Systematic Review

Design, Algorithms, and Applications of Microstrip Antennas

for Image Acquisition: Systematic Review
Luis Fernando Guerrero-Vásquez 1,∗,† , Nathalia Alexandra Chacón-Reino 1,† , Byron Steven Sigüenza-Jiménez 2 ,
Felipe Tomas Zeas-Loja 2 , Jorge Osmani Ordoñez-Ordoñez 1 and Paúl Andrés Chasi-Pesantez 1

1 Telecommunications and Telematics Research Group, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana,

Cuenca EC010103, Ecuador; nchaconr@[Link] (N.A.C.-R.); jordonezo@[Link] (J.O.O.-O.);
pchasi@[Link] (P.A.C.-P.)
2 Electronic Engineering School, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Cuenca EC010103, Ecuador
* Correspondence: lguerrero@[Link]; Tel.: +593-987053450
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: This systematic literature review investigates microstrip antenna applications

in image acquisition, focusing on their design characteristics, reconstruction algorithms,
and application areas. We applied the PRISMA methodology for article selection. From
selected studies, classifications were identified based on antenna patch geometry, substrate
types, and image reconstruction algorithms. According to inclusion criteria, a significant
increase in publications on this topic has been observed since 2013. Considering this trend,
our study focuses on a 10-year publication range, including articles up to 2023. Results
indicate that medical applications, particularly breast cancer detection, dominate this field.
However, emerging areas are gaining attention, including stroke detection, bone fracture
monitoring, security surveillance, avalanche radars, and weather monitoring. Our study
highlights the need for more efficient algorithms, system miniaturization, and improved
models to achieve precise medical imaging. Visual tools such as heatmaps and box plots
are used to provide a deeper analysis, identify knowledge gaps, and offer valuable insights
Academic Editor: Dimitra I.
for future research and development in this versatile technology.
Kaklamani
Keywords: systematic review; image acquisition; patch antennas; PRISMA methodology;
Received: 27 January 2025
Revised: 26 February 2025
antenna design; substrate; image reconstruction algorithms
Accepted: 4 March 2025
Published: 7 March 2025

Citation: Guerrero-Vásquez, L.F.;

Chacón-Reino, N.A.; Sigüenza- 1. Introduction
Jiménez, B.S.; Zeas-Loja, F.T.; In the continuous framework of technological development and optimization, demand
Ordoñez-Ordoñez, J.O.; Chasi-
for advanced and efficient imaging systems has experienced exponential growth, which
Pesantez, P.A. Design, Algorithms,
generates significant interest among researchers [1]. Among emerging technologies that
and Applications of Microstrip
Antennas for Image Acquisition:
emerged in the the last decade, microstrip antennas are a fundamental component due to
Systematic Review. Electronics 2025, 14, their outstanding versatility and potential for image acquisition [2]. Since their creation in
1063. [Link] 1985, microstrip antennas have evolved significantly due to their wide variety of designs,
electronics14061063 properties, and characteristics [3]. They are known for their unique properties such as
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. high directivity, operability over a wide frequency band, compact size, and lightweight.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Additionally, their manufacturing process is cost-effective [4,5].
This article is an open access article These characteristics are crucial in design and construction, which makes them suitable
distributed under the terms and
for image acquisition applications in various scenarios and environments [6]. Their utility
conditions of the Creative Commons
is not limited to communication systems but also extends to more specialized fields such as
Attribution (CC BY) license
([Link]
medicine, remote sensing or surveillance, agriculture, cartography, and more [3,7,8].
licenses/by/4.0/).

Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 [Link]

Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 2 of 50

Microstrip antennas offer significant advantages over conventional antennas in an

image acquisition context and combine compactness, lightweight design, and high perfor-
mance [9]. Their reduced size and weight make them ideal for integration into portable
or wearable systems and facilitate their use in dynamic environments such as medical
diagnostics or aerial imaging [10]. Additionally, their planar structure allows for easy
fabrication on flexible or non-conventional substrates, thus enhancing their versatility for
applications where conventional antennas may be impractical.
Microstrip patch antennas exhibit diverse geometries tailored to specific applications
and encompass a radiating patch on a dielectric substrate, which is linked to a transmission
line and a ground plane [3,11]. Common geometric shapes include circular, rectangular,
square, elliptical, triangular, and ring [12,13]. Innovative designs, such as fractals, Vivaldi
apertures, and nature-inspired shapes, have also shown promising results [14–16].
In the image acquisition area, a suitable antenna design alone is not enough; it is
necessary to generate a reconstruction from retrieved information. In this case, algorithms
for signal processing, data analysis, and image reconstruction are used [17]. Methods such
as convolution, edge segmentation, pattern recognition, Fourier transform, and filtering
processes are implemented, facilitating a variety of operations to improve image quality
and extract precise information from images [17,18].
The current variety of algorithms and techniques applied for image acquisition and
reconstruction covers a wide range of applications, notably in the field of medicine, playing
a crucial role in disease diagnosis and treatment through imaging [19]. These techniques
are used in medical diagnostics such as computed tomography (CT), Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI), and confocal microwave imaging (CMI) [20]. In addition to these systems,
image reconstruction algorithms are applied in the security field, focusing on surveillance
and detection systems for tracking objects and people through facial image reconstruction
from data captured by security cameras [21,22].
In this context, it is observed that patch antenna applications for image generation
is an area of interest for both researchers and developers. The large number of existing
studies in databases invite the creation of literature reviews that present information
clearly, orderly, and systematically, allowing for the identification of trends or knowledge
gaps. Thus, this article presents a systematic literature review that uses the PRISMA
methodology [23] for discriminating information and selecting the most representative
articles with clear inclusion and exclusion criteria. Additionally, an analysis based on
constructive and functional characteristics of antennas and on applications and algorithms
used in image reconstruction is generated. Trends, challenges, and possible areas for
improvement have been identified, making this work a potential reference point for future
researchers or developers.
The article is organized as follows. Section 2 presents a prior review of the studies
that address related topics, describing their main findings and limitations in order to
establish this research contribution. In Section 3, PRISMA-based methodology is described,
starting from research questions formulation, keywords, and search equation, as well as
inclusion and exclusion criteria used. Subsequently, Section 4 answers research questions,
presenting the results clearly and combining graphical visualizations with narratives that
describe the most important contributions of each study. The results are also discussed,
which identify trends and research niches that have not yet been addressed, through a
comparative analysis of the studies’ proposed variables. The analysis has been divided
into two sections: correlation analysis between variable classifications (Section 6) and
correlation analysis with antenna constructive characteristics (Section 5). Finally, Section 7
summarizes the main conclusions on the most relevant findings and some perspectives
from authors as a starting point for generating new ideas in this area.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 3 of 50

2. Related Work
This section provides a description of various existing literature reviews related to
the functioning and imaging capabilities of patch antennas. This information offers a
foundation on the work that has already been developed and analysis lines that could be
addressed in a new systematic literature review. Table 1 shows a comparative summary of
several previous studies related to patch antennas and their use in image acquisition.

Table 1. Summary of related works.

Ref. Approach Methodology Limitations

Review on the use of
Lack of experimental
printed antennas in Review of scientific
data in certain
sensors. Applicability in databases, classifying
applications and the
[24] telecommunications, antennas based on their
need for further studies
biomedical devices, and characteristics, materials,
on antenna
environmental and applications.
miniaturization.
detection.
Review of textile-based High production cost
Comparative study of
wearable antennas, and challenges in
wearable antennas
analyzing their design, integrating flexible
reported in the literature,
[25] applications in antennas into clothing
evaluating radiation
telecommunications, without compromising
efficiency, flexibility, and
and biomedical electromagnetic
materials used.
monitoring. performance.
Analysis of academic
Limitations in
Exploration of portable literature on
transmission efficiency
antennas used in advancements in
due to proximity to the
body-centric wearable antennas,
[26] human body, affecting
communications, classified by material
antenna performance
highlighting advantages type, coupling efficiency,
under various
and limitations. and body absorption
conditions.
level.
Exploration of
Study of recent image Lack of experimental
microwave-based
reconstruction methods, validation for some
imaging techniques
comparing different proposed models and
[27] applied to anomaly
microstrip antenna reliance on
detection in biomedical
architectures and their computational
structures and industrial
effects on image quality. simulations.
materials.
Review on the use of Analysis of recent
metasurface antennas in literature on Challenges in real-time
microwave image metasurface antennas, reconstruction algorithm
[28] reconstruction, highlighting advances in implementation and
emphasizing imaging algorithms and limitations in
computational improvements in transmission efficiency.
techniques. antenna directivity.
Comparison of flexible
Analysis of flexible and antennas based on High variability in
textile antennas used in innovative materials, electromagnetic
[29] biomedical applications classified by radiation response due to bending
and portable wireless efficiency, flexibility, and and compression of
communications. adaptability to different textile material.
environments.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 4 of 50

• In 2013, Reig and Ernesto [24] conducted a review of the most recent advances in
printed antennas for sensor applications, collecting and analyzing information from a
decade. They analyzed applications that employ these antennas, which are mainly
used in wireless communication systems, specifically in sensor networks focusing
on medium and long-range links, On-body applications, and On-chip applications.
Regarding image acquisition, authors identified that RFID antennas are useful in
applications related to creating detailed images of objects and environments. While
the article does not focus on image acquisition using antennas, it addresses the topic
as an emerging trend worth studying for potential future developments.
• In 2015, Priya et al. [25] conducted a review compiling, analyzing, and synthesizing
information from different sources on the design, manufacturing, and applications of
portable antennas based on textile materials. They described the interaction effects
between a portable antenna and a human body, classifying them into two categories:
antenna effects on the human body and human body effects on the antenna’s per-
formance. For radar applications, they designed a broadband antenna prototype
for a wearable antenna system with eight elements. An eight-element array was
tested in the same frequency range, including a multifunction box for SAR imaging.
Obtained SAR images provided detailed information about terrain topography, lo-
cation, and movement of enemy forces. They also mentioned the need to balance
efficiency, size, and bandwidth to design a small antenna for high-resolution imaging
for hazard monitoring.
• A relevant study was proposed in 2018 by Mahmud et al. [26], who presented a re-
view of microwave imaging obtained for breast cancer detection using UWB sensor
antennas. They highlighted microwave imaging as a promising tool and briefly ex-
plained its operation based on analyzing backscattered signals with different dielectric
properties of healthy and tumorous tissues. They also explained current detection
technique limitations, focusing on microwave tomography imaging systems due to
their simulations and measurements on 3D phantoms where algorithms are applied
to improve reconstructed image quality. Finally, they discussed microwave imaging
challenges, mentioning the difference between real breast tissue and simple prototypes.
This review emphasized possible solutions to these challenges by proposing the com-
bination of hybrid imaging and scattering programs with commercial electromagnetic
(EM) simulators to find a suitable frequency range for correct imaging and better
identification between healthy and tumorous cells.
• In 2019, an article published by Jumaat et al. [27] proposed a review of previous
works on frequency selection systems and antenna configurations for microwave
imaging in early breast cancer detection. They briefly described the importance of
some techniques such as mammography, tomography, thermography, ultrasound,
and microwave imaging. They highlighted microwave imaging advantages as it
presents a simpler, safer system with cost-saving capabilities. The review emphasized
the importance of selecting the operating frequency since calculations for antenna
design depend on frequency. They analyzed antenna configurations for breast cancer
detection through microwave imaging, focusing on single-layer antenna configura-
tions and reviewing articles proposing single-layer antenna arrays. In this regard,
the review highlighted that the appropriate broadband frequency is 1 to 20 GHz for
microwave imaging. Additionally, they noted that the number of antennas in an
array affects image resolution, recommending a large number of antennas for good
image quality.
• In 2020, Imani et al. [28] presented a literature review on merging metasurface antenna
design concepts and Computational Imaging (CI) techniques for imaging systems.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 5 of 50

First, they explained the metamaterial antenna operation capable of generating diverse
radiation patterns. They also described hardware and software design applied to
computational imaging in metasurface antennas. The review analyzed key factors for
microwave imaging, including measurement quality, measurement number, signal
fidelity, signal-to-noise ratio, and spatial sampling. Additionally, they proposed an
alternative approach in the form of dynamic antennas, focusing on their configuration,
evolution of DMAS, hybrid imaging systems, and single-frequency imaging.
• Finally, in 2021, Arora et al. [29] presented a literature review on microstrip patch
antennas (MSPA) applied to the human body for disease detection and prevention.
The authors addressed medical diagnosis for monitoring various pathological changes
related to breast cancer, conducting a detailed evaluation using microwave imaging
techniques. This technique, based on differences in dielectric properties between
healthy and cancerous breast tissue, provides information through images about
cancerous tissue presence. They described a broadband patch antenna model for
tumor detection, which can radiate directly into breast tissue. For breast cancer
monitoring, they proposed a patch antenna with a slot and forked feed for radar-based
microwave imaging. Additionally, for monitoring skin, bone, and muscle pathologies,
they suggested a compact implantable patch antenna design with slightly high signal
waves to obtain tissue images and assess their condition.
According to previous reviews, the techniques and methods for image acquisition
have experienced notable and constant growth over the years with the development of
different patch antenna models. These antennas have proven efficient in a wide range
of imaging applications as progress has been observed in images with improvements in
resolution, quality, and reliability. These advances have been driven by the development of
new techniques such as design optimization and image processing algorithms. However,
despite the multiple existing reviews, no work relates antenna designs, algorithms applied
in image reconstruction, and the applications in which these systems are used. In this
context, our work proposes to develop a systematic review considering the combination
and relationship of these three aspects. Additionally, it provides an updated view of the
literature on the use of patch antennas for image capture, helping to identify trends, areas
for improvement, and possible future research directions.

3. Methodology
This work was developed following a systematic methodological approach that starts
with the formulation of research questions and seeks to answer them by investigating
relevant works selected based on specific criteria for information discrimination. PRISMA
method [23] facilitates the structuring and presentation of results, ensuring the quality and
transparency of review.
We began by formulating research questions that will guide the entire process of
searching for and selecting information. These questions must be specific and focused
on identifying and addressing knowledge gaps in the image generation area with patch
antennas. We formulated the following research questions to guide our systematic review:
• RQ1: What are the key design characteristics and properties of microstrip antennas
used for image acquisition?
This research question aims to identify key trends and developments in antenna geom-
etry, material selection, and electromagnetic properties influencing the performance of
microstrip antennas in imaging applications. Unlike previous studies, this question
enables a comparative analysis of various design configurations concerning their
structural characteristics.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 6 of 50

• RQ2: Which algorithms are most commonly employed for image reconstruction using
microstrip antennas?
This research question explores the relationship between algorithms used for image
reconstruction and microstrip antenna performance in generating high-quality images.
The goal is to identify the most frequently employed algorithms and their correlation
with other structural characteristics.
• RQ3: What are the primary applications of microstrip antennas in image acquisition?
This research question aims to map the diverse application fields of microstrip anten-
nas in imaging acquisition, covering areas such as medicine, security, environmen-
tal monitoring, and other emerging domains. It seeks to provide a comprehensive
overview of how these antennas are utilized across various sectors to meet specific
imaging requirements. Unlike previous studies that primarily focused on the role of
microstrip antennas in medical diagnosis, this review expands the scope by evaluating
their applicability across a broader range of industries. This extended perspective
highlights the versatility of microstrip antennas and underscores their potential to
address imaging challenges in both established and emerging applications.
Our search strategy consisted of identifying relevant articles in databases pertinent
to the area. Search terms were selected according to the research questions, including
the following terms: “microstrip antennas”, “image acquisition”, “image reconstruction
algorithms”, and “applications”. Research String (RS) combined these keywords with
Boolean operators to refine the results.
RS = (microstrip antenna OR patch antenna) AND (image) AND (acquisition OR
obtaining OR processing) AND (techniques OR design OR algorithm)
Databases selected for this purpose are IEEE Xplore, Web of Science, Scopus, Springer,
Science Direct, ACM Library, Hindawi, MDPI, SAGE, and Taylor & Francis. These databases
were selected based on previous works. Additionally, it has been observed within Google
Scholar that these databases usually present the highest number of results related to the
research topic.
Subsequently, inclusion and exclusion criteria are applied within three clearly defined
stages in the methodology: identification, screening, and included. A summary of the
process is shown in Figure 1.
• Identification: To begin, a filtering process was conducted based on the year of publica-
tion. By extracting articles metadata, a graph was generated according to publication
year, as shown in Figure 2. There has been an increase in article publications related to
the topic from the year 2013 onwards, so all previous publications were excluded. The
search process and the downloading of metadata ended in June 2023. They cover a
decade of articles in total. Additionally, state-of-the-art reviews that did not provide
an analysis or lacked a scientific research basis were eliminated. Duplicate articles
were also excluded.
• Screening: Articles that were not directly related to the review topic were excluded.
Each article was reviewed based on the topic, abstract, and keywords. Subsequently,
documents that were not available or did not offer open access were discarded. The
screening process was conducted by three independent reviewers, who evaluated
each record and report retrieved. Each reviewer worked independently to ensure
objectivity, and discrepancies were resolved through discussion until a consensus was
reached. No automation tools were used during the screening process.
• Included: Finally, A detailed review of each article was conducted, focusing on the
characteristics of microstrip antennas, including patch dimensions, bandwidth, operat-
ing frequency, substrate material, type of algorithm applied for image reconstruction,
and the corresponding application field.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 7 of 50

Table 2 shows article summaries that are part of this review. It includes information
about the authors, the countries where the research was conducted, sources (database),
and publication years. Regarding the origins of the studies, Figure 3 shows that the country
with the highest number of works was India, with 23.53% (n = 16). This is followed by
Bangladesh with 14.71% (n = 10), and then Malaysia contributes with 10.29% (n = 7). Iran
contributes with 7.35% (n = 5), and Italy and Morocco with 4.41% (n = 3) each. The countries
of Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Australia, the United States, France, Kuwait, and the United
Kingdom each contribute 2.94% (n = 2). Finally, other countries such as Germany, Basel,
Spain, Greece, Iraq, Lebanon, New Zealand, Sudan, Thailand, and Turkey represented
contributions of 1.47% (n = 1), which means only one article each.

Figure 1. PRISMA method scheme.

Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 8 of 50

Figure 2. Publication scheme of articles by year.

Figure 3. Distribution of studies by countries.

Table 2. Summary of articles included in the review.

Identifier Author Source Year Country

[30] Bassi et al. Web Of Science 2013 Italy
[31] Stauffer et al. SAGE 2014 United States
[32] Rezaeieh et al. Web Of Science 2015 Australia
[33] Koutsoupidou et al. IEEE 2015 Greece
[34] Herrmann et al. Scopus 2015 Germany
[35] Alqallaf et al. Web Of Science 2016 Kuwait
[36] Mohammed et al. Taylor and Francis 2016 Algeria
[37] Singh et al. Taylor and Francis 2016 India
[38] Akhter et al. Taylor and Francis 2016 India
[39] Rahman et al. Springer 2016 Malaysia
[40] Eltigani et al. IEEE 2017 Sudan
[41] Qi et al. IEEE 2017 United States
[42] Taleb et al. IEEE 2017 Algeria
[43] Raihan et al. IEEE 2017 Bangladesh
[44] Inum et al. Web Of Science 2018 Bangladesh
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 9 of 50

Table 2. Cont.

Identifier Author Source Year Country

[45] Mahmud et al. Web Of Science 2018 Bangladesh
[46] Scapaticci et al. IEEE 2018 Italy
[47] Subramanian et al. IEEE 2018 India
[48] Islam et al. MDPI 2018 Malaysia
[49] Ullah et al. Springer 2018 Malaysia
[50] Ahsan et al. Scopus 2018 Basel
[51] Aydin and Keles Web Of Science 2019 Turkey
[52] Rokunuzzaman et al. Web Of Science 2019 Australia
[53] Alqallaf and Dib Web Of Science 2019 Kuwait
[54] Islam et al. Web Of Science 2019 Bangladesh
[55] Ojaroudi et al. IEEE 2019 France
[56] Hammouch and Ammor IEEE 2019 Morocco
[57] Geetharamani Springer 2019 India
and Aathmanesan
[58] Islam et al. Springer 2019 Malaysia
[59] Nazeri et al. Springer 2019 Iran
[60] Mehranpour et al. Web Of Science 2020 Iran
[61] Lin et al. Web Of Science 2020 New Zealand
[62] Hossain et al. Web Of Science 2020 Malaysia
[63] Kaur and Kaur Web Of Science 2020 India
[64] Talukder et al. IEEE 2020 Bangladesh
[65] Gopikrishnan et al. Taylor and Francis 2020 India
[66] Sohani et al. ScienceDirect 2020 United Kingdom
[67] Rezaei et al. Web Of Science 2021 Iran
[68] Samsuzzaman et al. Web Of Science 2021 Bangladesh
[69] Selvaraj et al. Web Of Science 2021 India
[70] Razzicchia et al. MDPI 2021 United Kingdom
[71] Talukder et al. ScienceDirect 2021 Bangladesh
[72] Kaur and Kaur Hindawi 2022 India
[73] Mehedi et al. IEEE 2022 Saudi Arabia
[74] Naghavi et al. Web Of Science 2022 Iran
[75] Hamza et al. Web Of Science 2022 Iraq
[76] Asok et al. IEEE 2022 India
[77] Mohamed et al. IEEE 2022 India
[78] Jahan et al. IEEE 2022 Bangladesh
[79] Vasan et al. IEEE 2022 India
[80] Ara et al. IEEE 2022 India
[81] Subramanian et al. IEEE 2022 India
[82] Blanco-Angulo MDPI 2022 Spain
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 10 of 50

Table 2. Cont.

Identifier Author Source Year Country

[83] Zerrad et al. ScienceDirect 2022 Morocco
[84] Talukder et al. ScienceDirect 2022 Bangladesh
[85] Alam et al. ScienceDirect 2022 Saudi Arabia
[86] Bhargava and Rattanadecho ScienceDirect 2022 Thailand
[87] Hossain et al. Springer 2022 Malaysia
[88] Sreelekshmi and Sankar Springer 2022 India
[89] Moussa et al. Scopus 2022 Lebanon
[90] Poorgholam and Zarrab SAGE 2022 France
[91] Jamlos et al. Web Of Science 2023 Malaysia
[92] Naghavi et al. Web Of Science 2023 Iran
[93] Zerrad et al. Web Of Science 2023 Morocco
[94] Grover et al. IEEE 2023 India
[95] Grover et al. IEEE 2023 India
[96] Cicchetti et al. MDPI 2023 Italy
[97] Samsuzzaman et al. ScienceDirect 2023 Bangladesh

4. Results and Discussion

The review results consist of answers to research questions. Based on these
questions, metadata were extracted from the different articles while considering the
following variables:
• Antenna structure (geometric design and substrate).
• Type of reconstruction algorithm.
• Type of application.
For each variable, sub-variables have been generated as needed to present more
specific classifications, allowing us to display the information in an organized and system-
atic manner.

4.1. RQ1. What Are the Key Design Characteristics and Properties of Microstrip Antennas Used
for Image Acquisition?
Our analysis identified several common design characteristics of microstrip antennas
used for image acquisition:
• Geometries: Predominant shapes included rectangular, circular, and elliptical patches.
Some studies also explored more complex designs such as fractal and nature-inspired
geometries to enhance performance and adaptability.
• Substrate materials: FR4 was the most commonly used substrate due to its low cost
and suitable dielectric properties. Other materials included Rogers RT/duroid and
various ceramics, which were chosen for their specific electromagnetic characteristics.
• Frequency bands: Antennas operated across a wide range of frequencies, spanning
from 1 GHz to 30 GHz. The S and C bands were particularly notable for their fre-
quent use in medical applications and offered a balance between penetration depth
and resolution.
Understanding design characteristics of microstrip antennas is crucial as they signif-
icantly impact antenna performance and the quality of the images obtained. Below, we
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 11 of 50

discuss these design characteristics in detail, focusing on geometric design and the types of
substrates used.

4.2. Article Classification by Geometric Design

This criterion identifies the structure type with which microstrip antennas are designed
and fabricated, focusing on patch geometric shape and antenna geometric design. In this
regard, Figure 4 shows the types classification of patch antenna design where 54.41% (n = 37)
are slot antennas, 19.12% (n = 13) are antennas with a basic geometric design, 19.12% (n = 13)
are antenna arrays, and 7.34% (n = 5) of articles employ a Vivaldi antenna design. Articles
distribution according to structure is shown in more detail in Table 3. In addition, Figure 5
shows reference images of the types of designs identified. These images allow a clearer
visual understanding of the designs, although they are only referential since, in their actual
dimensions, they are not necessarily functional.

Figure 4. Article classification by geometry design.

Table 3. Article classification by geometry design.

Geometric Design References

Slot [32,34,36,37,42,43,45,47,52,59–61,63,64,68,69,71,75,76,83–
86,90,93,95,97]
Basic geometric [30,39,40,46,49,50,55,56,62,66,70,74,81]
Array [33,44,48,67,77,78,87,88,91,94,96]
Slit [41,51,57,72,73,79]
Vivaldi [38,54,58,65,82]
Bowtie slot [35,53]
Fractal slot [80]
Fractal array [89]
Spiral [31]
Bowtie array [92]

Among the articles on rectangular slot antenna designs (Figure 5a) are the works of
Gagandeep and Amanpreet [63] and Mehranpour et al. [60], who propose a U-shaped
patch design operating at UWB frequency applied to cancer detection. Samsuzza-
man et al. [68] present a U-shaped patch design with a double rectangular slot inside,
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 12 of 50

working on a composite substrate. Meanwhile, Samsuzzaman et al. [97], Hamza et al. [75],
and Talukder et al. [84] exhibit a rectangular antenna design incorporating a circular slot in
patch center with a circular array of nine antennas. Singh et al. [37] present a patch design
with a double circular slot inside and rounded edges on the patch. Lin et al. [61] present a
rectangular slot antenna based on a basic monopole with triangular cuts in patch lower
corners and some parallel slots. Taleb et al. [42] propose a rectangular antenna design
described as a quadratic Bézier spline in which a toroid is inserted into a radiating element
with a large radius of 6 mm and a small radius of 2 mm. Meanwhile, Zerrad et al. [93]
expose a design consisting of a conical slot, a rectangular slotted patch, and four star-
shaped parasitic components. Articles presented by Selvaraj et al. [69], Chouiti et al. [36],
and Deepshikha and Rattanadecho [86] describe a patch design with a rectangular geom-
etry and a monopole-type configuration with a rectangular slot inside the patch on an
FR4 substrate.
Other slot designs are described by Herrmann et al. [34] and Poorgholam and
Zarrabi [90]. They present a simple circular patch design on a synthetic dielectric substrate.
Meanwhile, Grover et al. [95] propose a UWB circular antenna that includes a slotted conical
key-shaped radiating patch structure. Asok et al. [76] expose a circular patch consisting of
two rectangular patches placed on top of each other, with a second patch rotated 45 degrees.
A circular ring is added around the structure, which is designed as two concentric circles
with different radii.
The article presented by Rokunuzzaman et al. [52] proposes a square antenna design
with an inverted F structure, folded and stacked with five layers of FR4 substrate and
an additional rectangular cavity at the back. Talukder et al. [64] propose an elliptical
patch antenna with multiple rectangular slots on top and a partially slotted ground plane
at the substrate bottom. Similarly, Talukder et al. [71] expose an antenna built with a
simple elliptical square patch and a modified slotted ground plane to enhance antenna
gain. Proposal by Rezaeieh et al. [32] presents a rhombus-shaped design from a traditional
wide-slot antenna where four series of ladder-shaped slots are applied on a composite
dielectric substrate. The design exposed by Raihan et al. [43] proposes a pentagon-shaped
patch structure on an FR4 substrate, where 16 slots were made in a patch to increase the
current flow path. Meanwhile, Mahmud et al. [45] expose a broadband antenna designed
with a modified oval-shaped patch and a coplanar ground plane with a half-cycle copper
strip. Additionally, it incorporates an Artificial Magnetic Conductor (AMC) structure using
the coplanar waveguide (CPW) fed radiator.
Subramanian et al. [47] and Zerrad et al. [83] propose a rectangular patch design with
a step-shaped slot and a circular slot inside on an FR4 substrate for cancer detection. Article
by Alam et al. [85] presents a solid rectangular U-shaped patch antenna loaded with a
W-shaped slot on a composite substrate. Nazeri et al. [59] expose an antenna design with
several geometric shapes on its patch and two branch strips responsible for resonating at
the desired frequencies.
In the second classification, we find articles with rectangular slit antenna designs
(Figure 5d) proposed by Mehedi et al. [73], Avşar and Kaya [51], and Asha et al. [79],
presenting a rectangular antenna design with slits along the patch contour next to the feed
line on a composite substrate. Meanwhile, Komalpreet and Amanpreet [72] exhibit a stacked
patch antenna with an inverted U-shaped geometry for an active patch and two L-shaped
stubs for a passive patch. The article described by Geetharamani and Aathmanesan [57]
presents a design comprising a simple rectangular patch and a rectangular split ring
resonator structure at the back with a Perfect Electric Conductor (PEC). Qi et al. [41]
propose an antenna with an E-shaped patch structure operating at a frequency of 2.4 GHz
applied for anomaly detection.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 13 of 50

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

(j)

Figure 5. Types of antenna designs, including (a) Slot insertion, (b) Basic geometry, (c) Array antenna,
(d) Slit insertion, (e) Vivaldi geometry, (f) Bowtie slot, (g) Fractal slot (h) Fractal array (i) Spiral
(j) Bowtie Array. Each design has unique characteristics related to image adquisition applications.
These are representative figures of antennas, intended as a visual reference for the design type, but not
necessarily functional with the current dimensions.

On the other hand, Ara et al. [80] expose a hybrid design of a Sierpinski fractal circular
and rectangular antenna. The antenna consists of a rectangular patch into which a circular
patch is inserted and subtracted. The process is repeated for six iterations to obtain the
final design.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 14 of 50

Alqallaf and Dib [53] and Alqallaf et al. [35] present a bowtie antenna (Figure 5f)
created by cutting a triangle in the conductor track center, leaving two symmetrical triangles
joined at the base. Feeder starts from the junction center of the two triangles.
In another study, array antennas (Figure 5c) presented by Inum et al. [44], Rezaei et al. [67],
and Mohamed Junaid et al. [77] expose a rectangular patch design where the center for
both sets is the midpoint line connecting the center of elements with T-shaped junctions.
Cicchetti et al. [96] present a series array antenna printed on a Roger dielectric substrate.
An article described by Jamlos et al. [91] proposes an antenna fabricated on reduced
graphene oxide (RGO) with a circular shape and a radius of 15 mm. Additionally, there are
four circular RGO patches placed on a Taconic substrate. Grover et al. [94] present a patch
structure in the form of split rings where two concentric hexagonal structures are added.
Additionally, a stepped reduction in the feed line is introduced. Islam et al. [48] expose a
UWB antenna composed of a triangular strip feed line and patch connected to four identical
SRR (split ring resonator) unit cells. Additionally, a partial ground plane with a rectangular
and circular slot is printed on the opposite side of the substrate. Hossain et al. [87] present a
stacked structure with three layers, including two air gaps with a spider web-shaped MTM
unit cell. Additionally, the main patch is shaped like two triangles in opposite directions.
Jahan et al. [78] present a patch antenna with four octagonal slots extending from
outside to inside of the patch. Sreelekshmi and Sankar [88] propose a patch design with
a rectangular spiral metamaterial, applying a 45-degree inclined rectangular slot and an
outer metal ring. Koutsoupidou et al. [33] expose a triple elliptical patch design with
three overlapping ellipses and a “window” with curved corners.
Moussa et al. [89] present a fractal array antenna (Figure 5h) composed of lines, circles,
and discs connected in a nested pattern emerging from the feed line. The square shape
comprises two opposing ‘E’ shapes and includes a set of connected discs. Additionally,
only two discs are connected to the outer strip lines in the outer square.
Naghavi et al. [92] describe a miniaturized bipolar antenna in the shape of a cross
with a bowtie patch design (Figure 5j) on a composite substrate. The antenna proposed by
Stauffer et al. [31] details a circular antenna with a spiral patch design (Figure 5i) with a
diameter of 2.5 cm. Patch antenna designs with geometric shapes (Figure 5b) proposed
by Scapaticci et al. [46], Razzicchia et al. [70], and Ahsan et al. [50] present an inverted
triangular patch design operating in the L frequency band on an FR4 and Rogers substrate.
Sohani et al. [66] propose an isosceles triangular patch design with a fractal ground plane
on a composite dielectric substrate.
Articles proposed by Bassi et al. [30], Hammouch and Ammor [56], and Rah-
man et al. [39] propose a rectangular design with a T-shaped decoupling structure for
cancer detection. Naghavi et al. [74] propose a modified elliptical monopole patch antenna
fed by CPW, fed vertically by a coaxial port connected to a coplanar waveguide. Mean-
while, Subramanian et al. [81] expose a hexagonal monopole antenna design on a composite
dielectric substrate.
The design proposed by Ojaroudi et al. [55] and Ullah et al. [49] present a basic antenna
design consisting of a square patch operating in X and L frequency bands, respectively.
Hossain et al. [62] expose a semicircular slotted radiating patch along with a trapezoidal
ground plane coupled to a conical-shaped microstrip-fed line. Eltigani et al. [40] propose a
circular patch design on a titanate substrate.
Finally, articles proposed by Islam et al. [54] and Islam et al. [58] expose a Vivaldi patch
design (Figure 5e) with 12 complementary split ring resonator (CSRR) cells and rectangular
lateral slots. Gopikrishnan et al. [65] present a Vivaldi antenna with eight slit-shaped slots
with an exponential profile to achieve UWB. Meanwhile, Blanco-Angulo et al. [82] and
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 15 of 50

Akhter et al. [38] present a basic Vivaldi design on an FR4 substrate for cancer and anomaly
detection, respectively.

Article Classification by Substrate Material

This criterion aims to show different types of substrates that are fundamental in the
design and performance of microstrip antennas. A substrate provides structural support
and electrically isolates the antenna from its environment, affecting its characteristics.
Additionally, its choice depends on several factors such as operating frequency, expected
gain, directivity, application medium, among others.
Figure 6 shows article classification by substrate types, where 67.65% (n = 46) are
composite substrates, 16.18% (n = 11) are high-performance substrates, 8.82% (n = 6) are
ceramic substrates, and 7.35% (n = 5) are synthetic substrates. The details of the articles
that belong to each classification are shown in Table 4.
To provide a more comprehensive view of the substrates used in antennas, Table 5
presents a summary of the dielectric substrates employed, the permittivity of each material,
and the thickness of each analyzed article.
The most used substrate in patch antenna construction is FR4 due to its low cost and
ease of manipulation. While it is common to find works developed with this material, we
can identify and highlight some that stand out for how they use FR4 in a multilayer config-
uration or achieve outstanding performance. Among the works with relevant information
about composite substrates is one proposed by Ahdi et al. [32], which references FR4 as
a material with good dielectric properties, low cost, and convenient for manufacturing
multilayer PCBs. Meanwhile, Grover et al. [95] design a UWB antenna using the FR4 sub-
strate with a dielectric value of 4.4 to improve the operating frequency range. Subramanian
and Nirmal [47] use FR4 dielectric substrate of an octagonal antenna design, noting that
substrate thickness changes the antenna’s efficiency and gain.

Figure 6. Article classification by substrates used in microstrip antennas.

Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 16 of 50

Table 4. Article classification by substrate material.

Substrates References
FR4 [31,32,36,38,41,43–48,50–53,55,56,59,62–66,68,69,71–
86,89,92,94,95,97]
Rogers RT/Duroid 5880 [37,54,70,93]
Alumina [33,35]
Photonic crystal [49,57]
Rogers 4003C [30,67]
Arlon AD 1000 [88]
Quartz [90]
Perfluorohexyl [39]
Polyester [61]
Polymethylmethacrylate [34]
RO4003 [42]
Roger RO4350B [96]
Rogers RT/duroid 6010 [60]
Rogers RT5880 and RO4350B [87]
Rogers RT/duroid 5870 [58]
Taconic [91]
Titanate [40]

Table 5. Article classification by substrate characteristics.

References Substrates εr Thickness (mm)

[30] Roger RO4003C 3.55 1.524
[31] FR4 4.4 1.6
[32] FR4 4.4 1.6
[33] Alumina 9.4 1.57
[34] Polymethylmethacrylate 2.8–3.0 0.1–5
[35] Alumina 4.0 0.1287
[36] FR4 3.34 0.794
[37] Rogers RT/Duroid 5880 2.2 0.508
[38] FR4 4.4 1.6
[39] Perfluorohexy 2.64 1.6
[40] Titanate 500–2000 1
[41] FR4 3.66 3.2
[42] RO4003 3.34 0.794
[43] FR4 4.35 0.8
[44] FR4 4.4 1.6
[45] FR4 4.6 1.6
[46] FR4 4.3 1.6
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 17 of 50

Table 5. Cont.

References Substrates εr Thickness (mm)

[47] FR4 4.4 1.6
[48] FR4 4.6 1.6
[49] Photonic crystal 1 2
[50] FR4 4.4 1.6
[51] FR4 4.7 1.6
[52] FR4 4.3 1.6
[53] FR4 4.4 1.6
[54] Rogers RT/Duroid 5880 2.2 1.57
[55] FR4 4.4 0.8
[56] FR4 4.3 1.58
[57] Photonic crystal 1–4 0.03–0.3
[58] Rogers RT/duroid 5870 2.33 1.57
[59] FR4 4.3 1.65
[60] Rogers RT/duroid 6010 9 1.27
[61] Polyester 2.193 0.5
[62] FR4 4.4 1.6
[63] FR4 4.4 1.57
[64] FR4 4.3 1.6
[65] FR4 4.3 1
[66] FR4 4.7 1.6
[67] Rogers 4003C 3.6 0.508
[68] FR4 4.3 1.5
[69] FR4 4.4 1.6
[70] Rogers RT/Duroid 5880 10.2 1.27
[71] FR4 4.4 1.57
[72] FR4 4.4 1.6
[73] FR4 4.4 1.6
[74] FR4 4.4 1.6
[75] FR4 4.4 1.6
[76] FR4 4.4 1.6
[77] FR4 4.4 1.6
[78] FR4 4.4 1.6
[79] FR4 4.5 1.6
[80] FR4 4.4 1.6
[81] FR4 4.4 1.6
[82] FR4 4.4 1.52
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 18 of 50

Table 5. Cont.

References Substrates εr Thickness (mm)

[83] FR4 4.4 1.6
[84] FR4 4.3 1.5
[85] FR4 4.4 1.6
[86] FR4 3.34 0.794
[87] Rogers RT5880 and RO4350B 2.2, 3.66 1.575, 1.524
[88] Arlon AD 1000 10.2 3.175
[89] FR4 4.4 1.6
[90] Quartz 3.75 10
[91] Taconic 2.2 1.58
[92] FR4 4.4 2.0
[93] Rogers RT/Duroid 5880 2.2 1.575
[94] FR4 4.3 1.6
[95] FR4 4.4 1.6
[96] Roger RO4350B 3.66 0.762
[97] FR4 4.4 1.5

On the other hand, the articles described by Alqallaf et al. [35] and Koutsoupi-
dou et al. [33] use an alumina substrate because it has a dielectric permittivity of 9.4
and a loss tangent of 0.006, used for cancer detection. Sreelekshmi et al. [88] present Arlon
AD1000 substrate material with a dielectric value of 10.2, making it an excellent option
for portable applications, allowing significant antenna miniaturization. Poorgholam and
Zarrabi [90] apply a cylindrical quartz disc with a thickness of 10 mm and a permittivity of
3.75 for skin cancer detection. Rahman et al. [39] used a flexible and biodegradable organic
material called perfluorohexyl as a substrate for the designed antenna, aiming to develop
an antenna that can be integrated into a wearable bra, taking advantage of its suitable
mechanical and electromagnetic properties for cancer detection.
Essential studies on ceramic substrates include those proposed by Geetharamani et al. [57]
and Ullah et al. [49], which use a photonic crystal substrate in patch antenna design. It is
highlighted that it contains unique properties and offers several advantages for application
in breast cancer detection. Meanwhile, the article presented by Lin et al. [61] features an
antenna that uses polyester fabrics and conductive copper taffeta fabric on a monopole
structure base for detecting bone fractures.
Cicchetti et al. [96] designed a series patch printed on a Roger RO4350B dielectric
substrate with a dielectric permittivity of 3.66, a thickness of 30 mm, and a loss tangent
of 0.0037, which is applied to a radar system suitable for real-time applications such as
monitoring people and objects. Taleb et al. [42] present the RO4003 dielectric substrate
with a dielectric permittivity of 3.34 and a thickness of 0.794 mm, where a toroid is inserted
into a radiating element for breast cancer detection. Articles by Bassi et al. [30] and
Rezaei et al. [67] use a Roger RO4003C laminated substrate in antenna prototype with a
dielectric constant of 3.55, 20 mm thick copper coating on substrate top and bottom, and a
loss tangent of 0.0027.
Islam et al. [54], Zerrad et al. [93], and Singh et al. [37] use a Rogers RT5880 substrate in
antenna structure as an intermediate layer between radiating elements, with a permittivity
of 2.2 and a loss tangent of 0.009 for cancer detection. Meanwhile, Razzicchia et al. [70]
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 19 of 50

employ the same Rogers RT5880 dielectric substrate in a triangular antenna design for
stroke detection. The Rogers RT/duroid 6010 substrate described by Mehranpour et al. [60]
is used in a low-profile aperture-stacked patch antenna (LP-ASP) design with a cavity-
backed structure, operating from 2.2 GHz to 13.5 GHz for cancer detection. Jamlos et al. [91]
use Taconic substrate material because it improves the directivity and performance of the
designed antenna.
The titanate substrate proposed by Eltigani et al. [40] is described as a special material
due to its relatively high dielectric constant and low dielectric loss for cancer detection.
The article by Herrmann et al. [34] uses a polymethyl methacrylate dielectric substrate to
reduce circular antenna diameter to fit the TW primate system (TWPS). Hossain et al. [87]
use cost-effective Rogers substrate materials. The top and intermediate layers are made
of RT5880, and the bottom layer is made of RO4350B substrate material, achieving high
radiation efficiency and gain with a high fidelity factor. Finally, the article described by
Islam et al. [58] uses a Rogers RT-duroid 5870 dielectric substrate with a substrate height of
1.57 mm and 35 µm of copper on both sides. Relative permittivity is 2.33, and loss tangent
is 0.0012, which reduces the antenna’s dimensions.

4.3. [Link] Algorithms Are Most Commonly Employed for Image Reconstruction Using
Microstrip Antennas?
Image acquisition involves a process of data collection from electromagnetic signals
that are reconstructed into images. This development is done through image reconstruction
algorithms, which are sets of mathematical and computational analyses designed to convert
collected signal data into clear and efficient images [98]. These algorithms apply methods
or techniques to transform data into 2D or 3D images [99].
In CMI systems, algorithms based on received signals summation are applied and are
classified as adaptive data beamforming (DA) algorithms, data-independent beamforming
(DI) algorithms, and artifact elimination algorithms [100].
Our review identified several key algorithms frequently used for image reconstruction
with microstrip antennas. The most prominent ones include the following.

4.3.1. Data-Independent Beamforming (DI) Algorithms

Data-Independent Beamforming (DI) algorithms are used to enhance the quality and
resolution of images obtained by forming radiation beams [101]. These algorithms are
used to combine signals received by multiple antenna elements to form beams focused in
specific directions. By processing them optimally, reconstructed image quality is improved,
obtaining the required information [102]. Algorithms in this set include the following:
• Delay-and-Sum (DAS) algorithm.
It is a synthetic focusing technique that divides into a large number of focal points,
where signals are focused at each focal point through temporal alignment, then sums and
integrates received signals into an image [101]. DAS algorithm improves the contrast of
images obtained by various sensors, allowing for highlighting features of interest in the
image as it focuses in a specific direction [103].
DAS algorithm enhances the image contrast obtained from multiple sensors, allowing
specific features to be highlighted by focusing in a particular direction. In contrast, the back
projection distributes collected signals within a space defined by trajectories to reconstruct
complete images, commonly applied in computed tomography. Although both methods
share the principle of temporal alignment to improve resolution, DAS is more efficient for
real-time processing, whereas the back projection provides higher accuracy at the expense
of increased computational cost.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 20 of 50

General equation:
" #2
M
I (r ) = ∑ bi (τi (r)) (1)
i =1

where
− I (r ) represents the intensity at the focal point r = ( x, y, z).
− M denotes the total number of sensors or channels.
− bi corresponds to the backscattered signal recorded by sensor i.
− τi (r ) is the delay time required for the signal to travel back and forth between the focal
point r and antenna i.
Delay time:
||r − ri ||
τi (r ) = (2)
c
where
− ||r − ri || represents the distance between antenna i and the focal point r.
− c denotes the propagation speed of the wave in the medium.
DAS in the Discrete-Time Domain
In an algorithm’s digital implementation, the equation is expressed in terms of tempo-
ral discretization:
NE
b(kTo ) = ∑ an xn (kTo − Mn Ti ) (3)
n =1

where
− b(kTo ) represents the beamformer output at time instant kTo .
− an is a weighting coefficient applied to the signal from sensor n.
− xn (kTo − Mn Ti ) denotes the signal from sensor n delayed by Mn Ti
• Delay-Multiply-And-Sum (DMAS) algorithm
The DMAS algorithm is defined as an enhanced variant of the DAS algorithm, which
leverages multiple distributed apertures to combine information from various arrays
and generate a composite beam [104]. This approach improves resolution and detection
capability, making it particularly effective in radar applications that demand high resolution
in complex environments [105].
Estimation of the scattered energy signal:

M M
y DMAS [n] = ∑ ∑ xi [ n ] x j [ n ] (4)
i =1 j=1,j̸=i

where
− y DMAS is the estimated energy signal.
− M is the total number of observations.
− xi is the i-th observation after time alignment according to the focal point.
Definition of temporally aligned observation:

xi [n] = x̂i [n + τi ], i = 1, . . . , M, 0 ≤ n ≤ W (5)

− x̂i [n] represents the i-th observation before alignment.

− τi denotes the round-trip delay from the transmitting antenna to focal point and back
to the receiving antenna.
− W is the window length within which the response from the focal point is expected.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 21 of 50

Calculation of final output value of DMAS:

W W M M
ODMAS = ∑ y DMAS [n] = ∑ ∑ ∑ xi [ n ] x j [ n ] (6)
n =1 n =1 i =1 j ̸ = i

DMAS considering uncorrelated white noise:

M M M
y DMAS [n] = ∑ ∑ s2 [ n ] + 2( M − 1) s [ n ] ∑ n i [ n ] n j [ n ] (7)
i =1 j=1,j̸=i i =1

Fourth order version of DMAS (DMAS-D4):

M M M M
y DMAS− D4 [n] = ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ xi [ n ] x j [ n ] x k [ n ] x l [ n ] (8)
i =1 j = i +1 k = j +1 l = k +1

• Improved Delay-And-Sum (IDAS) algorithm

The IDAS algorithm enhances DAS algorithm by achieving higher image resolu-
tion [106]. It follows the same principle as DAS, delaying signals received by sensor
elements before summing them to form the beam. However, it incorporates more ad-
vanced and precise calculation methods to determine the necessary time delays for optimal
temporal alignment of received signals [103].
General formula for IDAS beamformer:
"
Z Twin M( M+1)/2
#2
I (r ) = QF (r ) ·
0
∑ wn Sn (t − τn (r )) dt (9)
n =1

where
− QF (r ) represents the Quality Factor, which measures the signals coherence at the focal
point r.
− wn is a weighting factor applied to each signal.
− Sn (t − τn (r )) denotes the received signal with a specific delay τn (r ).
− Twin is the time window over which integration is performed.
Calculation of the Quality Factor (QF):
Quality Factor is obtained by fitting a coherent sum energy curve of the received
signals to a quadratic function:
y = ax2 + bx + c (10)

where
− Energy curve is normalized using 1/(1 + σe ), where σe represents the standard devia-
tion of the energy.
− Coefficient a is selected as the Quality Factor (QF) of the focal point r.
• Coherence Factor Based Delay-And-Sum (DF-DAS) algorithm
The DF-DAS algorithm scales individual signals, using a weighting factor based on
propagation path length between focal point and each antenna [101]. Shorter paths provide
a clearer view of focal point, minimizing phase and attenuation effects and reducing the
likelihood of encountering heterogeneity [107].
General equation:
N
S(r) = CF (r) ∑ xi (t − τi ) (11)
i =1
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 22 of 50

where
− S(r ) represents the reconstructed signal at position r.
− CF (r ) is the coherence factor that adjusts each sensor’s contribution.
− xi (t − τi ) denotes the signal received by sensor i with a delay τi .
− N is the total number of sensors.
The coherence factor (CF) can be calculated as follows:

∑iN=1 xi (t − τi )
CF (r) = (12)
∑iN=1 | xi (t − τi )|

• Delay-And-Sum Integration (DASI) algorithm

The DASI algorithm is a monostatic beamforming technique for confocal microwave
imaging systems that involves time shifting and summing the signals sent from the ob-
ject [108]. The result of this process is squared and integrated within a specific time window
to recreate a synthetic focus; additionally, if there is a tumor at a focal point, the return
signals will sum coherently [101].
Basic equation of the algorithm:

N Z t
f
S(r) = ∑ wi t0
xi (t − τi )dt (13)
i =1

where
− S(r ) represents the reconstructed signal at position r.
− wi denotes the weights applied to each sensor.
− xi (t − τi ) is the signal received by sensor i with a delay τi .
− N is the total number of sensors.
− t0 and t f are the integration limits in the time domain.

4.3.2. Artifact Elimination Algorithms

This algorithm type involves methods used to mitigate unwanted distortions present
in reconstructed images. These distortions can arise from various factors during the image
acquisition process, such as noise in the input data, interference, or measurement errors,
and data regularization [109]. This technique involves image filtering, error correction,
and a combination of multiple methods to improve image quality [110].
Several processes are applied until clearer and sharper images are obtained, resulting
in a more accurate representation of the original image.
Signal averaging for artifact reduction:

N
1
Savg (t) =
N ∑ Si ( t ) (14)
i =1

where
− Savg (t) represents the averaged signal.
− Si (t) denotes the signal from sensor i.
− N is the total number of sensors or acquisitions.
Independent Component Analysis (ICA) for artifact removal:

X = AS (15)

where
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 23 of 50

− X represents the observed (mixed) signal.

− A denotes the mixing matrix.
− S corresponds to the source signal without artifacts.
Wavelet-based artifact removal:
K
Sclean (t) = ∑ wk ψk (t) (16)
k =1

− Sclean (t) is the signal after artifact removal.

− wk represents the wavelet transform coefficients.
− ψk (t) are the basis functions of the wavelet transform.

4.3.3. Finite Difference Time (FDTD) Algorithms

The FDTD method is widely used in antenna design, computational optics, and mod-
eling microstructured systems. It is a numerical technique used in electromagnetism to
solve partial differential equations in Maxwell’s equations that define wave propagation in
a 3D space [111]. This process involves calculating the electric and magnetic fields at each
mesh point based on their current values, allowing for the simulation of electromagnetic
wave propagation through dispersive media. Due to its versatility, computational efficiency,
and ability to solve physical problems, it has become very popular and reliable [112].
In Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) systems, algorithms applied for image recon-
struction are based on the back projections and are classified into two categories: analytical
algorithms and iterative algorithms.
Electric field:

Hyn (i, j, k) − Hyn (i, j, k − 1)

" #
∆t Hzn (i, j, k) − Hzn (i, j − 1, k)
Exn+1 (i, j, k) = Exn (i, j, k) + − (17)
ϵ ∆y ∆z

∆t Hx (i, j, k) − Hxn (i, j, k − 1)

 n
Hzn (i, j, k) − Hzn (i − 1, j, k)

n +1 n
Ey (i, j, k) = Ey (i, j, k) + − (18)
ϵ ∆z ∆x
n (i, j, k ) − H n (i − 1, j, k )
" #
∆t Hy y H n (i, j, k ) − H n (i, j − 1, k )
x x
Ezn+1 (i, j, k) = Ezn (i, j, k) + − (19)
ϵ ∆x ∆y

Magnetic field:

n (i, j, k + 1) − En (i, j, k )
" #
∆t Ey y E n (i, j + 1, k ) − En (i, j, k )
Hxn+1/2 (i, j, k) = Hxn−1/2 (i, j, k) + − z z
(20)
µ ∆z ∆y

∆t Ezn (i + 1, j, k) − Ezn (i, j, k ) En (i, j, k + 1) − Exn (i, j, k)

 
Hyn+1/2 (i, j, k) = Hyn−1/2 (i, j, k ) + − x (21)
µ ∆x ∆z
Eyn (i + 1, j, k) − Eyn (i, j, k)
" #
n+1/2 n−1/2 ∆t Exn (i, j + 1, k) − Exn (i, j, k )
Hz (i, j, k) = Hz (i, j, k) + − (22)
µ ∆y ∆x

where
− Ex , Ey , Ez represent the components of the electric field.
− Hx , Hy , Hz denote the components of the magnetic field.
− ϵ is the permittivity of the material.
− µ represents the permeability of the material.
− ∆x, ∆y, ∆z correspond to the spatial step size in each direction.
− ∆t is the time step.
− n denotes the time index.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 24 of 50

4.3.4. Analytical Algorithms

The analytical algorithms method is based on exact formulas for image reconstruction,
starting with a mathematical model of microwave propagation through tissues. This
involves formulating equations that describe the dielectric properties of tissue, affecting the
speed and amplitude of waves, comprising a direct solution to systems of linear equations
and back projection [113].
In this method, the Radon transform is applied, which is a set of projections acquired
at different angles containing information about the scanned object. These microwave
measurements are represented in 2D and 3D projections [114].
In analytical reconstruction, reconstruction algorithms are used to efficiently transform
an object into a three-dimensional image of the object in order to invert the acquired
projections into a 3D image. This is because it is a mathematical tool used to describe these
projections [115]. One of the most commonly applied methods in CMI image reconstruction
is the filtered back projection (FBP) algorithm, which involves back projecting the acquired
projections and then applying a filter in the frequency domain to improve the reconstructed
image resolution and reduce noise.
Additionally, enhanced regularization techniques, as well as artifact correction tech-
niques, can be applied to provide better image quality [116].
General equation for analytical reconstruction (Radon Transform):
Z πZ ∞
f ( x, y) = R(ρ, θ )|ω |e j2πω ( x cos θ +y sin θ ) dωdθ (23)
0 −∞

− f ( x, y) represents the reconstructed function in the spatial domain.

− R(ρ, θ ) denotes the Radon transform of the original image.
− ω is the frequency in the Fourier domain.
− θ corresponds to the projection angle.
Equation for the Filtered Back projection (FBP) algorithm:
Z πZ ∞
f ( x, y) = R(ρ, θ ) H (ω )e j2πωρ dωdθ (24)
0 −∞

where
− H (ω ) is a reconstruction filter (such as the Ram-Lak filter).
Equation for the Fourier Transform in image reconstruction:
Z ∞ Z ∞
F (k x , k y ) = f ( x, y)e− j2π (k x x+ky y) dxdy (25)
−∞ −∞

where
− F (k x , k y ) represents the image in the Fourier domain.

4.3.5. Iterative Algorithms

Iterative algorithms are an alternative approach to analytical algorithms, where itera-
tions are used to improve the obtained image starting with an initial estimate [117]. This
process begins with a density distribution of the object, where this estimate can be an image
based on projection data [118].
The process starts with a mathematical model describing the connection between
observed X-ray measurements and an object’s density distribution. This allows for formu-
lating a system of equations that relate both parts [119]. In each iteration, the algorithm
adjusts the density distribution estimate so that the simulated measurements match the
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 25 of 50

real measurements obtained. This involves solving a system of equations or applying

optimization techniques to minimize the differences between them [120].
After each iteration, the density distribution estimate is updated to reflect the corre-
sponding improvements. This involves adjusting the pixel values of the reconstructed
image to better match the observed measurements [115]. This iterative process contin-
ues until some convergence criterion is met, such as a maximum number of iterations or
a significant improvement in the difference between simulated and real measurements,
indicating that reconstruction has converged and the final image can be obtained [120].
Another algorithm in this group is the Accelerated Distributed Augmented Lagrangian
(ADAL). Systems employ a method called total variation minimization (TV) applied with
ADAL algorithm, which combines two approaches: the alternating direction method
and the augmented Lagrangian. These methods alternate the search for a direction in
space combined with a technique using Lagrange multipliers to convert an unconstrained
optimization problem into the objective function [121].
Basic equation:
x ( k +1) = x ( k ) + α · r ( k ) (26)

where
− x (k+1) is the updated estimate at iteration k + 1.
− x (k) represents the estimate at iteration k.
− α is the step size or learning factor.
− r (k) denotes the residual or correction computed at iteration k.
Residual is defined as
r (k) = b − Ax (k) (27)

where
− A is the system matrix.
− b represents the vector of independent terms.
− r (k) denotes the difference between the estimated solution and the expected result.

4.3.6. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Algorithms

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a geophysical inspection technique that trans-
mits electromagnetic waves capable of penetrating construction structures. Transmitted
waves are reflected by the subsurface where there are electrical properties [122]. There
are two types of GPR used depending on their antenna configurations: pulsed radar,
which is a short-wavelength pulse signal with UWB, and stepped-frequency continuous
wave radar [123]. GPR applications have extended to various areas such as soil charac-
teristic analysis, buried object detection, and damage condition assessment in structures,
among others [124]. Techniques play an important role in data interpretation in these
applications. Therefore, they can be classified into two parts: signal-based methods and
image-based methods [125].
The second method for obtaining images is based on scanning data of received waves
through background removal and velocity analysis. Image-based methods have also
been applied to C-scan data, where a series of 2D images are transformed into 3D data.
Additionally, articles have presented algorithms based on features to create 3D images of
buried objects using GPR signals [123,125].
Continuous advancement of microstrip antenna technology has created a growing
demand for innovative image reconstruction techniques. These algorithms play a funda-
mental role in processing the data received by patch antennas, enabling the generation
of precise visual representations of objects or scenes of interest. This analysis addresses
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 26 of 50

various methods applied for image reconstruction as identified in reviewed articles, empha-
sizing the importance of algorithmic innovation in enhancing the capabilities of microstrip
antennas for imaging applications.
Electromagnetic wave propagation equation in a medium:

∂H
∇ × E = −µ (28)
∂t

∂E
∇×H = ϵ + σE (29)
∂t
where
− E represents the electric field.
− H denotes the magnetic field.
− µ is the magnetic permeability.
− ϵ corresponds to the dielectric permittivity.
− σ represents the conductivity of the medium.
Signal reflection equation at the interface of media with different permittivities:
√ √
ϵ2 − ϵ1
R= √ √ (30)
ϵ2 + ϵ1

where
− R is the reflection coefficient.
− ϵ1 and ϵ2 represent the dielectric permittivities of the adjacent media.
Calculation of the signal return time (Time of Flight, ToF):

2d
t= (31)
v
where
− t represents the signal travel time.
− d denotes the depth of the detected object.
− v is the wave propagation speed in the medium.

4.3.7. Article Classification by Image Reconstruction Algorithms

One of the most notable aspects of this systematic review is the use of image re-
construction algorithms as they are computational techniques that contribute to image
processing. This criterion shows different types of algorithms that can be employed for this
purpose. In Figure 7, a distribution is shown where 35.29% (n = 24) are data-independent
beamforming (DI) algorithms and 25% (n = 17) are FDTD algorithms, followed by iterative
algorithms with 14.71% (n = 10), analytical algorithms with 11.76% (n = 8), GPR algorithms
with 7.35% (n = 5), and finally, Artifact Elimination algorithms with 5.88% (n = 4) for image
reconstruction. Table 6 provides a more detailed classification of each work according to
the specific algorithm employed.
CST Studio Suite (version 2018–2022) simulation software is a tool that facilitates the
interpretation of electromagnetic fields, allowing precise simulation and analysis of devices
like antennas. Moreover, 25% of reviewed articles use this software to analyze proposed
antennas and simulate tissues and tumors in the human body. Notable articles include
those proposed by Jahan et al. [78], Subramanian et al. [47], and Zerrad et al. [83], which
use CST Studio Suite tool to simulate antenna design and adjust structure parameters to
achieve the ideal bandwidth. Meanwhile, the article proposed by Gopikrishnan et al. [65]
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 27 of 50

models a Vivaldi antenna using CST Studio simulator for line stubs, patch slots, and the
AZIM cell to provide better performance in operating frequency range.

Figure 7. Article classification by image reconstruction algorithms.

Another tool used for antenna simulation is High Frequency Structure System (HFSS)
(version 2022 R1) software for designing, modeling, and simulating 3D structures. It helps
solve complex structure systems that are difficult to model using purely algebraic methods.
Notable articles include those presented by Lin et al. [61], which uses HFSS software to
simulate the preliminary geometry of an antenna based on a monopole structure. Antenna
dimensions are then adjusted to achieve a better S11 curve. Similarly, Ara et al. [80]
design and simulate a circular fractal antenna, simulating a breast model with or without
a tumor, which consists of three layers (fat, fibro, and skin), to identify a tumor presence.
Ahdi et al. [32] and Stauffer et al. [31] use HFSS software for antenna design and analysis,
examining electromagnetic field penetration into breast tissue to detect the tumor.
Studies focused on applying DI beamforming algorithms are those proposed by Gagan-
deep and Amanpreet [63], Asok et al. [76], and Blanco et al. [82], where data obtained by
UWB antenna are processed using DAS algorithm and then plotted in Matlab to form
a 2D image representing the tumor’s location coordinates in a breast model. Similarly,
Ojaroudi et al. [55] use the DAS algorithm for brain tumor detection as a simple technique
for integrating coherent signals to approximate the precise tumor location. Articles by
Asok et al. [76] and Alam et al. [85] apply the DAS algorithm for brain tumor detection,
reconstructing the tumor using a multistatic antenna arrangement. Additionally, a highly
configurable and extensible algorithm set is used for noise reduction. Another commonly
applied algorithm is presented by Rahman et al. [39] and Ullah et al. [49], where data ob-
tained are processed using the DMAS algorithm to reconstruct the image in the frequency
domain. The image reconstructed by DMAS highlights electromagnetic scattering, showing
a clear image of the internal structure of breast models. Meanwhile, Mahmud et al. [45]
processed the measured data with the DMAS algorithm and reconstructed the internal struc-
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 28 of 50

ture of the breast phantom, highlighting electromagnetic scattering instead of recovering

the dielectric profile.

Table 6. Article classification by image reconstruction algorithms.

Algorithms References
Simulation on CST Studio [37,43,47,52,57,59,64,65,68,71,75,77–79,81,83,90]
Algorithm DAS [55,60,63,76,82,85]
Algorithm DMAS [30,39,45,48,49,97]
Simulation on HFSS [31–33,61,80]
Algorithm GPR [69,88,94,95]
Fourier Transform [38,40,96]
Algorithm IC-CF-DMAS [54,72,87]
Simulator MERIT [84,93]
Algorithm DBIM-TwIST [50,70]
Artifact Removal [46,66]
Algorithm DASI [36,42]
Algorithm IC-DAS [58,62]
Synthetic Aperture Radar E [53,92]
CMI [35,44]
Removal CMI-Based [56,86]
ADAL [67]
FBP [73]
GBP [74]
IDAS [91]
The Random Forest [51]
Image processing toolbox Matlab [89]
RTI [41]
IRM [34]

Articles by Bassi et al. [30] and Samsuzzaman et al. [97] design a rectangular antenna
applying DMAS algorithm for cancer detection. Islam et al. [48] develop a microwave
imaging system for early breast tumor detection, using DMAS in the proposed system
as it provides greater coherence by multiplying individual pairs of delayed signals and
summing them as a coherence measure for precise image reconstruction. The algorithm
proposed by Jamlos et al. [91], called IDAS, is introduced by applying a smoothing filter.
This smoother was implemented in IDAS using Matlab’s built-in mslowess function to
obtain high-quality images.
In recent years, new techniques have emerged, such as those proposed by Komalpreet
and Amanpreet [72], who use an Iterative Correction (IC) algorithm with a Coherent Factor
(CF) DMAS and a Stacked Aperture-coupled Microstrip Patch Antenna (SAMPA), which is
designed as a sensor to collect data. Recorded values are used to generate a 2D dielectric
profile of the scanned area, identifying locations and size of anomalies. Meanwhile, Hos-
sain et al. [87] and Islam et al. [54] use the IC-DMAS algorithm to collect scattered signal
data from a phantom model and process them to generate high-resolution images.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 29 of 50

DASI algorithm presented by Taleb et al. [42] and Chouiti et al. [36] is described as an
effective image reconstruction method using a UWB microwave imaging system. DASI
algorithm involves time shifting and summing the backscattered signals from the breast
to create a synthetic focus. It is shown that increasing the number of antenna positions
makes detection more accurate. Additionally, it is efficient for detecting and locating breast
tumors in two dimensions. A signal processing algorithm proposed by Hossain et al. [62]
and Islam et al. [58], called IC-DAS, corrects aberrations introduced by variations in tissue
acoustic properties, allowing for clearer and more precise images, facilitating diagnosis.
An important technique for tissue design and simulation is presented by Zerrad [93] and
Talukder [84], who use MERIT software to merge and process magnetic resonance images,
allowing for integrated visualization and better understanding of anatomy.
In articles by Sohani et al. [66] and Scapaticci et al. [46], artifact elimination methods
were employed in simulations to reconstruct the image, followed by rotational subtraction
artifact elimination. Inum et al. [44] and Alqallaf et al. [35] apply a CMI algorithm, using
collected reflection coefficients to generate a 2D image of cancer, which shows the tumor’s
presence inside.
Iterative algorithms minimize the difference between calculated and measured pro-
jections. Therefore, articles by Ahsan et al. [50] and Razzicchia et al. [70] are based on the
distorted Born iterative method, which solves nonlinear scattering problems iteratively by
applying a Born approximation in each iteration. An internal DBIM algorithm is used to
reconstruct images from acquired data. Meanwhile, an article by Avsar and Mümine [51]
presents a method for classifying experimental data obtained from an antenna using the
Random Forest algorithm. Based on the classification result, the algorithm can diagnose
breast cancer with 94% accuracy.
An article by Rezaei et al. [67] presents a method called TV minimization using the
alternate direction method and augmented Lagrangian (ADAL) algorithm. A method
combining cross-polarization and co-polarization data was proposed to preserve edges and
increase the final image quality. Unlike the article described by Mehedi et al. [73] applies
a filtered back projection (FBP) algorithm based on measurements of back projections
expressed as the Radon transform of the object. Additionally, image reconstruction was
implemented using Matlab programming. Naghavi et al. [92] and Alqallaf and Dib [53]
describe a head imaging system based on an E synthetic aperture radar. A received
Gaussian pulse is processed using a Hilbert transform, and the reconstructed image detects
the target’s location.
Articles by Eltigani et al. [40], Cicchetti et al. [96], and Akhter et al. [38] present Fourier
transform method to transform matrix data into an image, converting frequency domain
data to the time domain. In addition in article by Grover et al. [94] and Shankar et al. [95],
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) algorithm in Matlab is proposed, using microwave
radar imaging.
A UWB antenna emits a microwave pulse, which is then preprocessed and recon-
structed into an image. Naghavi et al. [74] apply a global backprojection (GBP) algorithm in
the time domain, described as a coherent summation of raw data measured at different an-
gles along the radar path in each pixel of the reconstructed image. Meanwhile, Qi et al. [41]
use a Radio Tomographic Imaging (RTI) algorithm to obtain images of movement through
walls and buildings to locate people inside. Additionally, Moussa et al. [89] implement
an image processing toolbox available in MathWorks to detect circles in an image. The
proposed methodology detects the presence of abnormal tissue within normal tissues.
Finally, the article by Herrmann et al. [34] develops a TWPS to adapt this approach
to the functional MRI algorithm of macaques. Resonance images represent the macaque’s
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 30 of 50

brain, with a good representation of gray and white matter mainly in the frontal and
parietal lobes, showing the state of the macaque’s brain.

4.4. RQ3. What Are the Primary Applications of Microstrip Antennas in Image Acquisition?
Microstrip antennas have been applied in various fields, with medical imaging being
the most significant:
• Breast Cancer Detection: This accounted for 48.53% of the studies, predominantly
using circular and elliptical patches. The high incidence of breast cancer has driven
extensive research and development in this area, utilizing microstrip antennas to
enhance detection accuracy and imaging quality.
• Brain Tumor Detection and Vascular Disease Monitoring: These were other notable
applications, leveraging the precision and adaptability of microstrip antennas to detect
and monitor complex medical conditions.
• Non-Medical Applications: These included environmental monitoring and security
surveillance, showcasing the versatility of microstrip antennas beyond medical uses.
In environmental monitoring, they are used for detecting and analyzing changes in
various natural phenomena. In security surveillance, they are employed for object
detection and recognition, as well as for identifying people, and can be integrated into
radar systems [126].
Microstrip antennas are used in a wide variety of applications such as wireless com-
munications, medicine, radar technology, detection, agriculture, security, and many others.
In the field of medicine, they are particularly valuable in MRI and CT systems due to their
ability to improve image quality, facilitating interpretation [127]. This section details the
applications identified within reviewed articles, highlighting the diverse and impactful
uses of microstrip antennas across different sectors.

Article Classification by Application Type

In Figure 8, it is shown that 75% (n = 51) are applied to cancer detection, while
8.82% (n = 6) correspond to vascular disease detection. Similarly, an equal percentage
of 8.82% (n = 6) is applied to anomaly detection. Finally, 7.35% (n = 5) are used for detect-
ing various conditions. Table 7 provides more details on the types of applications where
antennas have been used for image acquisition.

Figure 8. Article classification by application type.

Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 31 of 50

Table 7. Article classification by application type.

Applications References
Breast Cancer Detection [30,33,35,36,39,40,42,47–49,51,53,54,56–
58,60,63,69,73,75,77–81,83,86,88,89,93–95]
Brain Tumors [32,43–45,55,62,68,71,76,82,84,85,87,91,97]
Cerebrovascular Accidents [46,64,66,70,92]
Object Detection [38,59,67,96]
Medical Diagnosis [50,52]
Skin Cancer [72,90]
Wear in Construction Materials [41]
Bone fractures in the human body [61]
Tumor in muscle tissue [37]
Detection of cracks in glacier terrain [65]
Head temperature monitoring [31]
Pulse propagation within the head [74]
MRI in monkey brains [34]

One of the most notable applications addressed in this review is breast cancer de-
tection, accounting for 48.53% of articles, due to the demand for more efficient systems
to obtain high-quality images. Among the most prominent studies, those proposed by
Selvaraj et al. [69] and Islam et al. [58] focus on breast cancer detection using a circular an-
tenna array due to their high signal transmission effectiveness through tissues and precise
tumor localization. Meanwhile, Hammouch and Ammor [56] present a rectangular antenna
for breast cancer detection, applying a Tx-Rx array by moving the antenna to different
positions covering the entire breast model to obtain a 2D image.
Another application that has received significant attention is brain tumor detection.
The interest in this topic is primarily due to disease severity and its impact on health. One
of the most relevant articles is by Blanco et al. [82], who present a Vivaldi antenna applied
to brain tumor detection, using 16 antennas around the head model to achieve good image
resolution. Samsuzzaman et al. [68] and Siam et al. [97] present a circular antenna design
with a circular array of 9 antennas for brain tumor detection. Meanwhile, Ojaroudi et al. [55]
use a square antenna design with an array of 18 antennas for detecting cancerous tumors
and damaged brain tissue due to ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke.
Articles by Kaur et al. [72] and Poorgholam et al. [90] design antennas for skin cancer
detection. It is noted that the amount of signal reflected from the phantom in the presence of
a tumor is greater compared to healthy tissues due to the difference in electrical properties
of tumor tissues. Another interesting article is by Singh et al. [37], where they propose an
antenna with an AMC to improve penetration depth for detecting tumors in muscle tissue.
Articles by Naghavi et al. [92], Scapaticci et al. [46], and Razzicchia et al. [70] present
stroke detection using a MWI system. Meanwhile, Sohani [66] proposes a wideband
antenna design, applying Huygens’ principle and artifact removal to detect hemorrhagic
strokes, both in simulation and in a multi-layered head phantom. Naghavi et al. [74]
propose a circular array of 12 antennas capable of radiating electromagnetic waves inside
the head and operating near tissues. An analysis calculated the minimum power required
to detect blood clots in the head; simulations validated the ESAR system’s ability to obtain
high-resolution images of the head’s interior.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 32 of 50

Antenna applications for object detection have evolved, with a clear example being
the proposal by Rezaei et al. [67], who present a rectangular antenna using co-polarization
and cross-polarization methods to preserve edges and smooth parts of the image and detect
hidden objects. Similarly, Akhter et al. [38] suggest a Vivaldi antenna design used to scan
the test object using the imresize function in Matlab to refine the image.
Cicchetti et al. [96] present a rectangular array antenna design applied in a radar
system for real-time short-range applications, such as monitoring subjects and objects on
train station platforms. Nazeri et al. [59] propose an antenna with multifaceted geometric
shapes to investigate the impact of metallic earrings of different sizes on SAR distribution.
Gopikrishnan [65] proposes a wideband antenna for detecting cracks in glacier terrain.
It was established that reflection data efficiently identify cracks by detecting the peak
of snow ice and airspace regions. Cheng et al. [41] present an E-shaped antenna in RTI
systems for detecting wear in building materials. According to patch shape, it avoids
impedance mismatches, increasing radiation through the wall and improving localization.
By obtaining signal intensity, the location of people inside a building can be determined.
Other articles present applications for special cases in smaller quantities than those
previously mentioned. Paul et al. [31] propose a spiral antenna design for head temperature
monitoring. A radiometer is used to detect thermal radiation emitted by brain tissue.
Radiometer can track changes of 10 °C in simulated brain temperature with a precision and
stability of 0.4 °C, reflecting good performance for clinical use. Another interesting article
is proposed by Herrmann et al. [34], which developed a TWPS system to obtain images
of monkey brains using MRI. A 3D turbo spin echo sequence was used to acquire images,
showing high contrast and good tissue homogeneity. Rokunuzzaman et al. [52] present
a medical head diagnosis using a compact antenna. A head phantom with three layers,
bone, skin, and brain, was made with materials resembling dielectric properties of tissues.
Simulations and measurements analyze penetration response and antenna sensitivity with
small hematomas at different depths, yielding good results.
Finally, an article by Lin et al. [61] presents a rectangular patch antenna for detecting
bone fractures in the human body. A textile antenna was designed using polyester fabrics.
Different stages of bone fracture recovery were simulated, highlighting that the UWB textile
antenna is promising for medical imaging applications.

5. Antenna Constructive Characteristics: Correlation Analysis

This section analyzes the correlation between applications and algorithms with specific
characteristics of antenna structure. Three specific characteristics of antennas have been
extracted: antenna size (mm2 ), bandwidth (GHz), and operating frequency (GHz). This
analysis provides a more specific perspective on trends in antenna design characteristics
and their relationship with the intended application or the algorithm to be used.

5.1. Analysis of Relationship Between Application and Bandwith

Figure 9 shows a box plot illustrating the bandwidth ranges based on applications.
A detailed analysis of bandwidth in various medical diagnostic applications reveals a
close relationship between technological capabilities and the specific diagnostic needs of
each area.
Cancer detection techniques exhibit a wide variability in the required bandwidth,
reflecting the diversity of diagnostic approaches employed. They have the widest band-
width range, with a median of approximately 5 GHz. There are several outliers, indicating
measurements significantly higher than most. From methods based on medical imaging
to biological marker analysis, cancer detection demands significant bandwidth capacity,
suggesting the need for robust infrastructures to process large volumes of data.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 33 of 50

Figure 9. Article classification by application type and antenna bandwidth.

Applications addressing the detection of other conditions exhibit a wide range of band-
width requirements but are much more limited than those in cancer detection. From moni-
toring vital signs to evaluating metabolic parameters, these applications require bandwidth
adaptability to accommodate various medical data. They show a narrower bandwidth
range and a lower median, around 1 GHz. This suggests less variability in the bandwidth
used for these detections, and no outliers are present. However, flexibility in bandwidth is
essential to ensure comprehensive coverage in diagnosing and monitoring various medi-
cal conditions.
Vascular disease detection presents a lower bandwidth profile with moderate to high
ranges. This finding underscores the complexity of vascular imaging and blood flow analy-
sis techniques, where data precision and resolution are critical. Appropriate bandwidth is
essential to ensure accurate real-time image capture and processing, facilitating an adequate
evaluation of a patient’s vascular health. It has a median similar to the detection of other
conditions but with a broader Interquartile Range (IQR). There are also outliers, suggesting
cases where the bandwidth used is much higher.
Applications dedicated to detecting irregularities, although showing variability in
bandwidth, tend to require more specific and focused capabilities. This can be attributed to
the nature of irregularities sought, where detailed analysis techniques and expert interpreta-
tion play a crucial role. While the bandwidth may be lower compared to other applications,
its effectiveness lies in precision and sensitivity to detect subtle anomalies. It has an IQR
similar to vascular disease detection, but the median is lower, around 1 GHz. Outliers are
also present, indicating that some measurements deviate from the most common range.

5.2. Analysis of Relationship Between Application and Operating Frequencies

Figure 10 shows the relationship between the operating frequencies of antennas
and their designed applications. Operating frequency is critical as it defines both image
resolution and electromagnetic wave penetration. Given the wide range of operating
frequencies, a logarithmic scale is used in this figure for better visualization.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 34 of 50

Figure 10. Article classification by application type and antenna operating frequency.

In relation to cancer detection, Figure 10 shows a median close to 1 GHz with a

considerable IQR extending from around 0.3 GHz to approximately 3 GHz. There are
no outliers, indicating that all frequency measurements for this application fall within
an expected range without significant anomalies. On the other hand, for detecting other
conditions, the diagram presents the narrowest IQR and the lowest median, around 0.3 GHz.
The compactness of IQR indicates high consistency in operating frequencies, suggesting a
well-defined standard for these applications.
Frequencies associated with vascular disease detection show a trend toward medium
to high values, indicating a significant demand for imaging and diagnostic technologies
related to the vascular system. The diagram shows an IQR similar to other conditions
detection but with a slightly higher median, approximately 0.6 GHz. This could reflect a
need for slightly higher frequencies for vascular structure resolution.
Frequencies observed in irregularity detection show a varied distribution, suggesting
the application of a wide range of diagnostic techniques to identify anomalies in different
physiological systems. It has the widest IQR and the highest median of all applications,
with a median of around 1 GHz. The range extends from about 0.3 GHz to over 10 GHz.
The presence of such a wide range and high median indicates that irregularity detection
requires a great variability in operating frequency, possibly to accommodate a diverse range
of clinical cases and tissue types to be examined.

5.3. Analysis of Relationship Between Application and Antenna Size

Figure 11 is a box plot showing the area distribution (in logarithmic units) associated
with various applications. Logarithmic scale suggests that areas vary by orders of magni-
tude, which is common in data spanning very broad ranges. Detailed analysis of antenna
size in different detection applications reveals significant trends reflecting the particularities
of each application area.
For applications related to cancer detection, the box plot shows a median area seem-
ingly near 100 mm2 , with an IQR extending from about 10 mm2 to over 1000 mm2 .
The “whiskers” range from about 1 mm2 to 10,000 mm2 , indicating wide variation in
area. Outliers are present and located above the upper whisker, implying that some area
observations are extremely high compared to most data in this category. This variability
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 35 of 50

can be attributed to the diverse technological approaches used for early and accurate
cancer detection.

Figure 11. Article classification by application type and antenna size.

Detection of other conditions has the smallest median and IQR of all, with a me-
dian around 10 mm2 . The whiskers indicate that extreme values do not differ much
from IQR, and no outliers are observed, suggesting less variability in detection area for
other conditions.
Applications related to vascular disease detection exhibit a larger IQR than other
conditions detection, with a median around 10 mm2 . Outliers are observed above the upper
whisker, indicating that some areas are significantly larger than most. These applications
tend to require medium to large antenna sizes, indicating the need for high-resolution
detection and diagnostic technologies. The importance of these larger antenna sizes lies in
accurately capturing and analyzing the vascular anatomy and blood flow.
Irregularity detection applications present an IQR and median similar to those of
vascular disease detection, with outliers both below the lower whisker and above the
upper whisker. This implies significant variability in detection areas for this application,
suggesting the application of different technological approaches to identify physiological
anomalies. Antenna sizes range from 100 mm2 to 4200 mm2 .
The presence of outliers in three of the applications suggests that certain circumstances
or conditions may require detection areas significantly different from the norm. In statistical
analysis, attention should be paid to these outliers to understand the underlying causes
of such variations, as they could influence design and optimization decisions in imaging
systems. Antenna use and coverage area choice are crucial in imaging as the antennas must
be large enough to capture the region of interest but concentrated enough to provide the
desired resolution.

5.4. Analysis of Relationship Between Image Reconstruction Algorithms and Bandwidth

Figure 12 consists of a box plot in logarithmic scale representing the bandwidth
(GHz) used by different image reconstruction algorithms. These algorithms are essential for
interpreting imaging data and converting it into useful images. Bandwidth influences image
resolution and the ability to distinguish between different types of tissue or anomalies.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 36 of 50

Figure 12. Article classification by reconstruction algorithms and antenna bandwidth.

The FDTD Algorithm presents considerable variability in bandwidth. This algorithm

has an IQR extending from just over 1 GHz to about 10 GHz, with a median near 3 GHz.
The whiskers extend to about 0.3 GHz and above 10 GHz, showing a wide range of values.
There is an outlier above the upper whisker, indicating that, in some cases, an exceptionally
high bandwidth is used with this method.
The iterative algorithm presents the narrowest IQR and lowest median, around 1 GHz,
indicating a more consistent and precise bandwidth selection. There are no outliers, suggest-
ing reliability in bandwidth choice for this algorithm. In Independent Data Beamforming
Algorithms, IQR is slightly wider than the iterative algorithm, and the median is around
1.5 GHz. An outlier above the upper whisker could indicate specific situations where a
much larger bandwidth is required.
The GPR Algorithm has a wide IQR, from about 1 GHz to 10 GHz, with a median
around 3 GHz. There are outliers above the upper whisker, suggesting the presence of
cases where significantly high bandwidths are used. Additionally, analytical algorithms
have an IQR and median similar to GPR but with a less extreme outlier. This could reflect
less pronounced variability in bandwidth choice for this type of algorithm. However,
Artifact Removal Algorithms present an IQR and median similar to the analytical and GPR
algorithms, with a median around 3 GHz. Outliers are above the upper whisker, indicating
occasions where much higher bandwidth is required for effective artifact removal.
These box plots suggest that, in general, GPR, analytical, and artifact removal algo-
rithms tend to use a similar range of bandwidths, which is quite broad. This could be due
to the need to adapt to different scanning conditions or tissue types. On the other hand,
iterative algorithms seem to use a more consistent and limited bandwidth, suggesting they
are suitable for more standardized applications requiring less adaptability.

5.5. Analysis of Relationship Between Image Reconstruction Algorithms and Operating Frequency
Figure 13 shows a box plot for operating frequency of various image reconstruction
algorithms, using a logarithmic scale for frequency axis (GHz).
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 37 of 50

Figure 13. Article classification by reconstruction algorithms and antenna operating frequency.

FDTD Algorithms present a wide IQR with frequency ranges from about 10 GHz
to just over 20 GHz, with a median near 15 GHz. Although most measurements cluster
around the median, several outliers suggest versions of algorithm can operate at much
higher frequencies. However, Independent Data Beamforming Algorithms show a nar-
rower frequency range, between 10 GHz and 20 GHz, with a median approximately at
14 GHz. The concentration of frequencies near the median indicates less variability in their
operational performance.
The GPR Algorithm has a very compact range between 5 GHz and just under 10 GHz,
with the median around 7.5 GHz. This narrow grouping of frequencies suggests high
specificity in the applications for which these algorithms are appropriate. On the other hand,
analytical algorithms have a wide range extending from about 3 GHz to approximately
20 GHz, with a median of around 5 GHz. Broad range and higher outliers indicate a wide
diversity in these algorithms’ operational capabilities.
Iterative algorithms present a range from about 4 GHz to over 30 GHz, with a median
of around 10 GHz. The presence of upper outliers suggests some iterative algorithms
are designed to work efficiently at very high frequencies. However, Artifact Removal
Algorithms, with a range from about 2 GHz to over 30 GHz and a median of around 6 GHz,
show the most variability in operating frequencies. The outliers indicate that some can be
particularly efficient and capable of operating at exceptionally high frequencies.
This analysis of operating frequency for various image reconstruction algorithms
reveals significant diversity in their performance. While GPR and Beamforming algorithms
show more concentrated and predictable ranges, analytical, iterative, and artifact removal
algorithms present wide variability. These differences highlight the importance of choosing
the right algorithm for specific application needs, considering both efficiency and specificity
in operating frequency.

5.6. Analysis of Relationship Between Image Reconstruction Algorithms and Antenna Size
Figure 14 shows a box plot representing the coverage area in mm2 for different image
reconstruction algorithms. The vertical axis is in logarithmic scale to show the coverage
area that varies among the different algorithms.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 38 of 50

Figure 14. Article classification by reconstruction algorithm and antenna area.

FDTD algorithms vary from areas of about 1 mm2 to over 1000 mm2 , with a median
around 100 mm2 . Upper outliers suggest that in some cases, this algorithm can cover
areas much larger than typical. Unlike the above, iterative algorithms show similar vari-
ation to FDTD, with areas ranging from 10 mm2 to 1000 mm2 , and the median located
around 100 mm2 . It also presents outliers indicating exceptional coverage capabilities in
certain situations.
Independent Data Beamforming Algorithms’ coverage area is quite uniform, with ranges
between 10 mm2 and 300 mm2 and a median near 100 mm2 . The lack of outliers indicates
that the coverage area is more predictable and consistent. Even if GPR algorithms have
an area range from around 10 mm2 to 300 mm2 , with the median also near 100 mm2 . Like
independent data algorithms, they show consistency in the coverage area.
Analytical algorithms group shows a range from approximately 30 mm2 to 1000 mm2 ,
with a median around 100 mm2 . Upper outliers indicate that some analytical algorithms
can expand to areas much larger than the norm. However, Artifact Removal Algorithms
present the broadest range of all, from less than 10 mm2 to over 1000 mm2 , with the median
around 100 mm2 . The presence of both lower and upper outliers suggests significant
variability in their area coverage performance.
This analysis shows that, while the median antenna coverage area for algorithms
is generally similar, variability and outliers reflect significant differences in the coverage
capabilities of each algorithm. This is crucial for their application in real-world scenarios
where area size is an important consideration.

6. Correlation Analysis Between Variable Classifications

To identify correlation patterns between different categorizations identified in the
articles, heat maps were generated, which related the variables in pairs and were based
on the number of articles identified for each. This approach is based on the methodology
proposed by Guerrero-Vasquez et al. [128] for developing a meta-analysis of the results of a
systematic review. This way, it is possible to identify trends in specific research lines and
also gaps in topics that have not yet been addressed.
Thus, in the heat map presented in Figured 15, five fundamental dimensions are
evaluated: application, image reconstruction algorithms, frequency bands, antenna de-
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 39 of 50

sign, and substrate classification. Higher values, which are represented by darker colors,
highlight significant interactions between parameters. For example, the application shows
remarkable values for its relationship with antenna design (SD = 7.21) and substrate clas-
sification (SD = 8.04), emphasizing its impact on these aspects. This indicates that there
is significant variation in the data, which explains why some values may be close to zero,
while others show considerably higher values. This variation, which reflects a wide range
of data values—some close to zero and others considerably higher—is further explained in
Appendix A. The Appendix A includes detailed tables and specific references to the data
underlying the heat map.

Figure 15. Standard deviation values of different dimensions of our review.

The observed ratio of (SD = 5.15) between applications and image reconstruction
algorithms reflects a moderate degree of interdependence. One fundamental aspect is
analyzing which algorithms are most representative of image reconstruction and identi-
fying areas where there is a significant relationship. A notable number of publications
address the relationship between cancer detection and implementation of data-independent
beamforming algorithms, with a total of 35.2% (n = 24) articles recorded. Additionally,
the FDTD algorithm has been the focus of 19.11% (n = 13) publications, highlighting its
relevance in this field of study.
Based on a ratio of (SD = 4.14), this analysis studies the relationship between ap-
plication areas and frequency bands in which they operate, aiming to achieve optimal
performance in the design and construction of antennas. It shows that most research
focuses on cancer detection, operating in the C frequency band with 23.52% (n = 16) arti-
cles, highlighting its good performance and efficiency in this area. Next, 20.58% (n = 14)
of articles worked in the S frequency band, indicating a notable interest in operating in
this band.
The elevated ratio (SD = 7.21) between applications and antenna design stems from
their strong interrelation. Thus, the analysis examines the relationship between antenna
design and application types. Shows a significant number of studies focused on cancer
detection with 44.11% (n = 30) articles dedicated to slot antenna designs. This figure un-
derscores extensive research focused on implementing slots in antenna patches to enhance
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 40 of 50

performance. Design and construction of antenna arrays applied to cancer detection were
addressed in 14.7% (n = 10) studies.
The considerable ratio between substrate classification and application reflects their
interdependence in the system. Therefore, the analysis studies the relationship between
substrate classification and applications. Shows a large number of studies focused on
cancer detection using composite substrates with 50% (n = 34) articles. High-performance
substrates are applied in 11.76% (n = 8) and ceramic substrates in 8.82% (n = 6) studies.
When analyzing the correlation between image reconstruction algorithms and fre-
quency bands, there is a particular interest in combining data-independent beamforming
algorithms in the C frequency band, with a total of 14.7% (n = 10) articles. This is followed
by 7.35% (n = 5) studies employing it in the S band, while the X and UWB frequency bands
each show a presence of 5.88% (n = 4) articles.
The relationship between antenna design and frequency bands highlights that slot
antennas are most commonly used in the S frequency band with 19.11% (n = 13) and in the C
frequency band with 14.7% (n = 10) articles. Additionally, slot antennas are utilized in the L
frequency band with 8.82% (n = 6) studies and in the UWB band with 7.35% (n = 5) articles.
Understanding the relationship between antenna design and substrate classification is
vital, so highlighting the significant prevalence of articles related to slot antenna designs,
representing 41.17% (n = 28) of studies using composite substrates.
Regarding the association between substrate classification and image reconstruction
algorithms, there is a significant number of articles that focus on composite substrates,
specifically with 20.58% (n = 14) studies related to the FDTD algorithm and 19.11% (n = 13)
articles associated with data-independent beamforming algorithms.
Recognizing the interaction between substrate classification and frequency bands
highlights studies focusing on composite substrates, representing 22.05% (n = 15) of articles
in the S frequency band. Additionally, 16.17% (n = 11) studies operate in the C frequency
band. L band has 10.29% (n = 7) articles.
The relationship between antenna design and image reconstruction algorithms high-
lights a considerable number of articles focusing on slot antennas, particularly with the
FDTD algorithm with 19.11% (n = 13) articles and data-independent beamforming algo-
rithm with 17.64% (n = 12) articles.

7. Conclusions
The results of this systematic review provide a comprehensive analysis of the state of
the art in image acquisition using microstrip antennas, focusing on the interplay between
antenna design, image reconstruction algorithms, and application domains. Our findings
highlight several significant trends and opportunities for future research in this field.
Firstly, analysis reveals that microstrip antennas have evolved considerably since
their inception, with notable advancements in their design and material properties. The
predominant use of substrates like FR4 and Rogers RT/duroid, combined with diverse
geometrical designs such as rectangular, circular, and elliptical patches, underscores their
versatility and adaptability for various imaging applications.
In addition, our review identifies key algorithms for image reconstruction, with beam-
forming algorithms (particularly Delay-and-Sum) and FDTD techniques being the most
prevalent. These algorithms have demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing image quality
and accuracy, particularly in medical diagnostics. However, iterative and analytical meth-
ods also play crucial roles in specific contexts, highlighting the importance of selecting
appropriate algorithms based on application needs.
Also, the primary application domain for microstrip antennas remains to be medical
imaging, particularly in the detection of breast cancer, brain tumors, and vascular diseases.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 41 of 50

The ability of these antennas to provide high-resolution images makes them invaluable
in early disease detection and monitoring. Nonetheless, there is a growing interest in
non-medical applications, including environmental monitoring and security surveillance,
which presents new opportunities for research and development.
Furthermore, our review highlights several gaps in the current literature. While
significant progress has been made in medical imaging, other potential application areas,
such as environmental and industrial monitoring, are less explored. Future research should
focus on extending the use of microstrip antennas to these domains, leveraging their unique
properties to address new challenges.
Future work should focus on evaluating the impact of additional parameters of the
transmitted signals beyond frequency, including power, energy, and pulse shape. These
elements are essential for improving accuracy and efficiency in image acquisition applica-
tions. In addition, the integration of reconfigurable smart systems in microstrip antennas
could represent a significant advance, which allows for dynamic adaptability in complex
environments. CSI statistical-based designs for smart surfaces, as described in recent stud-
ies, could optimize image detection and reconstruction in massive MIMO systems that are
assisted by reconfigurable smart systems.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.F.G.-V., B.S.S.-J. and F.T.Z.-L.; methodology, L.F.G.-V.,

J.O.O.-O. and P.A.C.-P.; validation, L.F.G.-V., J.O.O.-O., and P.A.C.-P.; formal analysis, L.F.G.-V.,
B.S.S.-J., F.T.Z.-L. and N.A.C.-R.; investigation, B.S.S.-J. and F.T.Z.-L.; data curation, L.F.G.-V., B.S.S.-J.,
and N.A.C.-R.; writing—original draft preparation, L.F.G.-V., B.S.S.-J. and F.T.Z.-L.; writing—review
and editing, L.F.G.-V., J.O.O.-O., P.A.C.-P. and N.A.C.-R.; visualization, L.F.G.-V., B.S.S.-J., F.T.Z.-L.
and N.A.C.-R.; supervision, J.O.O.-O. and P.A.C.-P.; project administration, J.O.O.-O. and P.A.C.-P.;
funding acquisition, L.F.G.-V., J.O.O.-O. and P.A.C.-P. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

CT computed tomography
CMI confocal microwave imaging
PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
SAR Specific Absorption Rate
EM electromagnetic
CI Confocal Imaging
DMAS Delay-Multiply-and-Sum Algorithm
MSPA Multi-Stacked Patch Antenna
ACM Association for Computing Machinery
MDPI Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute
UWB Ultra-Wideband
FR4 Flame Retardant 4
Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 42 of 50

AMC Artificial Magnetic Conductor

MTM Metamaterials
CPW coplanar waveguide
CSRR complementary split ring resonator
PCB Printed Circuit Board
LP-ASP low-profile aperture-stacked patch antenna
DAS Delay-and-Sum
FDTD Finite-Difference Time-Domain
DI data-independent beamforming
GPR Ground Penetrating Radar
IC-CF-DMAS Iterative Correction with Coherent Factor Delay-Multiply-and-Sum
HFSS High Frequency Structure System
DBIM distorted Born iterative method
DASI Delay-And-Sum Imaging
IC-DAS Iterative Correction Delay-And-Sum
ADAL Alternate Direction Augmented Lagrangian
FBP Filtered Backprojection
GBP global backprojection
IDAS Iterative Delay-And-Sum
RTI Radio Tomographic Imaging
IRM Iterative Reconstruction Method
AZIM Antenna Zoom Imaging Method
IC Iterative Correction
CF Coherent Factor
SAMPA Stacked Aperture-Coupled Microstrip Patch Antenna
MERIT Medical Electromagnetic Radiation Imaging Tool
ADAL alternate direction method and augmented Lagrangian
TWPS TW primate System
MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MWI microwave imaging
ESAR Enhanced Synthetic Aperture Radar
RTI Radio Tomographic Imaging
IQR Interquartile Range

Appendix A

Figure A1. Article classification by application and image reconstruction algorithm.

Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 43 of 50

Figure A2. Article classification by applications and frequency bands.

Figure A3. Article classification by applications and antenna geometry.

Figure A4. Article classification by application and substrate.

Figure A5. Classification of frequency bands and image reconstruction algorithms.

Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 44 of 50

Figure A6. Article classification by antenna geometry and frequency band.

Figure A7. Article classification by antenna geometry and substrate.

Figure A8. Article classification by substrate and image reconstruction algorithms.

Figure A9. Article classification by substrate and frequency band.

Electronics 2025, 14, 1063 45 of 50

Figure A10. Article classification by antenna geometry and image reconstruction algorithm.

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