2024-12-26

 ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

CHEMISTRY IN LIFE
KIM1052
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Semih GÖRDÜK
Department of Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry

Chapter-10

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

• Alternative energy sources; It has a wide range of options and • *None of them use coal, fuel, etc. to produce energy. It is not based
varieties according to the element used as a source and the way of on consumption. The resources used are completely taken from
production. These resources, also known as renewable energy; As nature and given back to nature without any deterioration.
we'll see in a moment, although they may differ considerably in their • *In all of them, the energy in the form of light, kinetic, etc. is
characteristics, they all have two easily predictable things in common: eventually converted into electrical energy that can be used in city
grids.

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ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES 1. Solar energy

• Solar energy, which we have known since primary school and one of
• What are the most important renewable energy sources? What are the most famous types of renewable energy; It consists of the energy
the most preferred varieties in Turkey and in the world? reaching the earth in the form of photons, being exposed to the
photovoltaic effect with the help of the silicon structure of the panel
and converting it into a form suitable for use in the form of electricity.

1. Solar energy 2. Wind energy

• If we consider it in terms of large energy productions; Especially with • Another well-known type of renewable energy, along with the sun, is wind.
the studies of Germany in recent years, it has been proven that solar We've all seen one of those giant wind turbines, either singly or in a few
energy is a method that can be used for large-scale productions. rows. In those turbines, electrical energy is produced by utilizing the
However, this situation varies according to factors such as the amount power of the wind. In other words, wind energy; It consists of transferring
and angle of sunshine a country receives during the year, the the kinetic energy of the air to the turbine blades and converting it into
country's ability to make large investments in a "solar field", and the electrical energy with the help of the magnetic field created in the rotor
renewable energy awareness it has. and transferring it to the network with the generator.

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2. Wind energy 3. Geothermal energy

• If we evaluate it in terms of investment opportunity, the situation of the • Iceland is undoubtedly the largest geothermal energy paradise known
wind option is almost the same as solar energy. The amount of possible to the whole world. The reason why this is so is nothing but the
earnings varies according to the geographical location of the country, the formation stages of the country's land and the volcanic activities that
number of windy days experienced during the year and the strength of are still continuing intensely. If we briefly explain the cycle of
the wind. geothermal energy over this reason; continental movements
underground, volcanic activities, etc. It consists of converting the heat
energy carried by liquids and gases, which are compressed due to
reasons and high temperature, into electrical energy in power plants.

3. Geothermal energy 4. Wave energy

• Therefore, the luck factor is very effective in producing geothermal
• This method, whose name we heard from the works of Scandinavian
energy in a country. The more volcanic and crustal movements there
countries and Ireland, is groundbreaking for large productions
are, the greater the production potential will be. But Turkey has a sad
compared to other options.
situation in this regard; There is no attempt to use many geothermal
energy resources, especially in the Aegean Region.

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4. Wave energy 4. Wave energy

• Wave energy as a working principle; It is based on taking advantage of
the tidal movements of the seas and oceans or the movement of the • Although smaller varieties are available, especially the “Oyster”
sea waves that constantly hit the shore. It is based on the rotation of model, which is a little more developed, is a powerful method that
the turbine and the generation of electricity with the help of a can provide electricity to a small town.
generator by using the constantly moving water.

4. Wave energy 5. Biomass energy

• Biomass, which is a really new method compared to others; Besides
• The biggest disadvantage of wave energy; The reason is that these
being a renewable energy source, it also contributes to recycling.
exciting production methods are still in the R&D stage abroad and are
Because biomass; It is based on the use of biological-organic residues
not fully known in Turkey.
that are waste in nature or industry.

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5. Biomass energy 6. Hydroelectric energy

• Its working principle is somewhat similar to geothermal energy. As a
• Hydropower, which is a somewhat controversial but renewable
result of burning these wastes collected from nature or industry,
energy source, is also referred to as "hydro energy" in some sources.
either electricity or heat energy is produced in a biomass power plant.
Here is the definition of biomass; represents the organic wastes used
as fuel.

6. Hydroelectric energy 6. Hydroelectric energy

• Although the living examples of the operating style are the
• If you notice, all methods except the use of sunlight and heat are
hydroelectric power plants that we know today, let's talk about their
based on turning a turbine with any natural source and transferring
basic principles in one sentence: The accumulation of water with the
the motion there to the generator. In other words, many power plant
help of a dam built on a stream, the rotation of this water released
designs show great similarity. The important element is to benefit
from a height, the turbine at the bottom, and the generation of
from the energy source found in nature in the right way.
electricity with the help of generators is the hydroelectric energy itself.

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What is a Battery? What You Need to Know About What is a Battery? What You Need to Know About
the Battery Working Principle the Battery Working Principle
• Batteries generally work by chemical reactions occurring between
• A battery is an energy storage device that stores electrical energy as two electrodes (positive and negative) in a medium called an
chemical energy and releases that energy in an electrically usable electrolyte. When charged, a chemical change occurs at the positive
form. They can be manufactured using many different chemical electrode, while the reverse chemical change occurs at the negative
components and come in a variety of types for different applications. electrode. As a result of this reaction, electrons flow from one
electrode to the other, creating a current in the circuit. When
discharged, this process is reversed and the battery's electrodes can
be charged again.

What is a Battery? What You Need to Know About

the Battery Working Principle

• The working principle of batteries is based on electrochemical

reactions. Disposable batteries, also called primary batteries, are
thrown away after being discharged once. However, secondary
batteries (rechargeable batteries) can be used many times because
they can be recharged.

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What is a Battery? What You Need to Know About What is a Battery? What You Need to Know About
the Battery Working Principle the Battery Working Principle
• In recent years, significant advances have been made in battery
• Important characteristics of batteries include capacity, voltage,
technology, and batteries that offer features such as higher energy
number of charge-discharge cycles, and safety. These characteristics
density, faster charge/discharge rates, and longer life have been
determine whether a battery is suitable for a particular application.
developed. These developments have made battery technology, used
in many areas from portable devices to electric vehicles, more
efficient and useful.

 RADIATION WHAT IS RADIATION?

• Knowing what radioactivity means will help us distinguish it from

other substances in our environment. Thus, the events in our
environment caused by radioactive materials will be better
understood. When radioactivity is classified, we see that the elements
are not only radioactive by themselves, but also gain radioactive
properties as a result of external interventions.

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WHAT IS RADIATION? WHAT IS RADIATION?

• The energy (radiation) given out by radioactive materials reaches the • Radiation is the emission or transfer of energy in the form of

environment through various sources. Some of these resources electromagnetic waves or particles. As it is known, atoms form the

appear in many areas of daily life. Therefore, there are a number of basic structure of matter. Atom, on the other hand, consists of a

ways of protection to minimize the damage of radiation on living nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons and electrons revolving

things. around it.

WHAT IS RADIATION? WHAT IS RADIATION?

• If the number of neutrons in the atomic nucleus of any substance is • Heavy nuclei can emit alpha(α) rays (helium nuclei) or undergo a
considerably higher than the number of protons, these substances fission reaction. Substances that break down by exposure to these
show an unstable structure and the neutrons in the nucleus transform reactions are called 'radioactive substances', and rays such as alpha,
and emit β- (negatron). If there are more protons than neutrons, the beta and gamma emitted into the environment are called 'radiation'.
protons transform and emit β+ (positron). Neurons and protons
leaving the atomic nucleus emit unstable atomic nuclei gamma (γ)
rays.

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WHAT IS RADIATION? Types of Radiation

• Radioactivity can occur in two different ways. The radiation made by • Natural or artificial radioactive nuclei release excess energy, which is
unstable elements in nature to become stable without any external carried out in the form of fast particles or electromagnetic waves in
intervention is called natural radioactivity. Elements that are stable in order to become stable. These particles or energy are called radiation
nature can be made unstable by artificial means (by adding new (radiation). Radiation can be classified as seen below.
particles to their nuclei). The radiation that occurs as a result of the
disintegration of the nuclei that are made radioactive in this way is
called artificial radioactivity.

Types of Radiation RADYASYON KAYNAKLARI

• Humans are constantly intertwined with radiation during their lifetime on
earth. With the formation of the world, very long-lived radioactive elements
such as billions of years have created a natural radiation level in the living
environment. The place we live in, the soil structure of this place, the
materials used in the buildings, the seasons, the distance to the poles and
weather conditions are some of the reasons that determine the magnitude of
the natural radiation level we are exposed to.

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RADIATION SOURCES RADIATION SOURCES

• natural sources of radiation,

• Radiation sources can be divided into two parts, natural and artificial. Natural
sources of radiation: • cosmic rays from outer space,

• Gamma rays emitted by radioactive elements with short half-lives in nature,

• Radioactive elements (internal radiation) in our body (especially potassium-40),

• Radioactive substances that we get from food, drinks and the air we breathe

• It can be classified as radon gas, which is formed as a result of the decay of

radium.

RADIATION SOURCES RADIATION SOURCES

• Artificial Radiation Sources: Due to the development of technology, it was
necessary to produce some radiation sources artificially, as it allows many
jobs to be done easier, better and faster. Due to these sources, certain
amounts of radiation are taken. However, the doses taken from these sources
are both lower than natural sources and it is possible to keep them under
control. X-rays used in medicine, agriculture and industry, artificial radioactive
materials and nuclear fallout from nuclear bomb tests, radioactive materials
used in some consumer products are in the artificial radiation sources class.

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THE PLACE OF RADIATION IN OUR LIFE THE PLACE OF RADIATION IN OUR LIFE
• Medical Applications: Radiation plays an important role in the diagnosis and
• Radiation is used in many areas in our lives such as medical, industrial,
treatment of diseases in medicine, due to its ability to obtain images and
research, education, security applications and consumer products.
destroy cells and tumors. Radiology, nuclear medicine and radiotherapy
(radiation therapy) are areas where radiation is used in medicine. The world
average of the annual average radiation dose due to radiation used in medical
applications is 0.3 mSv (millisievert).

THE PLACE OF RADIATION IN OUR LIFE THE PLACE OF RADIATION IN OUR LIFE

• Industrial Applications: Pipe, steam boiler etc. radiography technique is used

• Security Applications: X-ray source is used in package (luggage) controls,
to check whether there are any faults in the machine parts. X-ray films of
especially in places such as airports, cargo, customs and ports.
these industrial products are taken for error detection using X and gamma
rays. Iron, steel, rubber, yarn, glass etc. Radiation sources are also used to
measure properties such as density, level, thickness and weight during the
production of materials, and to measure the humidity and density of the
ground in works such as airport and road construction.

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THE PLACE OF RADIATION IN OUR LIFE THE PLACE OF RADIATION IN OUR LIFE
• Consumer Products: Some products, such as lightning rods, smoke detectors,
• Applications for Research and Education: Especially in studies on DNA in phosphor clocks, contain radioactive substances, albeit in small quantities.
universities, cement, copper, iron, etc. Radiation sources are used for Even optical lenses and porcelain teeth contain traces of the radioactive
sensitive content analysis in mining, grinding and production, and for making substance, thorium. The world average of the annual average radiation dose
seeds more efficient and durable in agriculture. exposed from these sources is 0.0005 mSv.

THE PLACE OF RADIATION IN OUR LIFE THE PLACE OF RADIATION IN OUR LIFE

• Gamma rays are most commonly used in the industry for food preservation.
• In addition to these applications, radiation sources are also used in areas such
Cobalt-60 and cesium-137 (60Co and 137Cs) are used as gamma ray sources.
as sterilization of disposable medical instruments and tools, prolonging the
These sources do not give radioactive properties to the foods they are
life of fresh foods, preventing infestation of dry foods (food irradiation) and
applied to. These irradiators are used to prevent germination in vegetable
improving the physical properties of plastic materials.
products (potatoes, onions), to kill insects in spices and grains, and to prevent
fruit mold.

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THE PLACE OF RADIATION IN OUR LIFE DAMAGES OF RADIATION

• X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible rays, infrared rays, microwaves, radio waves
• In addition, UV rays are used in the disinfection of indoor areas and
and γ-rays are different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
sterilization of packaging materials in the food industry, microwave rays are
Electromagnetic fields are defined by their frequency and wavelength. Since
used to thaw frozen food, to increase the temperature of the food without
X-rays and γ-rays are at very high frequencies, the resulting radiation has the
disturbing its structure, to dry food and to kill microorganisms.
energy to break chemical bonds. This radiation is called ionizing radiation.

DAMAGES OF RADIATION DAMAGES OF RADIATION

• Their ionizable electromagnetic radiation carries enough energy to break

down DNA, the material of the cell. Damage to DNA kills cells. As a result, the
tissue is damaged. Very little damage to DNA causes permanent changes that
can lead to cancer.

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DAMAGES OF RADIATION DAMAGES OF RADIATION

• X-rays or roentgen rays are high-energy radiation that causes the materials they
• Radioactive pollutants have negative effects on human, animal and plant
come into contact with to lose electrons, that is, to become ionized. These rays are
health, thereby disrupting the environment and ecological balance. In addition,
used in the shooting of films used for diagnostic purposes. Depending on the dose,
radiation causes genetic changes in living things. The effect of radiation; varies
they can cause disruptions in cell division and genetic structure. Cells that are most
according to gender, age and organs. In particular, the eye is the most affected
sensitive to ionizing radiation, including x-rays, are rapidly dividing cells, so the
organ, causing visual impairment, cataracts, and slowing of eye compliance.
developing fetus and its tissues are the structures that are expected to suffer the
Leather, on the other hand, is more resistant to radiation. The damage of
most from these rays. The point to be considered here is that only the tissue in
radiation is usually an effect that occurs over time, and the sudden effect only
contact with the beam is affected and these rays do not travel within the body. For
manifests itself in the form of deaths caused by atomic bombs and burns in
example, the rays taken in a hand film do not reach the uterus by advancing through
high radiation.
the body.

METHODS OF PROTECTION FROM RADIATION METHODS OF PROTECTION FROM RADIATION

• It is not possible for us to be completely protected from radioactive materials that • For people living in the community, the annual dose limit has been accepted as 1
we encounter in almost every area of our lives. However, the amount of radiation to mSv, excluding doses due to natural radiation sources and medical practices.
be exposed to can be reduced by the precautions to be taken. Every country has People who are exposed to radiation due to the work area should be kept under
laws, regulations and regulations regarding radiation safety. The articles in this law, constant control with devices that measure the radiation dose. Employees
statute and regulations are updated according to the results of the International exposed to radiation must wear special clothing or masks with respiratory
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) research on radiation and its equipment to protect them from internal radiation.
biological effects around the world.

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METHODS OF PROTECTION FROM RADIATION SOME HAZARD FOR RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES SYMBOLS

• In response to the external radiation hazard, one should not stay near the source
for longer than necessary, work as far away from the radiation source as possible,
and place a barrier material between the radiation source and the worker.

 TRACE EVIDENCES FOR FORENSIC CHEMISTRY TRACE EVIDENCE

• Fingerprints and Palm Prints

• Footprint

• Hair and Thread Trace

• Paint Trace

• Glass Trace

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FINGER PRINT Ninhydrin and DFO

• When ninhydrin, which reacts with ammonia or primary and secondary amines, reacts
• Including identical twins; Since each person's fingerprint is different and does not
with free amines, a deep blue-violet color known as Ruhemann purple is formed.
change for years, it is widely used in the detection of perpetrators.
Ninhydrin is the most commonly used chemical in fingerprint identification. It reacts with
• These scars are formed when the biological fluid secreted by the body comes out amines in fingerprints, which are amino acid residues. The reason for the color change is
of the papilla lines in the area starting from the first knuckle and up to the nail the schiff base formed at the end of the reaction. While blue-violet color is formed in
base and smeared on the objects. ammonia and primary amine, yellow-orange colored iminium salt is formed with
secondary amines.

Ninhydrin and DFO LAWSONE: New Fingerprint Indicator

• DFO is the chemical used to take fingerprints from porous surfaces. When it
• This substance is a compound belonging to the naphthoquinone
reacts with the amino acids in the fingerprint, it turns into a derivative with high
(naphthoquinone) group, whose reactions with amino acids are well known. It
fluorescence properties. This substance, which is excited at 470 nm, radiates at
has been reported that it leaves a purple-brown residue when interacting with
570 nm. This is the reason for the blue-green light formed as a result of
fingerprints on paper surfaces and also has photoluminescent properties.
interaction with the fingerprint.

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LUMINOL LUMINOL
• Luminol substance, together with hydrogen peroxide, is squeezed into the area • That is, in fact, the mixture of hydrogen peroxide and luminol does not react on
that is presumed to be blood, and if there are blood residues, Fe2+ ions of its own, but needs a metal catalyst. Even the invisible iron ions in the blood
hemoglobin in the blood catalyzes the oxidation reaction of luminol with residues are sufficient for this task and prove the existence of blood by scattering
hydrogen peroxide, and ensures the oxidation of luminol to aminophthalate. blue-green light.

Footprint Detection Methods TRACE OF HAIR AND YARN

• In order to detect dusty footprints on smooth and glossy surfaces, horizontal light • In general, determinations are made such as whether a hair belongs to a human

is given parallel to the surface, allowing the trace to be visible. or an animal, if it belongs to a human, to which region it belongs, what its gender

• If the trace is partially evident in the detection of bloody footprints, the trace can is, and whether there is any narcotic substance in the hair. Microscopic methods,

be made more obvious by painting with amido black. chemical methods and biological methods (for DNA analysis) are frequently used.

• In revealing invisible bloody footprints, the traces can be made visible with the
application of Luminol liquid.

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TRACE OF HAIR AND YARN PAINT TRACE

• Especially in traffic accidents, they are the most useful and frequently sought
• If there are traces of yarn or textile pieces taken from the crime scene,
evidence in terms of clarification of the event. Apart from this, whether the
microscopic comparisons are made to find evidence of where that piece belongs.
documents were written by the same pen; paints smeared on the clothes of the
The characteristic feature of the yarn (cotton, wool, etc.) and the dyestuff on the
man who attacked a person, as well as glasses, cigarette butts, tissue paper, etc.
yarn are the most important factors in detecting. It is the only criterion used. It is
Various paints transferred onto it are common examples of this. The methods
compared with methods such as spectrophotometer, chromatography and it is
used in dye analysis are generally visible light microscopy, scanning electron
examined whether it matches the compared.
microscopy, X-ray spectrometry and FTIR spectroscopy.

GLASS TRACE
• In various incidents (traffic accident, theft, murder, etc.), glass fragments
obtained from the crime scene and glass fragments obtained from suspicious
persons, vehicles or places are compared through analysis and examinations, and
glass analysis is performed to determine whether there is a relationship between
them. When used, it helps in tracing information such as from which side was
fired, and in reaching the criminal by recreating the event. The methods used in
glass analysis are generally AAS, ICP , MAS, IR, MS and conventional chemical
analysis.

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