.

Poster presentations at conferences

An abstract is submitted to and accepted by the conference organisers.
The conference programme is organised and the poster people notified.
During the poster session the authors stand by the posters ready to answer any
questions, as the delegates read the posters.
Written papers may then be published in the conference proceedings.

Book reviews
Other scientists in the same field often review new books. The reviews are then
published in scientific magazines and journals. The review offers a critical summary of
the book. The idea of the review is to give possible readers an idea of the contents and
whether it is suitable for the intended purpose.
Chemists in a social and historical context ix

Publishing on the Internet

This is the easiest way to publish. Anyone can create their own web page and publish
their own work. In this case the work is not refereed or checked by other people.
However, a lot of the information published on the Internet is linked to reputable
organisations. In this case the articles will have been checked before they are
published. Much of the information published on the Internet is targeted at the general
public, and therefore the scientific ideas are presented in a comprehensible way. There
are often chat pages so people can communicate their views and ask questions or
request further information. The power of the Internet is that there is the opportunity to
get immediate feedback to a comment or question.

Sales brochures
The information must be presented in an attractive and concise manner. After all you
are trying to sell something. There should be a balance between technical information
and operating instructions!

Advertising flyers
This must be written with the target audience in mind.
The information must be concise as there is limited space. The format must be
attractive and should include pictures as well as writing. The flyer should also be quite
cheap to produce.

Teaching students to communicate ideas in science

Students can be taught effective communication skills:
■ By encouraging communication between students and a range of audiences in
classrooms
■ By encouraging them to investigate like ’real scientists’ by reporting their findings
for checking and testing by others, and participating in two-way communication.
(Communicating between groups, classes, partner schools, schools abroad perhaps
via the Internet.)
■ By setting investigations in a social context which offers the opportunity to
communicate the project outside of the classroom. These work best when there is
local interest.
When presenting investigative work to an audience, the student should consider the
following:
■ Who will be in the audience?
■ What information does the audience need to know eg method, results and
recommendations?
■ How to present the information in an interesting and professional way eg should
graphs be hand drawn or done on the computer?
■ That the information offered convinces the audience that their investigation was
valid and reliable.
■ Poster presentations or display boards should be concise, since the space is
limited.
■ When speaking to audiences remain calm, speak clearly and slowly and try to be
enthusiastic. Make sure that information on slides and OHTs can be read from the
back of the room.
x Chemists in a social and historical context

When writing a report of the findings of a scientific investigation for others to check
and test, the emphasis should be on clarity. Another person is going to carry out the
same investigation. The only information available is what is written in the report.
The report could be written under the following headings:
■ Introduction
■ Scientific knowledge
■ Planning
■ Table of results
■ Graphs
■ Conclusions
■ Evaluation
■ Recommendations

Further background information

R. Feasy, J. Siraj-Blatchford, Key Skills: Communication in Science, Durham: The
University of Durham / Tyneside TEC Limited, 1998.

Curriculum coverage
Curriculum links to activities in this resource are detailed at
[Link] (accessed September
2005).
Curriculum links to activities in other resources in this series are detailed at
[Link] (accessed September
2005).

Health and safety

All the activities in this book can be carried out safely in schools. The hazards have
been identified and any risks from them reduced to insignificant levels by the adoption
of suitable control measures. However, we also think it is worth explaining the
strategies we have adopted to reduce the risks in this way.
Regulations made under the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 require a risk
assessment to be carried out before hazardous chemicals are used or made, or a
hazardous procedure is carried out. Risk assessment is your employers responsibility.
The task of assessing risk in particular situations may well be delegated by the
employer to the head of science/chemistry, who will be expected to operate within the
employer’s guidelines. Following guidance from the Health and Safety Executive most
education employers have adopted various nationally available texts as the basis for
their model risk assessments. These commonly include the following:
Safeguards in the School Laboratory, 11th edition, ASE, 2001
Topics in Safety, 3rd Edition, ASE, 2001
Hazcards, CLEAPSS, 1998 (or 1995)
Laboratory Handbook, CLEAPSS, 1997
Safety in Science Education, DfEE, HMSO, 1996
Hazardous Chemicals – a manual for science education, SSERC, 1997 (paper).
Hazardous Chemicals – an interactive manual for science education, SSERC, 1998
(CD-ROM)
Chemists in a social and historical context xi

If your employer has adopted more than one of these publications, you should follow
the guidance given there, subject only to a need to check and consider whether minor
modification is needed to deal with the special situation in your class/school. We
believe that all the activities in this book are compatible with the model risk
assessments listed above. However, teacher must still verify that what is proposed does
conform with any code of practice produced by their employer. You also need to
consider your local circumstances. Is your fume cupboard reliable? Are your students
reliable?
Risk assessment involves answering two questions:
■ How likely is it that something will go wrong?
■ How serious would it be if it did go wrong?
How likely it is that something will go wrong depends on who is doing it and what sort
of training and experience they have had. In most of the publications listed above
there are suggestions as to whether an activity should be a teacher demonstration only,
or could be done by students of various ages. Your employer will probably expect you
to follow this guidance.
Teachers tend to think of eye protection as the main control measure to prevent injury.
In fact, personal protective equipment, such as goggles or safety spectacles, is meant to
protect from the unexpected. If you expect a problem, more stringent controls are
needed. A range of control measures may be adopted, the following being the most
common. Use:
■ a less hazardous (substitute) chemical;
■ as small a quantity as possible;
■ as low a concentration as possible;
■ a fume cupboard; and
■ safety screens (more than one is usually needed, to protect both teacher and
students).
The importance of lower concentrations is not always appreciated, but the following
table, showing the hazard classification of a range of common solutions, should make
the point.
Ammonia (aqueous) irritant if ≥ 3 mol dm–3 corrosive if ≥ 6 mol dm–3
Sodium hydroxide irritant if ≥ 0.05 mol dm–3 corrosive if ≥ 0.5 mol dm–3
Ethanoic (acetic) acid irritant if ≥ 1.5 mol dm–3 corrosive if ≥ 4 mol dm–3
Throughout this resource, we make frequent reference to the need to wear eye
protection. Undoubtedly, chemical splash goggles, to the European Standard EN 166 3
give the best protection but students are often reluctant to wear goggles. Safety
spectacles give less protection, but may be adequate if nothing which is classed as
corrosive or toxic is in use. Reference to the above table will show, therefore, that if
sodium hydroxide is in use, it should be more dilute than 0.5 M (M = mol dm–3).

CLEAPSS Student Safety Sheets

In several of the student activities CLEAPSS student safety sheets are referred to and
recommended for use in the activities. In other activities extracts from the CLEAPSS
sheets have been reproduced with kind permission of Dr Peter Borrows, Director of the
CLEAPSS School Science Service at Brunel University.
xii Chemists in a social and historical context

■ Teachers should note the following points about the CLEAPSS Student Safety
Sheets:
■ Only extracts from fuller student safety sheets have been reproduced.
■ Only a few examples from a much longer series of sheets have been reproduced.
■ The full series is only available to member or associate members of the CLEAPSS
School Science Service.
■ At the time of writing, every LEA in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (except
Middlesbrough) is a member, hence all their schools are members, as are the vast
majority of independent schools, incorporated colleges and teacher training
establishments and overseas establishments.
■ Members should already have copies of the sheets in their schools.
■ Members who cannot find their sheets and non-members interested in joining
should contact the CLEAPSS School Science Service at Brunel University,
Uxbridge, UB8 3PH; tel. 01895 251496; fax. 01895 814372; email
science@[Link] or visit the website [Link] (accessed
September 2005).
■ In Scotland all education authorities, many independent schools, colleges and
universities are members of the Scottish Schools Equipment Resource Centre
(SSERC). Contact SSERC at St Mary’s Building, 23 Holyrood Road, Edinburgh, EH8
8AE; tel. 0131 558 8180, fax 0131 558 8191, email sts@[Link] or visit the
website [Link] (accessed September 2005).
Chemists in a social and historical context xiii

Using the resource

on an Intranet
If your school or college has an Intranet you may wish to download the material in
part or in whole to the Intranet to facilitate easy links for students. Alternatively you
could use some of the web references given to design an interactive worksheet.
Instructions for this are given below.

Designing an interactive worksheet

These instructions are for Microsoft Word.
■ First you need to do some research on the Internet to find the relevant sites related
to the topic and note down the website addresses, or use the sites already known
and available from the resource.
■ Choose an appropriate font, size and colour for your text.
■ Type in the title of the page.
■ Save this page as an HTML file in order to make the page ‘live’.
■ Type in the instructions and questions that you want the students to read.
■ Type in the web page address (url). Always begin [Link] (this will
automatically make the page a hyperlink to the website you have typed and the
text will turn blue).
Now you can make your work look more like a web page by placing lines, graphics,
scrolling text and backgrounds in it.
■ To place a horizontal line on your page, put the cursor where you would like the line
to be, then click on insert, go to horizontal line, choose a line and click on OK.
■ To add a background to your page, click on format, go to background, then fill
effects option, choose an effect and click on OK.
■ To add a picture to your work, place the cursor where you would like the picture
to be, then click on insert, go to picture and clip art option. Choose a suitable
picture for your work and click on OK. The picture size can be altered by moving
the edges in or out or the picture can be moved to another place by dragging it
over.
■ To place scrolling text in your work, you need to highlight the words, click on insert,
go to scrolling text, choose background colour, the speed of the scroll and press OK.
(If you are going to print this work out, the scrolling text will not print out).

Your work is now beginning to look like an interactive web page.

■ When you are satisfied with the final product, click on file, go to web page preview
and this will show you what your page looks like. (You cannot alter your page
through the web page preview screen; you will have to go back to Word).
■ Remember to do a spell check on your work, ie click on the ABC icon on the top
of toolbar.
■ Test out your page.
Now you are ready to use the page with students.
xiv Chemists in a social and historical context

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