Assessment and Retrofitting of

Existing Timber Structures

Lecture
Durability of timber
(and timber structures)

Objective:
Explain and characterize the deterioration
phenomena of biological, chemical or
physical nature of timber in structures.

Wolfgang F. Gard Biobased Structures and

Materials, TU Delft, The Netherlands
Gaby Ehmcke, TU Munich
Jan-Willem van de Kuilen TU Munich & TU Delft
Michael Risse, TUM

1
Overarching Subject: Service Life Anatomy
Micro Cell wall
structure of
Service Life wood Cell wall chemistry
Extractives

Chemical
composition
Exposure
Wood UV radiation
durability Moisture
Temperature
Degradation Corrosion
mechanisms Micro-organisms
Marine organisms
Insects
Structural
Protection and
design maintenance
Treatment
Wood modification
Wood preservation
3
 Durable Design of a Structure

Function & Safety

Loads
Service Life Prediction
Resistance/strength Model (SLPM)
(consists of sub-models)
Deterioration
time

Maintenance

Environmental impact

End of Service Life

SLPM is a tool to comply with Design Codes (Eurocode) and

Environmental Product Declaration EPD
Service Life Modelling

Both R and S are a function of

time:
• The Resistance R may
degrade over time
• The Sollicitation (Load) S may
increase over time (change of
use, new earthquake risks,
higher wind loads, etc.)

5
Durability (EN 1990)

The structure shall be designed so that deterioration

during its design working life does not impair the
performance of the structure below its intended level,
having due regard to its environment and the
anticipated level of maintenance.

6
Terms
Deterioration
• Latin: deteriorare "to make worse“
• falling from a higher to a lower level in quality
Degradation
• processes by which organic substances are broken down by living
organisms (biodegradation) and/or decomposition of chemical
compounds (polymer degradation)
Decay
• to be slowly destroyed by natural processes
• to slowly lose strength, health, etc.
Damage
• the occurrence of a change for the worse
• an event that occurs when something passes from one state or
phase to another
8

Source Merriam Webster dictionary

What does durability mean ?

• Resistance against degradation

• Biological durability (material related)

• Durability of a structure (resistance to loads and actions /

exposure)

9
 Wood durability: ambient conditions causing
degradation of wood properties

• Radiation (e.g. UV)

• Abrasion (wind, water)
• Polluted air (e.g. acids) Physical
• Elevated temperatures / Fire Biological
Chemical
• Water and/or polluted water Mechanical

• Moisture
• Overloading
• Micro-organisms

10
What is changing in the wood when it’s
degrading ?

• Macro structure

• Micro structure

• Chemical composition

11
 Chain of wood structure Cell wall
ML,P,S1,S2,S3
Fibrils 10-6m
Micro fibrils
10-9m – 10-7m

Fibre
Vessels
10-5m - 10-4m

Molecule
Cellulose
Hemicelluloses
Lignin
10-10m -10-9m

Clear wood Structural wood

Board Board
Up to 1 m 1m - 7m

12

Source: according to University of Canterbury, 1996. Mark Harrington

 Microscopic wood structure
resin channel fibres vessels
Late wood
Early wood

ray

100 µm

Wood species: Pine (softwood) Wood species: Poplar (hardwood)

13
 rays

100 µm

Wood species: Robinia (hardwood) Wood species: White oak (hardwood)

14
 Cross section

pits

ray

Radial plane of softwood

15
 Chemical
Cell wall structure constituents:
• cellulose
• hemicellulose
• lignin

16
 Chemical Structure/Cell wall

P S
holzkunde

17
 Chemical Structure: constituents
constituents of the cell wall of the cell wall

65
61
relative to the whole cell wall[%]

60 lignin
55
cellulose
50
hemicellulose
45

40

35

30

25

20
20
15
11
10
6
5

m/p s1 s2 s3
layer

M: Middle lamella, P: Primary layer, S: Secondary layers (S1, S2, S3)

The S2 is the prime layer with regard to the strength and stiffness of wood

18

Rowell R.M.: Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood [Link] & Francis.2005
 Chemical Structure

Hemicellulose:
Acts as a matrix for the cellulose; increases packing density of the cell
wall and is a link between fibrous cellulose and amorphous lignin.

Slightly branched structure

19
 Chemical Structure

Lignin:
Holds the fibres together, acts as stiffening agent for the cellulose
molecules in the cell wall, ´rigid 3D-matrix´.

cumarylalcohol coniferylalcohol synapylalcohol

Phenolic compounds
20
Reason of natural durability
Inorganics
Wood Extractives (non-cell wall components) Silicates
Carbonates
Fatty acids

Waxes Stilbenes

Terpenes
Pinene
Limonene Alkaloid
Cytisine

Tannins
Gallic acid Flavone toxic

22
Macro-molecules in wood

• Cellulose • Extractives
• Hemi-Cellulose
• Lignin

23
Degradation mechanisms & Exposure

• UV radiation (Slide 24)

• Temperature (Slide 32)
• Moisture (Slide 39)
• Corrosion (Slide 42)
• Chemicals (Slide 45)
• Overloading (Slide 49)
• Micro-organisms (Slide 53)
• Insects (Slide 86)
• Marine organisms (Slide 97)

24
 Degradation by UV-Radiation
(+weathering)

General term used to define the slow degradation of

materials exposed to weather

The rough grey appearance of garden furniture, wooden facades….

Photochemical degradation on
the surface of the wood
Exposure to sunlight…..
1. Colour change
2. Surface fibres loosen and
erode

25
 Degradation by UV radiation

Vertical bevel
siding
26
 Degradation by UV radiation

Shingles

27
 Degradation by UV Radiation

unexposed After 500 hours exposure After 1000 hours exposure

Lignin decomposition, UV-Wavelength 100 – 400 nm

28
Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites 2013
 Degradation by UV Radiation
Surface degradation primarily
initiated by solar radiation (UV)
Additional factors:
• wetting and drying through
precipitation
• relative humidity
• abrasion by windblown
particles / rain
• temperature changes
• atmospheric pollution
• oxygen
• human activity……
Early- and latewood after UV aging
Weathering is a more generic
term for these combined and
slow processes

29
 1. Step
absorption UV-photon → free radical

2. Step
2 H 2 O + O 2 → 2 H 2 O2

3. Step
2 H2O2 + free radical → chain scission reactions → degradation of
polymeric components of wood

Mechanism of free radical formation from lignin degradation

31

Polymer Degradation and Stability

Volume 88, Issue 2, May 2005, Pages 268–274
 Degradation by UV Radiation

• P wall and S1 layer with high Lignin content

• Surface phenomenon (0.05mm – 2.5mm depth)
• Depolymerisation of Lignin by UV light (peak at
280 nm) caused by free radicals
• Visible light has low energy (400nm-700nm)
• Cellulose is relatively stable against
depolymerisation processes
• Surface is highly concentrated by cellulose

32
 Influence of Temperature on Mechanical Properties

MOE MOR

Eurocode 5: Design code takes into account temperatures up to 60ºC

34

Source: Wood Handbook. Madison, US, 2010

 Degradation by higher Temperatures

• Strength losses are effected by the combination of

temperature, moisture and time

• Depolymerisation of hemicellulose and cellulose at

65°C maintained for 3 month

• At 102°C for 300 days MOE will be reduced by 17%

and MOR by 45%

Example: thermal treated wood (at 160°C - 200°C) has

high strength losses.

35
Degradation by moisture – Here: influence of moisture content

MOE

Properties

MOR

hardness
compression strength

40

MC (%)
 Degradation by moisture

Hydrolysis (= a molecule of water breaks a chemical bond)

• Decomposition of Carbohydrates (cellulose, hemicelluloses,

lignin)
• Reaction with water molecules

Naturally a slow reaction !

Catalysed by dilute acids and enzymes.
41
Degradation by moisture

42
Degradation by Chemicals

pH changes in wood caused by:

For example
• Fire retardants
• Wood preservatives
• Polluted Air
• Corrosion

43
 Degradation by Chemicals

• Average pH of wood is between 3 and 5.5

• Heart wood is generally more resistant to acid than sapwood

• Hardwoods are more susceptible to degradation by acids and alkalis

• Alkaline solutions are more destructive to wood fibres than acidic

solutions because wood adsorbs alkaline solutions more readily than
acidic solutions

• Waterborne wood preservatives and fire retardants (salts) could

undergo a fixation with the cell wall by reducing sugars, subsequently
strength is affected up to 20% depending on the agents (takes time!)
→ separation of fibres

44
 Degradation by micro-organisms

Since wood is an organic material, it is

more or less biodegradable by micro-
organisms (fungi, bacteria) and insects !

In addition there are:

• Marine borers
• Termites

54
Macro-molecules in wood

Nutrients Protection
• Cellulose • Extractives
• Hemi-Cellulose
• Lignin

55
 Degradation by fungi

Brown Rot
Gloeophyllum; Blättling
56
 Degradation by fungi

Brown rot, bad structural detailing, corrosion of

fasteners
→ Service life depends on material properties
but also the construction (SLP-Model)! Discoloration: Blue Stain
57
 Degradation by fungi

Spore Hypha

diameter of hyphae reaches from 0.1–0.4μm

length reaches about 5 μm

60
 Degradation by fungi
Surface Mycelium

Serpula lacrymans; Dry rot; Echter Hausschwamm

61
Degradation by fungi
Hypha in fibres

62
 Degradation by fungi

• Web made from string, diameter 2 μm

• Growth up to 11 mm per day
• Decomposition by enzymes
• 600 million spores per minute (Dry rot)
• EN 350: Durability Classes for wood species
63
 Degradation by fungi

Living Conditions

• Moisture Content (20% - 60%)

• Temperature (20°C - 30°C)
• Oxygen (Air volume at the lumina 10%-20%)
• pH-value (5-6)
• Wood (Cellulose, Lignin, Hemicellulose)

64
 Degradation by fungi
Brown Rot (Basidiomycetes)

• Dry Rot (Serpula lacrimans)

• Wet Rot Cellar fungus
(Coniophara puteana)
• Poria vaillantii
• Gloeohyllum spp.

Softwood
Cellulose & hemicellulose & (lignin)
MC 30%-60%
T 24°C – 35°C
pH 4-6 brittle crack
66
Brown rot
A) Low-molecular substances are produced
B) Enzymes penetrate the entire S2 layer. Digestion of
hemicellulose and cellulose
C) Drying leads to numerous cracks in the S2 layer
D) S3 layer remains intact, a matrix of modified. Lignin
remains (ML)

Schwarze et al 1999

67
 Degradation by fungi
White Rot (Basidiomycetes)

• Trametes versicolor
• Fomes fomentarius
• Stereum spp.

Hardwood
Lignine & cellulose & hemicellulose
MC 30%-60%
T 24°C – 35°C
pH 4-6

68
White rot
Selective delignification
1. In the early stages, low-molecular substances
(represented as dots) diffuse into the secondary
wall
2. Degradation of hemicellulose and lignin within
the secondary wall and middle lamella.
3. Degradation of pectin and lignin leads to the
dissolution of the cell connection
4. Only after a long infestation period is cellulose
degraded

Schwarze et al 1999

69
 Degradation by fungi
Soft Rot (Ascomycetes)
Chaetomium species
Soft-,Hardwood in ground contact
Cellulose & hemicellulose & (lignin)
MC 30%-200%
T 24°C – 35°C
pH up 11

70
Soft rot
Soft rot
1. Hyphae grow into the secondary wall. Infestation
mostly in late wood
2. Hyphae growth parallel to the orientation of the
cellulose microfibrils in the S2 layer
3. Cavities with conically shaped ends
4. The secondary wall is almost completely
destroyed. Middle lamella remains

Schwarze et al 1999

71
 Degradation by fungi
Compression strength after decay initiation
Relative compression strength
120 Pore fungi / Poria vaporaria
Cellar rot / Coniophora cerebella
100 Dry rot / Merulius lacrymans
Dry rot / Serpula himantioides
80

60

40

20

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Time (hours)
Influence of fungi on strength
74
Blue Stain (Ascomycetes)

75
 Blue Stain in fiber cells
Blue Stain in ray cells

76
 Blue Stain

• Doesn’t decompose cell wall compounds

• Hyphae and secrets of metabolism lead to discolorations (dark-blue,
grey, black)
• Lives from cell contents (e.g. starch, extractives)
• Temperature: 28°C – 40°C (min. ca. 0°C)
• Moisture Content: 30% – 40 %

77
 Bacteria

Bacteria are known to degrade wooden

foundations that are permanently
submerged in water.
These degradation processes take
Size of many bacteria is between 0.4
place over hundreds/thousands of years
and 5μm.

78
 Lab tests for durability

EN 113 16 weeks

Foto: TNO

In laboratory tests, the resistance of wood species against

fungal attack is measured in accelerated ´aging´ tests.

79
 Lab tests for durability

In laboratory tests, the resistance of

wood species against fungal attack is
measured in accelerated ´aging´ tests.

80
 Brown-rot fungi decay
Residual weight [%]

Incubation time [weeks]

81
Rowell, R.M. (2013) Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites. CRC Press Taylor & Francis , New York
 Field test for timber in ground contact

EN 252
5 years of testing
´Graveyard tests´

83

SP/ Sweden 2012

 Field test for timber in weather exxposure

Lap-Joint
L-Joint
Foto: TNO/BFH
84
 Field test for timber in weather exxposure

Horizontal (Double layer)

85
Foto: Rapp, Augusta (2000)
 Field test for timber in weather exxposure

Vertical covered Vertical not covered

Foto: Rapp, Augusta (2000)

86
Natural durability
juvenile wood Heart wood

sapwood
Natural durability

Robinia (hardwood)

88
 Biological (natural) Durability of wood

Resistance against fungi and insects.

EN 350 Annex B
Classification system and Durability classes of about
120 wood species
1 (high resistant) – 5 (low resistant)

CEN/TS 15083-1&2 (procedure how to determine)

Durability tests (lab- & field-test)

EN 113, ENV 807
EN 252

89
 Hazard Natural durability
classes
Durability 1 2 3 4 5

1 O O O O O
EN 335 2 O O O (O) (O)
EN 460 3 O O (O) (O)-(X) (O)-(X)

4 O (O) (X) X X

5 O X (X) X X

O natural durability is satisfactory.

(O) natural durability is in principle satisfactory, but some

circumstances may require timber to be treated.
(O)-(X) natural durability could be sufficient, but timber species,
treatability and the final application may lead to chemical
treatment.
(X) chemical treatment is advisable, but for some applications
the natural durability may be satisfactory.
X chemical treatment unavoidable

90

90
 Durability Classes (EN 350)

• spruce 4
• pine 3-4
• oak (European) 2-4
• oak (American) 4
• larch 3-4
• azobe 1-2
• acacia 1-2
• Western Red Cedar 2-3

durable 1, not durable 5

91
 8 weeks
8 weeks-leached
16 weeks
16 weeks-leached
frequency

Mass loss (Coriolus versicolor) [%]

Van Acker, J. 2006 Presentation Wood protection 2006, New Orleans, USA

92
 Wood species for hydraulic structures
Trade name Botanical name Durability class
(DC)
Azobé Lophira alata 1-2
Angelim vermelho Dinizia excelsa 1
Bangkirai Shorea spp. 2
Billinga Nauclea diderrichii 1
Basralocus Dicorynia spp. 2-1
Demerara Groenhart Ocotea rodiaei 1
Purperhart Peltogyne spp. 3-2
Massaranduba Manilkara spp. 3-1
Okan Cylicidiscus gabunensis 1
Muiracatiara Astronium spp. 1
Piquia Caryocar villosum 2-1
Cumaru Dipteryx spp. 1
Cloeziana Eucalyptus cloeziana 1
93
Degradation by insects

95
 Insects

eggs
beetle
larva

Evolution cycle cocoon

96
97
 Insects
Insects in the forest Living conditions
Standing trees Nutrients in the wood
High moisture content Moisture content
High content of nutrients Temperature

Insects in timber
Moisture content below FS Nutrients
Sapwood and/or heartwood
Selected wood species
Cambium and sapwood (seldom
heartwood)
Often decayed wood by fungi

98
 Insects in dry timber

Longhorn beetle
Hylotrupes bajulus
Common furniture beetle
Anobium punctatum
Powder-post beetle
Lyctus brunneus

Death watch beetle

Xestobium rufovillosum

Callidium violaceum /
Phymatodes testaceus
99
Longhorn beetle
Hylotrupes bajulus

1. Softwood
2. Sapwood
3. In and under roof structure
4. 28°C ... 30 °C
MC 28 .. 30 %
(minimum level 8 ... 10%)
5. 3 – 5 years in larval stage

100
Common furniture beetle
Anobium punctatum

1. Soft- and hardwood

2. Sapwood also heart wood if infested by fungi
3. 22°C ... 23 °C; MC ca. FSP
4. 4 - 8 years in larval stage

101
Degradation by marine organisms (+mechanical damage)

105

Hydraulic Structures
 Degradation by marine organisms

Outer layer decayed

by shipworm
(Teredo navalis)

CT- scan Some native tropical timber species are resistant to marine
borers: Angelique, Azobé (Bongossi, Ekki), Greenheart
106
 Degradation by marine organisms
Shipworm (Teredo navalis / spp.)
Family: Sea shells
Saltwater clams (not a worm) with very small shells.
Notorious for boring into timber structures that are immersed
in sea and brackish water, such as piers, docks and wooden
ships
Length 20 – 40 cm, Diameter hole: 8 to 12mm,
Lives in salt water (7ppt- 35ppt) sometimes fresh water.
Survives temp.:5-27°, Prefers: 11-24°.

A pair of boring shells

107
 Degradation by marine organisms

Teredo navalis attack

Teredo navalis snack

(Tamilok)

108
 Degradation by marine organisms
Gribble (Limnoria lignorum)
Family: Lobster
Occurs throughout the seas of the
Northern Hemisphere, grows to 5
mm in length and has a gray body
consisting of 14 clearly defined
segments.
Lives in salt water (min.15ppt)

________
1 cm

Typical decay of Gribble: hourglass

shape deterioration of piles, just
below the waterline
109
 Degradation by marine organisms

Gribble (Limnoria lignorum)

It burrows about 12 mm into wood.
Diameter hole: 1.5 to 2 mm
The annual degradation can be 6-12 mm

Foto: Peter Jonas

110
Master‘s Thesis

Tasks
• Determination of processing yield
• Potential utilization pathways for recovered studs and beams
from deconstructed (development of new products)
• Mechanical strength grading and testing

Interested? [Link]@[Link] or [Link]@[Link]

[Link] 111