AP PHYSICS 1

Class Workbook

NAME:

Dolores Gende©
2015

1
2
 AP PHYSICS 1

UNIT I. INTRODUCTION 5
Physics Skills

UNIT II. ONE-DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS 18

Constant Velocity
Uniform Acceleration

UNIT III. DYNAMICS 64

Newton’s First Law
Newton’s Third Law
Newton’s Second Law

UNIT IV. MOTION AND FORCES IN TWO DIMENSIONS 110

Projectile Motion
Circular Motion
Universal Gravitation

UNIT V. ENERGY 135

Energy and Energy Transfer
Conservation of Energy

UNIT VI. MOMENTUM 162

Impulse and Momentum
Conservation of Momentum

UNIT VII. ROTATIONAL MOTION 181

Rotational Kinematics
Torque and Rotational Equilibrium
Rotational Dynamics
Rotational Kinetic Energy
Conservation of Angular Momentum

UNIT VIII. ELECTRICITY 214

Electric Force
DC Circuits

UNIT IX. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 246

Simple Harmonic Motion
Spring Mass Systems
Simple Pendulum

UNIT X. WAVES AND SOUND 263

Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
Interference
Standing Waves

LAB INVESTIGATIONS 284

3
4
 UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS PHYSICS?

Physics is the most fundamental of the experimental sciences. Physics provides the foundation for other
scientific and technical disciplines. As a science that deals with matter and energy, physics explores a wide
variety of fields. In this course we will study the following topics:

Newtonian Mechanics
Kinematics
Dynamics
Circular motion and Gravitation
Oscillations
Conservations Laws: Energy and Momentum
Rotational Motion
Waves and Sound
Mechanical Waves
Sound
Electrostatics
Electric Charge
Electric Force
Electricity
DC Circuits

UNITS, STANDARDS AND THE SI SYSTEM

The base units that will be used in this course are:

meter (m): One meter is equal to the path length traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1/299,792,458 of a second.
kilogram (kg): One kilogram is the mass of a Platinum-Iridium cylinder kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris.
second (s): One second is the time occupied by 9,192,631,770 vibrations of the light (of a specified
wavelength) emitted by a Cesium-133 atom.

All physical quantities are expressed in terms of base units. For example, the velocity is usually given in
units of m/s. All other units are derived units and may be expressed as a combination of base units. For
example: force in Newtons (1 N = 1 kg.m/s2)

SYSTÈME INTERNATIONAL
The scientific community follows the Système International (SI), a program of weights and measures based
on the metric system:

Quantity Unit SI symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A

5
SI PREFIXES
Power Prefix Abbreviation Power Prefix Abbreviation

1012 tera- T 10-2 centi- c

109 giga- G 10-3 milli- m
106 mega- M 10-6 micro- μ
103 kilo- k 10-9 nano- n

MATHEMATICAL NOTATION
Many mathematical symbols will be used throughout this course. The most commonly used are:

= denotes equality of two quantities

denotes a proportionality
< means is less than
> means greater than
means that two quantities are approximately equal to each other
x (read as “delta x”) indicates the change in the quantity x
represents a sum of several quantities, also called summation

PHYSICS VOCABULARY
Physical quantities are features or characteristics of phenomena that can be measured experimentally.
Examples: time, speed, force.

Symbols are used to represent physical quantities: t, v, F

A unit refers to the accepted standard of measurement. For example: time is measured in seconds, speed is
measured in meters per second, force is measured in Newtons

UNIT CONVERSION

1 km = 1000 m 1 m = 100 cm 1 m = 1000 mm

1 h = 60 min 1 min = 60 s 1 h = 3600 s

1 kg = 1000 g 1 g = 1000 mg

1. Convert 15 km/h to m/s

2. Convert 450 m/s to km/h.

6
3. Carry out the following conversions using the factor-label method. Show all your work!

a. How many seconds are in September?

b. Convert 3.5 km to cm

c. Convert 5600 mg to kg

d. Convert 72 m/s to cm/min

e. Convert 3x108 m/s to km/h

f. Convert 7.6 m2 to cm2

g. Convert 8.5 cm3 to m3

7
 GRAPHING SKILLS

INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS

One of the most effective tools for the visual evaluation of data is a graph. The investigator is usually
interested in a quantitative graph that shows the relationship between two variables in the form of a curve.

After performing an experiment once the data is collected, it is necessary to determine the relationship
between the two variables in the experiment. You will construct a graph (or sometimes a series of graphs)
from your data in order to determine the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

The choice of dependent and independent variables is determined by the experimental approach or the
character of the data. Generally, the independent variable is the one over which the experimenter has
complete control; the dependent variable is the one that responds to changes in the independent variable.

For each relationship that is being investigated in your experiment, you should prepare the appropriate graph.
In general your graphs in physics are of a type known as scatter graphs. The graphs will be used to give you
a conceptual understanding of the relation between the variables, and will usually also be used to help you
formulate mathematical statement which describes that relationship.

Graphs should include each of the elements described below:

GOOD GRAPHING STRATEGIES

A title which describes the experiment. This title should be descriptive of the experiment and should
indicate the relationship between the variables. It is conventional to title graphs with DEPENDENT
VARIABLE vs. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE. For example, if the experiment was designed to
show how changing the mass of a pendulum affects its period, the mass of the pendulum is the
independent variable and the period is the dependent variable. A good title might therefore be Period
vs Mass for a Pendulum
The graph should fill the space allotted for the graph. If you have reserved a whole sheet of graph
paper for the graph then it should be as large as the paper and proper scaling techniques permit.
The graph must be properly scaled. Each axis for a graph will be scaled independently from the
other since they are representing different variables. A given axis must, however, be scaled
consistently.
8
 Each axis should be labeled with the quantity being measured and the units of measurement.
Generally, the independent variable is plotted on the horizontal (or x) axis and the dependent variable
is plotted on the vertical (or y) axis.
Each data point should be plotted in the proper position. You should plot a point as a small dot at the
position of the data point.
A line of best fit. This line should show the overall tendency (or trend) of your data. If the trend is
linear, you should draw a straight line which shows that trend using a straight edge. If the trend is a
curve, you should sketch a curve which is your best guess as to the tendency of the data. This line
(whether straight or curved) does not have to go through all of the data points and it may, in some
cases, not go through any of them.
Do not, under any circumstances, connect successive data points with a series of straight lines, dot to
dot. This makes it difficult to see the overall trend of the data that you are trying to represent.
If you are plotting the graph by hand, you will choose two points for all linear graphs from which to
calculate the slope of the line of best fit. These points should not be data points unless a data point
happens to fall perfectly on the line of best fit. Pick two points which are directly on your line of best
fit and which are easy to read from the graph. Mark the points you have chosen with a circle.
Do not do other work in the space of your graph such as the slope calculation or other parts of the
mathematical analysis.
If your graph does not yield a straight line, you will be expected to linearize the data, that is to
manipulate one (or more) of the axes of your graph, replot the manipulated data, and continue doing
this until a straight line results.

GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS AND LINEAR MATHEMATICAL MODELS

The purpose of doing an experiment in science is to try to find out how nature behaves given certain
constraints. In physics this often results in an attempt to try to find the relationship between two variables
in a controlled experiment. Sometimes the trend of the data can be loosely determined by looking only at the
raw data. The trend becomes clearer when one looks at the graph.

In this course, most of the graphs we make will represent one of three basic relationships between the
variables. These are 1) no relation 2) direct relation and 3) inverse relation. To more specifically describe the
relationship between the variables in an experiment, you will be expected to develop an equation. An
equation which describes the behavior of a physical system is called a mathematical model.

DIRECT RELATION
A possible outcome of an experiment is that increasing the independent variable will cause the dependent
variable to increase as well. We call this type of relationship a direct relation. The graph of a direct relation
can take many forms, each of which represents a different type of direct relation. The following sketches
show some different examples of direct relations:

9
Graph 2 goes through the origin of the graph but graph 1 doesn't. Mathematically, the point at which a
graph crosses the vertical axis is called a y-intercept. In the physical world, the y-intercept has some
physical meaning. Specifically, it is the value of the dependent variable when the independent variable is
zero. While graphs 1 and 2 are both direct linear relationships they do not both illustrate proportional
relationships. A direct proportion occurs when, as one variable increases by a certain factor, the other
variable increases by the same factor. Graphically, therefore, a direct proportion must not only be linear but
must also go through the origin of the axes. When one variable is zero, the other variable must also be zero.
When one variable doubles, the other variable doubles. When one variable triples, the other variable triples,
and so on. Graph 2 is therefore an example of a direct proportion while Graph 1 is only a direct linear
relationship.

4. A student tests the effect of adding various masses to a spring on the amount that the spring stretches. The
student collected the following data. Prepare a graph of the data.

Mass Stretch
(g) (cm)
10 6.2
20 9.3
30 12.1
40 15.4
50 18.3
60 21.2
70 24.3

a. Write the equation for a line:

b. Calculate the slope of the line:

c. Determine the y-intercept:

10
d. Substitute constants with units from experiment:

e. Substitute variables from experiment:

f. Final mathematical model:

g. Explain the meaning of the slope:

h. Explain the meaning of the y-intercept

COMMON TYPES OF GRAPHS

There are three relationships that occur frequently in physics:

Graph A: If y varies directly with x, the graph will be a straight line.

Graph B: If y varies inversely with x, the graph will be a hyperbola.

Graph C. If y varies directly with the square of x, the graph is a parabola.

Reading from the graph between data points is called interpolation.

Reading from the graph beyond the limits of your experimentally determined data points is called
extrapolation.

11
5. Suppose you recorded the following data during a study of the relationship of force and acceleration.
Prepare a graph showing these data (force on y-axis, acceleration on x-axis).

Force Acceleration
(N) (m/s2)
10 6.0
20 12.5
30 19.0
40 25.0

a. Describe the relationship between force and acceleration as shown by the graph.

b. Calculate the slope of the graph? Remember to include units with your slope. (1 N: 1 kg.m/s 2)

c. What physical quantity does the slope represent?

d. Write an equation for the line using the variables of the data.

e. What is the value of the force for an acceleration of 15 m/s2 ?

f. What is the acceleration when the force is 50.0 N?

12
6. Consider the data for an experiment in which a student releases a marble from rest allowing it to down an
inclined track. The student notes its position every 1.0 seconds along the track. Plot the graph (time on the x-
axis and position on the y-axis)

Time Position
(s) (cm)
0 0
1 3.1
2 12.2
3 27.0
4 47.9
5 75.2
6 108.3
7 146.8

a. What type of curve represents the data?

b. Write the general equation for this curve.

The process of linearization involves changing one of the variables to obtain a straight line. According to
the equation of the curve, the position varies directly with the square of the time.

c. Complete the data table by calculating the square of the time. Plot the new graph below:

13
d. Find the mathematical model of the line by completing the following steps. Show all your work:

Relationship between variables stated as a proportion:

Proportion written as an equation:

Calculation of slope:

Substitution into general equation:

7. Students make waves on a spring by shaking the spring at a certain frequency, and measuring the resulting
wavelength of the waves. Plot the data below.

Frequency Wavelength
(waves/s) (m)
10 1.98
20 1.01
30 0.68
40 0.49
50 0.41
60 0.32
70 0.29
80 0.25

a. What type of curve represents the data?

b. Write the general equation for this curve.

14
The process of linearization involves changing one of the variables to obtain a straight line. According to
the equation of the curve, the wavelength varies inversely with the frequency.
1
c. Complete the data table by calculating the inverse of the frequency Plot the graph below.
f

d. Find the mathematical model of the line by completing the following steps. Show all your work:

Relationship between variables stated as a proportion:

Proportion written as an equation:

Calculation of slope:

Substitution into general equation:

15
 GRAPHICAL METHODS SUMMARY

A graph is one of the most effective representations of the relationship between two variables. The
independent variable (one controlled by the experimenter) is usually placed on the x-axis. The dependent
variable (one that responds to changes in the independent variable) is usually placed on the y-axis. It is
important for you to be able interpret a graphical relationship and express it in a written statement and by
means of an algebraic expression.

Modification Algebraic
Graph shape Written relationship required to representation
linearize graph

y As x increases, y remains None y = b , or

the same. There is no y is constant
relationship between the
variables.
x

y As x increases, y None y = mx + b
increases proportionally.
y is directly proportional
to x.
x

As x increases, y Graph of y vs 1/x or æ 1ö

decreases. y vs x-1 y = mç ÷ + b
è xø
y is inversely proportional
to x.

y y is proportional to the Graph y vs x2 y = mx 2 + b

square of x.

y The square of y is Graph y2 vs. x y2 = mx + b

proportional to x.

16
PROPORTIONAL REASONING

8. A force is needed between the tires of a car and the road in order for the car to turn. The force needed
depends on three variables:
1) The force is directly proportional to the mass of the car.
2) The force is directly proportional to the car's speed squared.
3) The force is inversely proportional to the radius of the turn.

a. Write a single equation relating force, mass, speed and radius based on the proportionalities given above.

b. If the mass of the car is doubled (by adding passengers and cargo) by what factor must the force change so
the car can make the turn?

c. If the speed of the car is doubled, by what factor must the force change so the car can make the turn?

d. If the radius of the turn is doubled, by what factor must the force change so the car can make the turn?

9. For each of the following mathematical relations, state what happens to the value of y when the value of x
is halved. (k is a constant)

a. y = kx

b. y = k/x

c. y = k/x2

17
 UNIT II
ONE-DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS

MOTION
An object is in motion if its position changes. The mathematical description of motion is called kinematics.
There are multiple means by which the motion of objects can be represented. Such means include the use of
words, the use of graphs, the use of diagrams, and the use of equations.

The motion of objects can be described by words - words such as distance, displacement, speed, velocity,
and acceleration. These mathematical quantities that are used to describe the motion of objects can be
divided into two categories:

A scalar quantity has only magnitude and is completely specified by a number and a unit. Examples are
mass (a stone has a mass of 2 kg), volume (1.5 L), and frequency (60 Hz). Scalar quantities of the same kind
are added by using ordinary arithmetic.

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. Examples are displacement (an airplane has flown 200
km to the southwest), velocity (a car is moving at 60 km/h to the north), and force (a person applies an
upward force of 25 N to a package). When vector quantities are added, their directions must be taken into
account.

QUANTITIES FOR DESCRIBING MOTION

Any description of motion takes place in a coordinate system that

allows us to track the position of an object.

One-dimensional motion means that objects are only free to move

back and forth along a single line. As a coordinate system for one-
dimensional motion, choose this line to be an x-axis together with
a specified origin and positive and negative directions.

Point Particle: When you do not need to take the size of the object into account to solve a problem,
you can represent this object as a point. This point will have all properties of the object except its size
and parts.
Time: The time t is a clock reading or instant. The time interval t t2 t1 is a difference in clock
readings.
These quantities describe the location of an object:
Position is an object's location with respect to a particular coordinate system.
Displacement x x2 x1 is a vector that starts from an object's initial position and ends at its final
position.
Distance is the magnitude (length) of the displacement vector.

MOTION DIAGRAMS (MOTION MAPS)

A motion map represents the position and velocity of an object at various clock readings.

Here is a stroboscopic picture of a car moving to the right at constant velocity where each image revealed the
position of the car at one-second intervals.
18
This is the motion map that represents the car. We model the position of the object with a small point. At
each position, the object's velocity is represented by a vector.

If the car was traveling at greater velocity, the strobe photo might look like this:

The corresponding motion map has the points spaced farther apart, and the velocity vectors are longer,
implying that the car is moving faster.

If the car were moving to the left at constant velocity, the photo and motion map might look like this:

More complicated motion can be represented as well.

end
start

Here, an object starts at the origin, moves to the right at constant velocity, stops for two seconds, then moves
to the left at a slower constant velocity.

DRAWING MOTION MAPS:

1. Draw dots indicating the position of the object at equal time intervals, i.e. each second.
2. Attach arrows to the dots indicating the direction of motion. Make the arrow length half of the space
between the dots to make your motion map easy to read.
3. When an object is stopped for several time intervals, draw multiple dots at the same position.
4. Make sure your sequence of arrows has a logical flow so that the motion is clearly communicated.
Tip: indicate start/end of motion.

VERBAL DESCRIPTIONS OF MOTION:

Where does the object start?
How is it moving?
In which direction is it moving?
Indicate if it ends at a specific location.

19
POSITION-TIME GRAPHS

1. Give a qualitative description of the motion depicted in the following x-versus-t graphs:
x x
a. b.

t
t

2. Draw a qualitative x-versus-t graph for the verbal description of motion:

a. An object starts to the right of the origin, moves to the right at constant speed.
b. An object starts to the left of the origin, moves to the right at constant speed ending at the origin.

a. x b. x

t t

INTERPRETING POSITION-TIME GRAPHS

Information about motion can be obtained from position-versus-time graphs follows:

Determine an object's position at time t by reading the graph at that instant of time.
Determine the object's velocity at time t by finding the slope of the position graph at that point.
Steeper slopes correspond to faster speeds.
Determine the direction of motion by noting the sign of the slope. Positive slopes correspond to
positive velocities and, hence, to motion to the right (or up). Negative slopes correspond to negative
velocities and, hence, to motion to the left (or down).

Velocity is the slope of the position-time graph:

x
v UNITS: m/s
t

If the slope is positive, the object is moving along the +x axis.

If the slope is negative, the object is moving along the –x axis.
The magnitude of the slope (which is always positive) is the speed of the object.
The speed and the direction together are called the velocity of the object.

20
3. Given the following position vs. time graph:
a. Draw a motion map with one dot for each second.

b. Calculate the velocity for each time interval there is a change.

c. Write a verbal quantitative description of the motion.

4. Given the following motion map, where positions have been recorded with one dot each second.
a. Draw a position vs. time graph.

b. Describe the motion of the object in words:

c. Explain the meaning of the y-intercept:

21
5. A position vs. time graph for cyclists A and B is shown below.

a. Do the cyclists start at the same point?

How do you know?

If not, which is ahead?

b. At t = 7s, which cyclist is ahead? How do you know?

c. Which cyclist is traveling faster at 3s? How do you know?

d. Are their velocities equal at any time? How do you know?

e. What is happening at the intersection of lines A and B?

f. Draw a motion map for cyclists A and B.

22
VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS

6. Draw the corresponding velocity vs time graph for the motion produced the position vs time graph shown
below at left. Show your calculations below.

7. Draw the velocity vs time graph for an object whose motion produced the position vs time graph shown
below at left. Show your calculations below.

CONCLUSION: Positive velocity means that the object is moving in the positive direction; negative
velocity means it is moving in the negative direction. Velocity is a vector quantity.
Speed is the magnitude of velocity, it is always positive. Speed is a scalar quantity.
23
8a. Graph the following data.
Velocity versus Time

Time Velocity
(s) (m/s)
0 150
1 150
2 150
3 150
4 150
5 150

b. Shade the area under the line between 1 and 4 seconds. Calculate the area with appropriate units.

c. What does the area represent?

9. Four objects move with the velocity-time graphs shown. Which object has the largest displacement
between t = 0 s and t = 2 s? Explain your answer.

CONSTANT VELOCITY EQUATIONS

x
Velocity: v since x x x0 then the position equation is given by:
t

x x0 vt UNITS: m

Where x0 is the position of the object at time t0 = 0.

24
10. The following graph represents the motion of you and your sister.

a. Calculate your velocities. Show all your work! (5 m/s, 2 m/s)

b. Draw a motion diagram for each of you.

c. Write a verbal description for each of your motions.

d. Use equations to determine your positions at t = 2 s. (10 m, 14 m)

e. Calculate at what time and position will you guys meet according to the graph. (16.7 m)

25
11. The figure shows a position-versus-time graph for a moving object.
At which lettered point or points:

a. Is the object moving the slowest? ________

b. ls the object moving the fastest? _________

c. Is the object at rest? ___________

d. Is the object moving to the left? ________

e. Does the object have a constant nonzero velocity? ________

12. It is now 10.29 am but when the bell rings at 10.30 am Noah will be late for Physics class. He must get
from the Upper School building to the Physics room by hurrying down three different hallways. He runs
down the first hallway, a distance of 35 m at a speed of 3.5 m/s. The second hallway is filled with students
and he covers the 48 m length at an average speed of 1.20 m/s. The final hallway is empty and Noah sprints
its 60 m length at a speed of 5.0 m/s.

a. Write down the data given and calculate the additional information needed to draw a position versus time
graph.

b. Draw a position versus time graph of the situation:

c. Does Noah make it on time or does she get a detention? Explain your answer.

26
AVERAGE SPEED AND VELOCITY

Average velocity is the displacement divided by the amount of time it took to undergo that displacement.
Average speed is the total distance divided by the total amount of time.

The difference between average speed and average velocity is that average speed relates to the distance
traveled while average velocity relates to the displacement.

13. The table below shows data for position and time of a skater.
a. Plot the position vs. time graph for the skater.

Time t Position x
(s) (m)
0.0 0.0
2.0 2.0
4.0 4.0
6.0 4.0
8.0 3.0
10.0 2.0
12.0 2.0
14.0 5.0
16.0 8.0

a. Determine the skater's average speed from t = 0 s to t = 16 s. (0.75 m/s)

e. Determine the skater's average velocity from t = 0 s to t = 16 s. (0.5 m/s)

27
14. A car travels north at 100 km/h for 2 h, slows down to 75 km/h for the next 2 h, and then turns south at
80 km/h for 1 h.
a. Calculate the car’s average speed for the entire journey. Show all your work. (86 km/h)

b. Calculate the car’s average velocity for the entire journey. Show all your work. (54 km/h)

15. A bus travels on a northbound street for 20.0 s at a constant velocity of 10.0 m/s. After stopping for 20.0
s, it travels at a constant velocity of 15.0 m/s for 30.0 s to the next stop, where it remains for 15.0 s. For the
next 15.0 s, the bus continues north at 15.0 m/s.

a. Write down the data for each leg of the trip and calculate any additional information needed to construct a
position vs time graph of the motion of the bus.

d. Calculate the average velocity of the bus for

this period? (8.75 m/s, N)

28
16. The motion of an object was recorded on a position vs. time data below.

a. Construct a graph of position vs. time. b. Construct a graph of velocity vs. time.

t x
(s) (m) 10
5
0 0
1 2

velocity (m/s)
position (m)
2 4
3 4 0
5 t (s)
4 7
5 10
6 10
7 10 -5
8 5 0
9 0 time (s)

c. Determine the displacement from t = 3.0 s to 5.0 s using the velocity vs. time graph. (6 m)

e. Determine the displacement from t = 7.0 s to 9.0 s using the velocity vs. time graph. (10 m)

f. Determine the average velocity from t = 4 s to 8 s. (-0.5 m/s)

g. Determine the average speed from t = 4 s to 8 s. (2 m/s)

29
UNIFORM ACCELERATION

17. The data to the left are for a wheel rolling from rest down an incline. Using the position/time data given
in the data table, plot the position vs. time graph.

t x
(s) (cm)
0.0 0.0
1.0 5.0
2.0 20.0
3.0 45.0
4.0 80.0
5.0 125.0
6.0 180.0

a. What is the significance of the slope of a position vs. time graph?

30
b. What is happening to the slope of your position vs. time graph as time goes on?

c. Explain what your answers to questions a. and b. tell you about the motion of the wheel.

On the position vs. time graph, draw a line which connects the point at t = 0 to the point at t = 6.0 s.
d. Calculate the slope of this line in the space below. Explain what the slope of this line tells you about the
motion of the wheel.

On the position vs. time graph, draw a line which connects the point at t = 2.0 s to the point at t = 4.0 s.
e. Calculate the slope of this line in the space below. Explain what the slope of this line tells you about the
motion of the wheel.

On the position vs. time graph, draw a line tangent to the graph at t = 3.0 s.
f. Calculate the slope of this line in the space below. Explain what the slope of this line tells you about the
motion of the wheel.

g. Compare the slopes you have calculated in questions 6, 8, and 10. Explain the results of your comparison.

h. Consider an object that accelerates uniformly. If you were to calculate the average speed of the object for
a given interval of time, would the object ever be traveling with an instantaneous speed equal to that average
speed? If so when? Explain!

31
18. Use the position vs. time data to complete the data table to the right. Using the completed table, plot a
velocity vs. time graph on the axes below. Perform a mathematical analysis of the resulting velocity vs. time
graph in the space provided, to yield a mathematical model that describes the relationship between velocity
and time for this wheel.
Mathematical Analysis:
t x t x tmid v
(s) (cm) (s) (cm) (s) (cm/s)
0.0 0.0

1.0 5.0

2.0 20.0

3.0 45.0

4.0 80.0

5.0 125.0

6.0 180.0

32
19. Linearize the position vs. time graph.
Mathematical Analysis:
Include the new data points in the table blank
column below. In the space provided, perform
the mathematical analysis of the linearized graph
to develop the mathematical model that
describes
the relationship between position and time.
t x
(s) (cm)

0.0 0.0

1.0 5.0

2.0 20.0

3.0 45.0

4.0 80.0

5.0 125.0

6.0 180.0

33
a. What is the significance of the slope of your velocity vs. time graph? Explain!

b. Compare the slope of your velocity vs. time graph to the slope of your position vs. time 2 graph. What
does this say about the significance of the slope of your position vs. time 2 graph?

c. Write the equation that relates velocity and time for the wheel using the mathematical analysis of your
velocity vs. time graph.

d. Write the equation that relates position and time for the wheel using the mathematical analysis of your
position vs. time2 graph.

e. Shade the area under the line of the velocity-time graph between 0 and 25 seconds. Calculate the area with
appropriate units.

f. What does the area represent?

34
20. Draw qualitative graphs of x-versus-t, v-versus-t, and a-versus-t for each scenario.

vo = 0

x=0

vo = 0

x=0

35
 vo ≠ 0

x=0

v0 = 0

x=0

36
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
If the sign of the velocity and the acceleration is the same then the object is speeding up.
If the sign of the velocity and the acceleration is the opposite then the object is slowing down.

21. Draw qualitative velocity-time graphs for the following cases (label each slope as +a or -a)
a. Motion in positive direction, speeding up
b. Motion in positive direction, slowing down
c. Motion in negative direction, speeding up
d. Changing direction

37
22. For each case:
a. Draw quantitative graphs of x-versus-t, v-versus-t, and a-versus-t.
b. Write a verbal description of the motion.

CASE 1.

vo > 0 cm/s x = 25 cm x = 50 cm

x = 0 cm

38
 CASE 2. vo = 0 cm/s

x = 0 cm

x = 25 cm

x = 50 cm

39
23. Given the following position vs time graph
a. Construct the corresponding velocity vs time and acceleration vs time graphs
b. Describe the motion.

Note: If you see a dashed line in a graph it tells you the motion changes at that time.

a. b.

Description:
Description:

40
c. d.

Description: Description:

41
INTERPRETING GRAPHS
24. The position versus time graph of a car is shown. Calculate
the average velocity of the car between 2.5 s and 7.5 s? Mark the
graph and show all your work. (4m/s)

25. Consider the following graph:

a. Describe the motion:

b. Determine the displacement from t = 0s to t = 4 s. Clearly mark the areas on the graph.(- 18 m)

c. Determine the displacement from t = 4 s to t = 8 s. Clearly mark the areas on the graph. (- 30 m)

d. Determine the average acceleration of the object’s motion. Show your work. (-0.75 m/s2)

42
e. Sketch a possible x-t graph for the motion of the object. Explain why your graph is only one of many
possible graphs.

26. Answer the questions that refer to this graph:

a. Give a written description of the motion.

b. Determine the displacement from t = 0 s to t = 4 s.

c. Determine the displacement from t = 4 s to t = 8 s.

d. Determine the displacement from t = 2 s to t = 6 s.

e. Determine the object’s acceleration at t = 4 s.

g. Sketch a possible x-t graph for the motion of the object. Explain why your graph is only one of many possible
graphs.

43
27. The graph below describes the velocity of a car as a function of time. You may only use slopes or areas to
answer the questions. Show all your work!

a. During which time interval/intervals was the car at rest?

b. What was the acceleration of this car at t = 20 seconds? Explain.

c. What was the acceleration of this car at t = 5 seconds? (-2 m/s2)

d. During which interval/intervals was the car moving in reverse?

f. What was the total displacement of this car between t = 0 and t = 110 seconds? Clearly mark and label your
areas on the graph! (1150 m)

44
 28. The acceleration versus time graph below represents the motion of a hockey player.

a. Explain how you can use the graph to determine the change in velocity of the player?

b. What is the change in velocity from 10 to 40 s (12 m/s)

GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF MOTION SUMMARY

Graphical interpretations for motion along a straight line (the x-axis) are as follows:
the slope of the tangent of an x-versus-t graph yields the instantaneous velocity,
the slope of the v-versus-t graph yields the average acceleration,
the area under the v-versus-t graph gives the displacement,
the area under the a-versus-t graph gives the change in velocity.

45
ACCELERATION

Acceleration happens when:

An object's velocity increases
An object's velocity decreases
An object changes direction

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, which is the slope of the velocity-time graph.

v
aav Units: m/s2
t

EQUATIONS FOR MOTION UNDER UNIFORM ACCELERATION:

vo vf 1 2
x t xf x0 v0 t at
2 2

vf v0 at vf 2 v02 2a x

PROBLEM SOLVING:
To fully show your work these items are required:
1. Sketch of the situation as appropriate
2. Data with units. Do any unit conversion needed here!
3. Equation(s)
4. Equation solved for the unknown
5. Substitution
6. Answer with appropriate units
7. Evaluate your answer for correct number of significant digits and physical appropriateness

29. A skier starts from rest and slides 9.0 m down a slope in 3.0 s. In what time after starting will the skier
acquire a speed of 24 m/s? Assume that the acceleration is constant.

46
30. The speed of a train is reduced from 15 m/s to 7.0 m/s while traveling a distance of 90 m.
a. Calculate the acceleration.

b. How much farther will the train travel before coming to rest, provided the acceleration remains constant?

31. A car moving at 30 m/s slows uniformly to a speed of 10 m/s in a time of 5.0 s.
a. Determine the acceleration of the car

b. Determine the distance it moves in the third second

c. Draw a quantitative velocity-time graph that represents the situation.

velocity (m/s)

time (s) 47
PROBLEMS 32-34 For EACH problem show all your work:
Data (for problems with 2 sections, write data only once), equation(s), substitution, answer with units
Draw a quantitative velocity-time graph that represents the situation. Your axes should clearly show
starting and finishing values for velocity and time.

32. At t = 0 a car has a speed of 30 m/s. At t = 6 s, its speed is 15 m/s.

a. What is its average acceleration during this time interval? (-2.5 m/s2)

velocity (m/s)
b. How far does it travel in this time? (135 m)

time (s)

33. A bus moving at 20 m/s (t = 0) slows at a rate of 4 m/s each second.

a. How long does it take the bus to stop? (5 s)
velocity (m/s)

b. How far does it travel while braking? (50 m)

time (s)

48
34. A physics student skis down a hill, accelerating at a constant 2.0 m/s2. If it takes her 15 s to reach the
bottom, what is the length of the slope? (225 m)

velocity (m/s)
time (s)

35. A train accelerates from rest at 1.4 m/s2. After covering a distance of 67 m, the train then travels at a
constant velocity for 4.0 s. At that instant, the train is braked to a stop in 6.0 s.
a. What is the total distance traveled? (163 m) Hint: Divide the motion into parts!

b. How much total time was required? (19.8 s)

49
36. A crane is used to lift a steel I-beam to the top of a 30 m building. For the first 2 s, the beam is lifted from
rest with an upward acceleration of 2.7 m/s2. If the speed stays constant for the remainder of the trip, how much
total time was required to raise the beam from the ground to the roof? (6.5 s)

37. Which point or points on the velocity-time graph -if any- show instants with the following conditions?
v
(m/s)

t
(s)

a. Uniform motion in the positive direction? _____ b. Uniform motion in the negative direction? _____

c. Rest? ______ d. Positive acceleration with positive velocity? _____

e. Negative velocity with positive acceleration? ______f. Negative acceleration with positive velocity? _____

g. Negative velocity with negative acceleration? _____h. Zero velocity and negative acceleration? ______

i. Positive acceleration and zero velocity? ______

50
38. Which point or points on the position-time graph -if any- show instants with the following conditions?
x
(m)

t
(s)

a. Uniform motion in the positive direction? _____ b. Uniform motion in the negative direction? _____

c. Rest? ______ d. Positive acceleration with positive velocity? _____

e. Negative velocity with positive acceleration? ______f. Negative acceleration with positive velocity? _____

g. Negative velocity with negative acceleration? _____h. Zero velocity and negative acceleration? ______

i. Positive acceleration and zero velocity? ______

FREE FALL

All objects in free fall near the Earth's surface have the same downward acceleration of:

g = 9.8 m/s2

An object falling from rest in a vacuum has a velocity of 9.8 m/s at the end of the first second, 19.6 m/s at the
end of the next second, and so forth. The farther the object falls, the faster it moves. An object in free fall has
the same downward acceleration whether it starts from rest or has an initial velocity in some direction.

The presence of air affects the motion of falling objects partly through buoyancy and partly through air
resistance. Thus two different objects falling in air from the same height will not, in general, reach the ground at
exactly the same time. Because air resistance increases with velocity, eventually a falling body reaches a
terminal velocity that depends on its mass, size and shape, and it cannot fall any faster than that. Terminal
velocity is a constant velocity.

When air resistance can be neglected, a falling object has the constant acceleration g, and the equations for
uniformly accelerated motion apply. Just substitute a for g.

Sign Convention for direction of motion:

If the object is thrown downward then: g = 9.8 m/s2

If the object is thrown upward then: g = - 9.8 m/s2

51
There are a few facts concerning free fall motion that you can use in analyzing situations. These facts can be
deduced from the four equations for motion with constant acceleration.

When an object launched vertically upward reaches the top of its path (its maximum height), its
instantaneous velocity is zero, even though its acceleration continues to be 9.8 m/s 2 downward.
An object launched upward from a given height takes an equal amount of time to reach the top of its
path as it takes to fall from the top of its path back to the height from which it was launched.
The velocity an object has at a given height, on its way up, is equal and opposite to the velocity it will
have at that same height on its way back down.

39. A ball is dropped from rest at a height of 50 m above the ground.

a. What is its speed just before it hits the ground?

b. How long does it take to reach the ground?

40. A rock is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 20 m/s from the edge of a bridge 42 m above a river.
How long does the rock stay in the air?

52
41. A stone is thrown straight upward and it rises to a height of 20 m. With what speed was it thrown?
(19.8 m/s)

42. A stone is thrown straight upward with a speed of 20 m/s. It is caught on its way down at a point 5.0 m
above where it was thrown.
a. How fast was it going when it was caught? (17.4 m/s)

b. How long did the trip take? (3.81 s)

53
43. At Six Flags, Free Fall riders seated in a gondola are taken to the top of a 10-story tower. Then the gondola
is dropped 30 m down a vertical track that curves near the bottom, where the gondola slows to a stop.
a. How long does it take to fall from top to bottom? (2.5 s)

b. What maximum speed is reached? (24 m/s)

44. A baseball thrown vertically up from the roof of a tall building has an initial velocity of 20 m/s.
a. Calculate the time required to reach its maximum height. (2.04 s)

b. Find the maximum height it reaches (20.4 m)

c. Determine its position and velocity after 1.5 s. (19 m, 5.3 m/s)

d. Determine its position and velocity after 5 s. (-23 m, -29 m/s)

54
45. A ball is thrown straight down from a bridge with an initial velocity of 18.5 m/s. If it travels for 2.3 s, how
high is the bridge? (68 m)

46. A pitcher threw a baseball across the plate at 98.6 mph or 44.1 m/s. If the pitcher had thrown the pitch
straight up, how high would it have gone? (99.2 m)

47. From the top of a building that is 75.0 m tall, you toss a ball straight up with an initial velocity of 33.8 m/s
a. How high does the ball travel? (58.3 m)

b. The ball then falls down to the ground below. How much time is it in the air? (8.67 s)

55
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
5. A leopard starts from rest at t = 0 and runs in a straight
1. A ball is thrown straight up into the air. Ignore air line with a constant acceleration until t = 3.0 s. The
resistance. While the ball is in the air its acceleration distance covered by the leopard between t = 1.0 s and
(a) increases t = 2.0 s is
(b) remains constant (a) the same as the distance covered during the first second
(c) decreases on the way up and increases on the way down (b) twice the distance covered during the first second
(d) changes direction (c) three times the distance covered during the first second
(d) four times the distance covered during the first second

2. Which car has a westward acceleration?

(a) a car traveling eastward and speeding up
(b) a car traveling westward and slowing down
(c) a car traveling eastward and slowing down
(d) a car starting from rest and moving toward
the east

Questions 3 -4. A toy rocket is propelled straight upward from

the ground and reaches a height Δy. After an elapsed time Δt, Questions 6–14. The graph shows the motion of a jogger is
measured from the time the rocket was first fired off, the along a long, straight road that runs north-south. She starts out
rocket has fallen back down to the ground, landing at the same heading north.
spot from which it was launched. Answer choices:
y 6. What is the displacement of the jogger from t = 18.0 min to
( a ) zero (b) (2) t = 24.0 min?
t
(a) 720 m, south
y y 1 (b) 720 m, north
(c) (d )
t t 2 (c) 2160 m, south
(d) 3600 m, north
3. What is the magnitude of the average velocity of the rocket
during this time?

4. What is the average speed of the rocket during this time?

56
7. What is the displacement of the jogger for the entire 30.0 13. In which region is a negative?
min? (a) A to B
(a) 3120 m, south (b) C to D
(b) 2400 m, north (c) E to F
(c) 2400 m, south (d) G to H
(d) 3840 m, north

14. In which region is the velocity directed to the south?

(a) A to B
(b) C to D
(c) E to F
(d) G to H
8. What is the total distance traveled by the jogger in 30.0
min?
(a) 3840 m (b) 2340 m (c) 2400 m (d) 3600 m

9. What is the average velocity of the jogger during the 30.0

min?
(a) 1.3 m/s, north
(b) 1.7 m/s, north
(c) 2.1 m/s, north
15. The figure shown above has four graphs of x versus time.
(d) 2.9 m/s, north
Which graph shows a constant, positive, nonzero velocity?

16. Now the four graphs show v versus time.

10. What is the average speed of the jogger for the 30 min?
(a) Which graph shows a constant velocity?
(a) 1.4 m/s
(b) 1.7 m/s
(c) 2.1 m/s
(d) 2.9 m/s
(b) Which graph shows a constant and positive?

11. In what direction is she running at time t = 20 min?

(a) south
(c) Which graph shows a constant and negative?
(b) north
(c) not enough information

(d) Which graph shows a changing a that is always positive?

12. In which region of the graph is a positive?
(a) A to B
(b) C to D
(c) E to F
(d) G to H

57
FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS

FRQ 1. A speeder doing 17.9 m/s in a 10 m/s zone approaches a parked police car. The instant the speeder
passes the police car; the police begin their pursuit. If the speeder maintains a constant velocity, and the police
accelerates with a constant acceleration of 4.5 m/s2 .
a. How long does it take for the police car to catch the speeder? (7.96 s)

b. How far have the two cars traveled in this time? (143 m)

c. What is the velocity of the police car when it catches the speeder? (35.8 m/s)

d. Sketch the corresponding position versus time graph for both objects:

e. Sketch the corresponding velocity versus time graph for both objects:

58
FRQ 2. The first 10 m of a 100-meter dash are covered in 2 s by a sprinter who starts from rest and accelerates
with a constant acceleration. The remaining 90 m are run with the same velocity the sprinter had after 2 s.
a. Determine the sprinter's constant acceleration during the first 2 s. (5 m/s2)

b. Determine the sprinters’ velocity after 2 s has elapsed. (10 m/s)

c. Determine the total time needed to run the full 100 meters. (11 s)

d. Plot a neat position versus time graph for the sprinter.

59
FRQ 3. The graph shown above represents the vertical velocity of a bouncing ball as a function of time.
The y –axis points up. Use the data from the graph to answer the questions.

a. At what time does the ball reach its maximum height? (0.3 s)

b. For how long is the ball in contact with the floor? (0.05 s)

c. What is the maximum height of the ball? (0.45 m)

d. What is the acceleration of the ball while in the air? (10 m/s2)

e. What is the average acceleration of the ball while in contact with the floor? (120 m/s2, up)

60
FRQ 4. Use the velocity time graph below to determine the displacement during the following time intervals:
Clearly mark your work on the graph.

a. t = 0-8s b. t = 8-18s c. t = 18-22s d. t = 22-24s

x = ________ x = ________ x = ________ x = ________

15

10

5
velocity (m/s)

-5

-10

-15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
time (s)

e. Now construct a quantitative position-time graph that corresponds to the velocity-time graph above. Assume
a position of x0 = 0. Be sure to number the position axis scale.
position (m)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
time (s)

61
FRQ 5. The position versus time graph of a car is shown below.

a. Write a verbal description of the motion.

b. Determine the average velocity of the car between 1.0 s and 9.0 s. Mark the graph appropriately and show all
your work.

c. Determine the instantaneous velocity of the car at t = 3 s and then at t = 5 s. Mark the graph appropriately and
show all your work.

d. Determine the average acceleration from t = 3 s to t = 5 s.

62
FRQ 6. A baseball is thrown straight upward on the Moon (g = 1.6 m/s2) with an initial speed of 35 m/s.
a. Calculate the maximum height reached by the ball (382.8 m)

b. Calculate the time taken to reach that height (21.9 s)

c. Calculate the velocity 30 s after it is thrown (- 13 m/s)

d. Calculate the velocity when the ball's height is 100 m. (30 m/s)

e. Sketch qualitative position, velocity and acceleration versus time graphs that represent this motion.

63
 UNIT III
DYNAMICS

VECTORS
A vector is represented by an arrowed line whose length is proportional to the vector quantity and whose
direction indicates the direction of the vector quantity. Examples of vectors:

The resultant, or sum, of a number of vectors of a particular type (force vectors, for example) is that single
vector that would have the same effect as all the original vectors taken together.

VECTOR COMPONENTS
A vector in two dimensions may be resolved into two component vectors acting along any two mutually
perpendicular directions. The figure shows the force vector F and its x and y vector components:

Fx = F cos and Fy = F sin

1. Determine the components of the force F shown:

VECTOR ADDITION

Vectors in the same direction: add up

Vectors in opposite direction: subtract
Vectors at right angles: use Pythagorean theorem
Vectors at different angles: use components

64
COMPONENT METHOD OF VECTOR ADDITION

To add two or more vectors A, B, C,… by the component method, follow this procedure:

1. Resolve the initial vectors into components x and y.

2. Add the components in the x direction to give Σx and add the components in the y direction to give Σy.
That is, the magnitudes of Σx and Σy are given by, respectively:

Σx= Ax + Bx + Cx… and Σy = Ay + By + Cy…

3. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant R from its components by using the Pythagorean
theorem:
y
Magnitude: R x2 y2 Direction: tan 1
x

2. Three ropes are tied to a stake and the following forces are exerted. Find the resultant force.

65
3. Determine the resultant force on the bolt in the figure. F (696 N, 154.1 )

4. Three boats exert forces on a mooring hook as shown. Find the resultant force on the hook. F (853 N, 101.7 )

66
5. You know what to do… (315 N, 153.1o)

67
 INTERACTIONS
SYSTEM
A system is an object or group of objects that we are interested in analyzing. Everything outside the system is
called the environment and consists of objects that might interact with and affect the system object’s motion.
These are external interactions.

FORCE
A force is a physical quantity that characterizes the interaction of two objects. Force is a vector quantity and is
represented by the symbol F.

FORCES HAVE AGENTS

In the point particle model, objects cannot exert forces on themselves. Each force has a specific identifiable,
immediate cause called agent. You should be able to name the agent of each force, for example the force of the
desk or your hand on your book. The agent can be animate such as a person, or inanimate such as a desk, floor
or a magnet. The agent for the force of gravity is Earth's mass.
If you can't name an agent, the force doesn't exist!
CONTACT VERSUS FIELD FORCES
Forces exerted by the environment on a system can be divided into two types:

Contact Forces: act on an object only by touching it. Examples: tension, friction, normal.
Field Forces or Long-Range Forces: are exerted without contact. Example: gravitational, magnetic,
electric.

Force & Symbol Description of Force Direction of Force

An applied force is a force that is applied to an object by
another object or by a person.
Applied Force
If a person is pushing a desk across the room, then there is
applied force acting upon the desk. The applied force is the
force exerted on the desk by the person.
The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object
that is in contact with another stable object. If a book is
Normal Force resting upon a surface, then the surface is exerting an
upward force upon the book. The normal force is always
perpendicular to the surface
The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an
object moves across it or makes an effort to move across it.
Friction Force
If a book moves across the surface of a desk, the desk exerts
a friction force in the direction opposite to the motion of the
book.
Tension is the force that is transmitted through a string,
rope, or wire when it is pulled tight by forces acting at each
Tension Force
end. The tensional force is directed along the wire and pulls
equally on the objects on either end of the wire.

Air resistance is a special type of frictional force that acts

Air Resistance or upon objects as they travel through the air. The force of air
68
Drag Force resistance always opposes the motion of the object. It is
most noticeable for objects that travel at high speeds (e.g., a
skydiver or a downhill skier) or for objects with large
surface areas.
The gravitational force is the force with which the earth,
Gravitational moon, or other massive body attracts an object towards
Force (also known itself. All objects upon earth experience a force of gravity
as Weight) that is directed "downward" towards the center of the earth.
The force of gravity on an object on earth is always equal to
the weight of the object.

FREE-BODY-DIAGRAMS
A free-body-diagram (FBD) is a vector diagram that shows all the forces that are exerted on an object whose
motion is being studied.

6. Draw a FBD for each situation below following these directions:

Choose a coordinate system defining the positive direction of motion.
Replace the object by a dot (particle model) and locate it in the center of the coordinate system.
Draw arrows to represent the forces exerted on the system.

a. Object lies motionless.

b. Object slides at constant speed without friction

c. Object slows due to kinetic friction.

69
d. Object slides without friction.

e. Static friction prevents sliding.

f. An object is suspended from the ceiling.

g. The object is motionless.

h. The object is motionless.

70
i. The object is motionless.

j. The object is pulled by a force at an angle to the surface.

k. The object is pushed by a force applied downward at an angle.

l. The object is falling (no air resistance).

m. The object is falling at constant (terminal) velocity.

71
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
The weight of a body is the gravitational force with which the Earth attracts the body. Weight (a vector
quantity) is different from mass (a scalar quantity). The weight of a body varies with its location near the Earth
(or other astronomical object), whereas its mass is the same everywhere in the universe.

FG = mg UNITS: N (Newton) g = 9.8 N/kg (gravitational field)

FORCE UNITS
Force is a vector quantity measured using a standard metric unit known as the Newton (N). One Newton is the
amount of force required to give a 1-kg mass an acceleration of 1 m/s2.

7 a. What is the weight of 6 kg of apples?

b. What is the mass of a 6 N crate of grapes?

8. Draw neat, labeled Free-Body-Diagrams for each case:

72
73
9. On the surface of the moon, a 91 kg physics teacher weighs only 145.6 N. What is the value of the moon's
gravitational field at its surface? (1.60 m/s2)

74
10. The three scenarios below show a box on a rough surface (there is friction).

a. Box resting on frictionless surface. Draw FBD.

Write down the ΣFx and ΣFy expressions:

b. Box being pulled by a force at an angle. Draw FBD.

Write down the ΣFx and ΣFy expressions

What is the normal force equal to?

c. Box being pulled up the incline by a force

Write down the ΣFx and ΣFy expressions

What is the normal force equal to?

75
HOOKE'S LAW

Whenever a spring is stretched from its equilibrium position and released, it will move back and forth on either
side of the equilibrium position. The force that pulls it back and attempts to restore the spring to equilibrium is
called the restoring force.
F= - k x UNITS: N (Newton)

Where k (N/m) is a constant called the force constant or spring constant and is a measure of the stiffness of the
particular spring. This equation is known as the spring equation or Hooke’s Law.

11. A force of 5 N compresses a spring by 4 cm. Find the force constant of the spring.

12. A spring is stretched by 30 mm when a force of 0.40 N is applied to it. Find the spring constant. (13.3 N/m)

13. A child exerts a force of 12 N to shoot a rubber band across the room. If the rubber band has a spring
constant of 180 N/m, what is the rubber band’s displacement? (0.067m)

76
NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
An object that is at rest will remain at rest, or an object that is moving will continue to move in a straight line
with constant velocity, if and only if the net force acting on the object is zero.

There are two parts to this statement:

one which predicts the behavior of stationary objects and
the other which predicts the behavior of moving objects.

It is the natural tendency of objects to resist changes in their state of motion. This tendency to resist changes in
their state of motion is described as inertia. A quantitative measure of inertia is mass.

FIRST CONDITION FOR EQUILIBRIUM

An object is in translational equilibrium if and only if the vector sum of the forces acting upon it is zero.
Sum of the forces:
Σ Fx = 0 Σ Fy = 0 UNITS: N

This is a statement of Newton's First Law of Motion for objects at rest or moving in a straight line at constant
velocity.

14. Bob pushes a 2.0 kg broom at constant speed across the floor. The broom handle makes a 50° angle with
the floor. He pushes the broom with a 5.0 N force.

a. Draw a neat FBD.

b. Calculate the normal force.

c. Calculate the frictional force opposing the motion.

77
15. A sphere of weight 8.0 N hangs from a cord that is knotted to two other cords, fastened as shown.
a. Draw the free body diagram at the knot.

b. Calculate the tensions T1 and T2.

16. A heavy box is sitting at rest on an incline. There is friction between the box and the incline, and a rope is
pulling on the box in a direction up and to the left, parallel to the incline. A physics student draws the free-body
diagram below for the box.

What, if anything, is wrong with this student’s free-body diagram? If something is wrong, explain the error and
how to correct it. If this free-body diagram is correct, explain why.

78
17. A 441 N crate is being pulled by a rope, up a frictionless inclined plane. The plane is at an angle of 35˚.
a. Draw a FBD of the forces acting on the crate.

b. Find the magnitude of the normal force (FN) exerted on the crate.

c. Find the magnitude of the tension force (FT) in the rope.

79
18. A metal object hangs from two ropes as shown below:

a. Draw a neat, labeled FBD

b. Find the tension in the ropes A and B. (A = 1405 N, B = 1148 N)

80
19. A block of weight 50 N hangs from a cord that is knotted to two other cords, A and B fastened to the ceiling.
B makes an angle of 60˚ with the ceiling and A forms a 30° angle.

a. Draw the free body diagram at the knot.

b. Calculate the tensions A and B. (25 N, 43.3 N)

81
20. The box on the frictionless ramp is held at rest by the tension force. The mass of the box is 20 kg.
a. Draw a neat, labeled FBD

b. What is the tension force? (98 N)

c. What is the normal force? (169.7 N)

21. A teacher pulls a 50 kg desk with a 200 N force acting at 30° angle above the
horizontal. The desk does not budge.
a. Draw a neat, labeled FBD for the desk.

b. Determine the value of the frictional force. (173.2 N)

c. Determine the value of the normal force. (390 N)

82
22. Suppose in the diagram above, that the teacher is pushing down at a 30° angle with 200 N of force. The
desk still does not move. a. Draw a neat, labeled FBD for the desk.

b. Determine the value of the frictional force. (173.2 N)

c. Determine the value of the normal force. (590 N)

23. A 495 N traffic light hangs from two cables at the angles shown. Calculate the tensions in the two cables.
(443 N, 110 N) 78 33

A B

83
24. Three identical bricks are strung together with cords and hung from a scale that reads a total
of 24 N. Draw a neat FBDs!

a. What is the tension in the cord that supports the lowest brick? (8 N)

b. What is the tension in the cord between the middle brick and the top brick? (16 N) Draw a neat FBD!

25. A uniform rope of weight 50 N hangs from a hook as shown above. A box of weight 100 N hangs from the
rope. What is the tension in the rope? Explain your answer! (varies from 100 N to 150 N)

NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

According to Newton's third law of motion, when one object exerts a force on another object, the second object
exerts on the first an equal force in opposite direction.
The third law of motion applies to two different forces on two different objects: the action force one object
exerts on the other, and the equal but opposite reaction force the second object exerts on the first. Action and
reaction forces never balance out because they act on different objects: FA on B = FB on A

26. For the figure below, identify the action-reaction pair and write a statement of the third law.

84
27. A potato with a weight of 2 N is resting on a table. A student makes a number of statements about this
situation.

a. “The weight of the potato is a force of 2 N exerted by Earth in the downward direction.”
What, if anything, is wrong with this statement? If something is wrong, identify it and explain how to correct it.
If this statement is correct, explain why.

b. “The reaction force to this weight is a force of 2 N exerted on the potato by the table in the upward
direction.”
What, if anything, is wrong with this statement? If something is wrong, identify it and explain how to correct it.
If this statement is correct, explain why.

c. “The normal force exerted on the potato by the table is a force of 2 N; the reaction force to this normal force
is a force of 2 N exerted on the potato by Earth in the downward direction.”
What, if anything, is wrong with this statement? If something is wrong, identify it and explain how to correct it.
If this statement is correct, explain why.

d “If the 2 N potato is lifted off the table by a hand that exerts a force of 4 N upward on the potato, the reaction
force to this 4 N force is a force of 4 N exerted on the hand by the potato in the downward direction.”
What, if anything, is wrong with this statement? If something is wrong, identify it and explain how to correct it.
If this statement is correct, explain why.

85
28. Two wooden blocks with different masses are at rest, stacked on a table. The top block is labeled 1, and the
bottom block is labeled 2.

Rank the magnitude of the force that the bottom block (2) exerts on the top block (1).

Explain your reasoning.

29. Two wooden blocks with different masses are at rest, stacked on a table. The top block is labeled 1, and the
bottom block is labeled 2.

Rank the magnitude of the force that the table exerts on the bottom block (2).

Explain your reasoning.

86
SECOND LAW OF MOTION
The second law of motion is the key to understanding the behavior of moving bodies since it links cause (force)
and effect (acceleration) in a definite way.

Newton's Second Law states that for a particular force, the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to
the net force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. The direction of the force is the same as that
of the acceleration. In equation form:
F
a UNITS: m/s2 and F ma UNITS: N
m
30. The figure shows an 80 kg person standing on a 20 kg platform suspended by a
rope passing over a stationary pulley that is free to rotate. The other end of the rope
is held by the person. The masses of the rope and pulley are negligible. Assume that
friction is negligible, and the parts of the rope shown remain vertical.

a. If the platform and the person are at rest, what is the tension in the rope?

The person now pulls on the rope so that the acceleration of the person and the platform is 2 m/s2 upward.
b. What is the tension in the rope under these new conditions?

c. Under these conditions, what is the force exerted by the platform on the person?

87
31. A 20 kg mass is allowed to accelerate down a frictionless 15° ramp. a. Draw the FBD.

b. Determine the value of the x-component of the gravitational force.

c. What is the acceleration of the block down the ramp?

32. A block is pulled by a rope as shown in the diagram below. Assume that
the ramp is frictionless. Draw a neat FBD and write the net force equations
to determine the acceleration of the block? (4.38 m/s2)

88
33. A helicopter holding a 70-kg package suspended from a rope 5.0 m long accelerates upward at 5.2 m/s2.
Neglect air resistance on the package.
a. Draw and label all of the forces exerted on the package.

b. Determine the tension in the rope. (1050 N)

c. When the upward velocity of the helicopter is 30 m/s, the rope is cut and the helicopter continues to
accelerate upward at 5.2 m/s2. Determine the distance between the helicopter and the package 2.0 s after the
rope is cut. (35 m)

89
34. An applied 25 N force pushes on a 5.0 kg block resting on a frictionless horizontal surface. The force is
directed downwards at an angle of 20°. a. Draw the FBD.

20°

b. Determine the x-component of the applied force. (23.5 N)

b. Find the normal force. (57.5 N)

c. What is the acceleration of the block? (4.7 m/s2)

35. Two blocks are pushed along a horizontal frictionless surface by a

force of 20 N to the right, as shown above. Determine the force that the
2-kg block exerts on the 3-kg block. (8 N to the left)

90
36. Two identical blocks are tied together with a rope and are pulled
with a second rope so that they accelerate up a rough incline. A student
considering the forces acting in this situation contends:

“I think the tension in the rope connecting the boxes has to be larger
than the force the lower box exerts on that rope because the tension is causing the lower block to accelerate up
the incline.”

What, if anything, is wrong with this contention? If something is wrong, identify it and explain how to correct
it. If this contention is correct, explain why.

37. Boxes are pulled by ropes along frictionless surfaces, accelerating toward the left. All of the boxes are
identical, and the accelerations of all three systems are the same.

Rank the tensions in the ropes.

Explain your reasoning.

91
38. Various stacks of blocks are traveling along a conveyer belt. At the instant shown, all blocks have the same
velocity of 3 m/s to the right and the same acceleration of 2 m/s2, also to the right. The blocks do not slip. All
masses are given in the diagram in terms of M, the mass of the smallest block.

Rank the magnitude of the net force on each stack of blocks.

Explain your reasoning

39a. What is the acceleration of the system? (Friction is negligible) (10 m/s2)
6 kg
2 kg 80 N
T

b. What is the tension T in the connecting cord? (20 N)

92
 40. Two objects with masses of m1 = 6 kg and m2 = 10 kg are connected by a massless string.
They are pulled upward by an applied force F. Since this force is smaller than the total weight
of the objects, there is a constant downward acceleration of 3 m/s2. The tension in the string
connecting the objects is T. Four students discuss this tension:

Roxy: The tension in the string is the net force on the lower object. Using Newton’s Second
law, we get Fnet = ma = 30 N for the tension, since the lower object has a mass of 10 kg and it is
accelerating at 3 m/s2.

Brett: The tension in the string is more than the net force of 30 N since the lower object has a weight of about
100 N. The tension should be 130 N since the 30 N, the net force, is added to 100 N, the weight.

Taylor: The tension in the string is upward and should be less than the weight since the system is accelerating
downward. It should be 70 N by applying Newton’s Second law and taking into account the directions of the
forces.

Mark: We cannot answer it until we know which direction the system is moving. Is it moving upward or
downward? Won’t that make a big difference on the tension?

With which, if any, of these students do you agree?

Roxy _____ Brett _____ Taylor _____ Mark _____ None of them _____ Explain your reasoning.

APPARENT WEIGHT
The actual weight of a body is the gravitational force that acts on it. The body's apparent weight is the force
the body exerts on whatever it rests on. Apparent weight can be thought of as the reading on a scale a body is
placed on.

41. An 80-kg man is standing on a scale inside of an elevator. For each case:
- Draw the free-body diagram.
- Find the net force.
- Calculate the force that the scale exerts on the man.

a. At rest or traveling at constant velocity

93
b. Going up with an acceleration of 1.5 m/s2.

c. Going down with an acceleration of 1.5 m/s2.

d. After too much playing with the elevator the cable snaps!

42. A person who weighs 600 N is standing on a scale in an elevator. The elevator is identical in all cases. The
velocity and acceleration of the elevators at the instant shown are given.

Rank the scale reading.

Explain your reasoning.

94
43. Officials at Otis Elevator Company are concerned that their elevators in an expensive hotel are running too
slowly. They ask you to estimate the starting and stopping acceleration and the speed when moving at constant
speed between stops. You tell them that you can determine the acceleration using only a bathroom scale.
Fill in the table that follows to convince the elevator company that this method will work.

Starting Acceleration Stopping Acceleration

Write a description of your
experiments in words

Draw a labeled sketch

Draw a free-body diagram

Write the physical quantities

that you will measure and the
quantities that you will calculate

Write the mathematical procedure

you will use to calculate the
acceleration

List additional assumptions

95
44. John (mass = 70 kg) walks inside a closet that has a very low ceiling. He raises his arms and pushes against
the ceiling exerting a force of 100 N.
a. Determine the force that the ceiling exerts on John. Explain your answer. (100 N)

b. Determine the force that the floor exerts on John. Justify your answer with a FBD and the net force. (800 N)

45. An 800-N woman stands on a scale in an elevator. What does the scale read when the elevator is
a. Ascending at a constant velocity of 3 m/s? (800 N)

b. Ascending at a constant acceleration of 0.8 m/s2? (864 N)

c. Descending at a constant acceleration of 0.8 m/s 2 ?(736 N)

96
PULLEY SYSTEMS

46. The figure shows a 5-kg block B that hangs from a string that passes over a frictionless pulley and is joined
at its other end to a 12-kg block A that lies on a frictionless table.

This arrangement is called a modified Atwood’s machine.

a. Draw a FBD of the system. Use a highlighter to trace the direction of motion.

b. Write the net force equation (ΣF) for the system (i.e. along the direction of motion).

c. Find the acceleration of the system.

d. Find the tension in the string.

97
47. The figure shows the same two blocks, A and B, from the previous problem but now suspended by a string
on either side of a frictionless pulley.

a. Draw a FBD of the system. Use a highlighter to trace the direction of motion.

b. Write the net force equation (ΣF) for the system (i.e. along the direction of motion).

c. Find the acceleration of the system.

d. Find the tension in the string.

98
 48. Three blocks of masses 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 kg are connected by massless strings, one of
which passes over a frictionless pulley of negligible mass.

a. Calculate the acceleration of the 4-kg block (1.4 m/s2)

b. The tension in the string supporting the 4-kg block (33.6 N)

c. The tension in the string connected to the l-kg block (11.2 N)

99
FRICTION: STATIC AND KINETIC FRICTION

When two surfaces are in direct contact and one surface either slides or attempts to slide across the other, a
force, called friction, that opposes the motion (or attempted motion) is generated between the surfaces. The
origin of friction is based on the microscopic structure of the surfaces involved.
Static friction occurs between surfaces at rest relative to each other. If an
increasing force is applied to a book resting on a table, for instance, the force
of static friction at first increases as well to prevent motion. In a given
situation, static friction has a certain maximum value called starting friction.

When the force applied to the book is greater than the starting friction, the
book begins to move across the table. The kinetic friction (or sliding friction)
that occurs afterward is usually less than the starting friction, so less force is
needed to keep the book moving than to start it moving.

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
The frictional force between two surfaces depends on the normal (perpendicular) force FN pressing them
together and on the natures of the surfaces. This factor is expressed quantitatively in the coefficient of friction
(mu) whose value depends on the materials in contact.

The frictional force is experimentally found to be:

Static friction: Ff s FN and Kinetic friction: Ff K FN

49. For the next scenario, assume surfaces where s = 0.7 and k = 0.4.
a. What horizontal force is needed to just start a 50-N block moving along a wooden floor? (35 N)

b. What force will move the block at constant speed? (20 N)

100
 50. Blocks 1 and 2 of masses ml and m2, respectively, are
connected by a light string, as shown. These blocks are further
connected to a block of mass M by another light string that
passes over a pulley of negligible mass and friction. Blocks l
and 2 move with a constant velocity v down the inclined plane,
which makes an angle with the horizontal.

The kinetic frictional force on block 1 is f and that on block 2 is 2f.

a. On the figure below, draw and label all the forces on block ml.

Express your answers to each of the following in terms of ml, m2, g, , and f.

b. Determine the coefficient of kinetic friction between the inclined plane and block 1.

c. Determine the value of the suspended mass M that allows blocks 1 and 2 to move with constant velocity
down the plane.

d. The string between blocks 1 and 2 is now cut. Determine the acceleration of block 1 while it is on the
inclined plane.

101
 51. A block of mass m is pulled along a rough horizontal surface by a
constant applied force of magnitude F1 that acts at an angle θ to the
horizontal, as indicated above. The acceleration of the block is a1.

Express all algebraic answers in terms of m, F1, θ , a1 and fundamental

constants.
a. Draw and label a free-body diagram showing all the forces exerted on the block.

b. Derive an expression for the normal force exerted by the surface on the block. (mg-F1 sinϴ)

F1 cos ma1
mg F1 sin
c. Derive an expression for the coefficient of kinetic friction μ between the block and the surface.

d. On the axes below, sketch graphs of the speed v and displacement x of the block as functions of time t if the
block started from rest at x = 0 and t = 0.

102
 52. An empty sled of mass 25 kg slides down a muddy hill with a constant
speed of 2.4 m/s. The slope of the hill is inclined at an angle of 15° with
the horizontal as shown.

a. Calculate the time it takes the sled to go 21 m down the slope. (8.75 s)

b. Draw a neat, labeled free-body diagram of the forces exerted on the sled as it slides down the slope.

c. Calculate the frictional force on the sled as it slides down the slope. (63.4 N)

d. Calculate the coefficient of friction between the sled and the muddy surface of the slope. (0.27)

e. The sled reaches the bottom of the slope and continues on the horizontal ground. Assume the same coefficient
of friction. i. In terms of velocity and acceleration, describe the motion of the sled as it travels on the horizontal
ground.

ii. Sketch a graph of speed v versus time t for the sled. Include both the sled's travel down the slope and across
the horizontal ground. Clearly indicate with the symbol tt the time at which the sled leaves the slope.

103
53. In the system shown, the block of mass M1 is on a rough
horizontal table. The string that attaches it to the block of mass M2
passes over a frictionless pulley of negligible mass. The coefficient of
kinetic friction k between M1 and the table is less than the coefficient
of static friction s

a. Draw and identify all the forces exerted on the block of mass M1.

b. In terms of M1 and M2 determine the minimum value of s that will prevent the blocks from moving.
( s =M2/M1)

The blocks are set in motion by giving M2 a momentary downward push. In terms of M1, M2, k, and g,
determine each of the following:

c. The magnitude of the acceleration of M1 (a = (M2g – kM1g)/(M1 + M2))

104
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 6. When an object is in translational equilibrium, which of
these statements is not true?
1. Within a given system, the internal forces (a) The vector sum of the forces acting on the object is zero
(a) are always balanced by the external forces (b) The object must be stationary
(b) all add to zero (c) The object has a constant velocity
(c) determine the motion of the system (d) The speed of the object is constant
(d) can never add to zero

2. A friction force is 7. To make an object start moving on a surface with friction

(a) a contact force that acts parallel to the contact requires
surfaces (a) less force than to keep it moving on the surface
(b) a contact force that acts perpendicular to the contact (b) the same force as to keep it moving on the surface
surfaces (c) more force than to keep it moving on the surface
(c) a scalar quantity since it can act in any direction (d) a force equal to the weight of the object
along a surface
(d) always equal to the normal force between the objects

8. A thin string that can support a weight of 35.0 N, but

3. When a force is called a “normal” force, it is breaks under any larger weight, is attached to the ceiling of an
(a) the usual force expected given the arrangement of a system elevator. What mass can be attached to the string if the initial
(b) a force that is perpendicular to the surface of the Earth at acceleration as the elevator starts to ascend is 3.20 m/s 2 ?
any given location (a) 3.57 kg
(c) a force that is always vertical (b) 2.69 kg
(d) a contact force perpendicular to the contact surfaces (c) 4.26 kg
between two solid objects (d) 2.96 kg
(e) 5.30 kg

4. Your car won’t start, so you are pushing it. You apply a
horizontal force of 300 N to the car, but it doesn’t budge.
What force is the interaction partner of the 300 N force
you exert?
(a) the frictional force exerted on the car by the road 9. A 70.0-kg man stands on a bathroom scale in an elevator.
(b) the force exerted on you by the car What does the scale read if the elevator is slowing down at a
(c) the frictional force exerted on you by the road rate of 3.00 m/s2 while descending?
(d) the normal force on you by the road (a) 476 N
(b) 686 N
(c) 700 N
(d) 896 N

5. Which of these is not a long-range force?

(a) the force that makes raindrops fall to the ground
(b) the force that makes a compass point north
(c) the force that a person exerts on a chair while sitting
(d) the force that keeps the Moon in its orbital path around the
Earth

105
10. A woman stands on a bathroom scale in an elevator that is
not moving. The scale reads 500 N. The elevator then moves
downward at a constant velocity of 4.5 m/s. What does the
scale read while the elevator descends with constant velocity?
(a) 250 N
(b) 450 N
(c) 500 N
(d) 750 N

13. Two blocks are connected by a light string passing over

a pulley. The block with mass m1 slides on the frictionless
horizontal surface, while the block with mass m2 hangs
vertically. ( m1 > m2 .)
The tension in the string is
(a) zero
11. A space probe leaves the solar system to explore (b) less than m2 g
interstellar space. Once it is far from any stars, when must it (c) equal to m2 g
fire its rocket engines? (d) greater than m2 g, but less than m1 g
(a) All the time, in order to keep moving. (e) equal to m1 g
(b) Only when it wants to speed up. (f) greater than m1 g
(c) When it wants to speed up or slow down.
(d) Only when it wants to turn.
(e) When it wants to speed up, slow down, or turn.

12. A small plane climbs with a constant velocity of 250 m/s

at an angle of 28 ° with respect to the horizontal. Which
statement is true concerning the magnitude of the net force on
14. A ping-pong ball collides with a bowling ball.
the plane?
Which experiences the greatest force?
(a) It is equal to zero
(a) The ping-pong ball
(b) It is equal to the weight of the plane
(b) The bowling ball
(c) It is equal to the magnitude of the force of air resistance
(c) They experience the same force
(d) It is less than the weight of the plane but greater than zero
(d) The force on each depends on its mass.
(e) It is equal to the component of the weight of the plane in
the direction of motion.

106
FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS

FRQ [Link] blocks are attached by a rope to a wall. A child pulls horizontally on a second rope attached to each
block. Both blocks remain at rest on the frictionless surface. The weights of the blocks and the magnitudes of
the forces exerted by the child are given.

Rank the tensions in the ropes.

Explain your reasoning.

FRQ 2. A block of mass 3m can move without friction on a horizontal table. This block is
attached to another block of mass m by a string that passes over a frictionless pulley, as
shown. Assume that the masses of the string and the pulley are negligible

a. Derive an equation for the acceleration of the block in terms of g the acceleration due to gravity.

b. In another scenario, the blocks switch position with the smaller block on top of the table and the larger one
hanging from the string. Will the acceleration of mass m be greater, equal or the same as in the previous case?
Explain your answer.

107
FRQ 3. A 5-kg mass is placed on a plank where the coefficients of friction are μs = 0.6 and μk = 0.4. The plank
is raised slowly until the mass just starts to slide.
a. Find the angle at which sliding occurs. (31o)

b. Determine the acceleration of the mass as it slides. (1.7 m/s2)

FRQ 4. The figures below show six identical curling stones (the playing pieces in the sport of curling) that are
being pushed horizontally along the ice by the thrower. For each stone, the instantaneous velocity and
acceleration of the stones are given. The positive direction is to the right. Assume the ice is frictionless
for the curling stones.

Rank these stones on the basis of the magnitude of the force the thrower exerts on them at the instant shown.

Explain your reasoning.

108
 FRQ 5. Justin pulls a 15 kg sled containing a 5.0 kg dog along a
straight path on a horizontal surface. He exerts a force of 55 N on
the sled at an angle of 20° above the horizontal, as shown. The
coefficient of friction between the sled and the surface is 0.22.

a. Draw and label a free-body diagram for the dog-sled system as it is pulled along the surface.

b. Calculate the normal force of the surface on the system. (177 N)

c. Calculate the acceleration of the system. (0.64 m/s2)

d. At some later time, the dog rolls off the side of the sled. Joe continues to pull with the same force. On the
axes below, sketch a graph of speed v versus time t for the sled. Include both the sled's travel with and without
the dog on the sled. Clearly indicate with the symbol tr the time at which the dog rolls off.

109
 FRQ 6. A student pushes horizontally on two blocks, which are moving to the
right. Block A has more mass than block B. There is friction between the blocks
and the table. For each scenario explain your reasoning.

(a) For the situation where the blocks are moving at a constant speed, which of the following statements is
true about the magnitude of the forces?
(i) The force that block A exerts on block B is greater than the force that block B exerts on block A.
(ii) The force that block A exerts on block B is less than the force that block B exerts on block A.
(iii) The force that block A exerts on block B is equal to the force that block B exerts on block A.
(iv) We cannot compare the forces unless we know how fast the blocks are slowing down.

(b) For the situation where the blocks are slowing down, which of the following statements is true about the
magnitude of the forces?
(i) The force that block A exerts on block B is greater than the force that block B exerts on block A.
(ii) The force that block A exerts on block B is less than the force that block B exerts on block A.
(iii) The force that block A exerts on block B is equal to the force that block B exerts on block A.
(iv) We cannot compare the forces unless we know how fast the blocks are slowing down.

(c) For the situation where the blocks are slowing down, which of the following statements is true about the
net force?
(i) The net force on block A points to the right and is equal to the net force on block B.
(ii) The net force on block A points to the left and is equal to the net force on block B.
(iii) The net force on block A points to the right and is greater than the net force on block B.
(iv) The net force on block A points to the left and is greater than the net force on block B.
(v) The net force on block A points to the right and is less than the net force on block B.
(vi) The net force on block A points to the left and is less than the net force on block B.

110
 UNIT IV
MOTION AND FORCES IN TWO DIMENSIONS

PROJECTILE MOTION
An object launched into space without motive power of its own is called a projectile.
If we neglect air resistance, the only force acting on a projectile is its weight, which causes its path to deviate
from a straight line. The projectile has a constant horizontal velocity and a vertical velocity that changes
uniformly under the influence of gravity.

HORIZONTAL PROJECTION
If an object is projected horizontally, its motion can best be described by considering its horizontal and
vertical motion separately. In the figures we can see that the vertical velocity and position increase with time
as those of a free-falling body. Note that the horizontal distance increases linearly with time, indicating a
constant horizontal velocity.

1. A cannonball is projected horizontally with an initial velocity of 120 m/s from the top of a cliff 250 m
above a lake.
a. In what time will it strike the water at the foot of the cliff?

b. What is the x-distance from the foot of the cliff to the point of impact in the lake?

c. What are the horizontal and vertical components of its final velocity?

d. What is the final velocity at the point of impact?

111
2. A person standing on a cliff throws a stone with a horizontal velocity of 15.0 m/s and the stone hits the
ground 47 m from the base of the cliff. How high is the cliff?

3. A steel ball rolls off the edge of a table top 60 cm high. If the ball strikes the floor at a distance 50 cm
from the base of the table, what was its velocity at the instant it left the table? (1.4 m/s)

4. Two tall buildings are 15 m apart. A ball is thrown horizontally from the roof of the first building 75 m
from the ground. With what horizontal velocity must the ball be thrown if it is to enter a window of the
second building 40 m from the ground? Draw a sketch first! (5.7 m/s)

112
 5. Two identical rocks are thrown horizontally from a cliff with different
velocities. The rocks are thrown at the same time and are shown below
while they are still in the air after a few seconds.
For the instant shown:
a. Will the magnitude of the horizontal velocity of Rock A be
(i) greater than, (ii) less than, or (iii) equal to the magnitude of the
horizontal velocity of Rock B? Explain your reasoning.

b. Will the magnitude of the vertical velocity of Rock A be (i) greater than, (ii) less than, or (iii) equal to
the magnitude of the vertical velocity of Rock B? Explain your reasoning.

c. Will the magnitude of the horizontal acceleration of Rock A be (i) greater than, (ii) less than, or (iii) equal
to the magnitude of the horizontal acceleration of Rock B? Explain your reasoning.

d. Will the magnitude of the vertical acceleration of Rock A be (i) greater than, (ii) less than, or (iii) equal to
the magnitude of the vertical acceleration of Rock B? Explain your reasoning.

e. Sketch the velocity versus time (horizontal and vertical) graphs for Rock A.

Horizontal Velocity vs Time Vertical Velocity vs Time

113
6. A baseball leaves a bat with a horizontal velocity of 20 m/s.
a. In a time of 0.25 s, how far will it have traveled horizontally? (5.0 m)

b. How far has it fallen vertically? (0.31 m)

7. Two identical rocks are thrown horizontally from a cliff with Rock A having a greater velocity at the
instant it is released than Rock B.
a. Sketch velocity vs. time graphs for each of the rocks.

b. Which rock hits the ground first? Explain your answer.

c. Which rock lands farthest from the base of the cliff? Explain your answer.

114
PROJECTILE MOTION AT AN ANGLE
The more general case of projectile motion occurs when the projectile is fired at an angle as shown below.

Problem-solving strategy:

- Upward direction is positive. Acceleration (g) is downward thus negative.

- Resolve the initial velocity vo into its x and y components:

v0 x v0 cos and v0 y v0 sin

- The horizontal and vertical components of its position at any instant are given by:

1
x v0 xt and y v0 y t gt 2
2

- The horizontal and vertical components of its velocity at any instant are given by:

vx v0 x and vy v0 y gt

- The final position and velocity can then be obtained from their components as a resultant.

8. An artillery shell is fired with an initial velocity of 100 m/s at an angle of 30 above the horizontal.
a. Calculate its position and velocity after 8 s

115
b. The time required to reach its maximum height and

c. The horizontal distance (a.k.a. range R).

9. A plastic ball that is released with a velocity of 15 m/s stays in the air for 2.0 s
a. At what angle with respect to the horizontal was it released?

b. What was the maximum height achieved by the ball?

10a. Find the range of a gun which fires a shell with muzzle velocity vo at an angle θ.

b. What is the angle at which the maximum range is possible?

116
c. Find the angle of elevation θ of a gun that fires a shell with muzzle velocity of 120 m/s and hits a target on
the same level but 1300 m distant.

11. A projectile is fired from the ground with an initial velocity of 96 m/s at an angle of 35˚.
a. How long will it take this projectile to reach the highest point in its trajectory? (5.6 s)

b. What will be the velocity of this projectile at the highest point? (78.6 m/s)

c. How high will this projectile be at the highest point of its trajectory? (154 m)

d. What will be the range of this projectile? (885 m)

12. A shot put is released with a velocity of 12 m/s and stays in the air for 2.0 s.
a. At what angle with the horizontal was it released? (55˚)

b. What horizontal distance did it travel? (14 m)

117
13. A projectile is launched at an angle of 30 with an initial velocity of 20 m/s.
a. What is the highest point in its trajectory? (5.1 m)

b. How much time is it in the air? (2.04 s)

c. What is its horizontal range? (35.3 m)

14. An arrow was shot at an angle of 55º with respect to the horizontal. The arrow landed at a horizontal
distance of 875 m. Find the velocity of the arrow at the top of its path. (55 m/s)

15. A discus is released at an angle of 45˚ and a velocity of 24.0 m/s.

a. How long does it stay in the air? (3.5 s)

b. What horizontal distance does it travel? (59.5 m)

118
16. The drawing below shows a cannon that can be adjusted to fire shells with different masses at different
velocities and/or angles of elevation. The situation shown has the following characteristics:

Mass of the shell 1.0 kg

Initial Velocity 70.7 m/s
Initial Vertical Velocity 50 m/s
Initial Horizontal Velocity 50.0 m/s
Launch Angle 45o

Identify, from choices (a) – (d), how each change described will affect the maximum horizontal distance
achieved by the shell. Neglect the effect of air resistance.
This change will:
(a) increase the maximum horizontal distance
(b) decrease the maximum horizontal distance
(c) have no effect on the maximum horizontal distance
(d) have an effect on the maximum horizontal distance that cannot be determined

All of these modifications are changes to the initial situation described above. Clearly explain your
reasoning.

Case 1. _____
Mass of the shell 2.0 kg
Initial Velocity 70.7 m/s
Initial Vertical Velocity 50 m/s
Initial Horizontal Velocity 50.0 m/s
Launch Angle 45o

Case 2. _____
Mass of the shell 1.0 kg
Initial Velocity 57.7 m/s
Initial Vertical Velocity 28.9 m/s
Initial Horizontal Velocity 50.0 m/s
Launch Angle 30o

Case 3. _____
Mass of the shell 2.0 kg
Initial Velocity 100.0 m/s
Initial Vertical Velocity 86.6 m/s
Initial Horizontal Velocity 50.0 m/s
Launch Angle 60o

119
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Uniform circular motion is motion in which there is no change in speed, only a change in direction.

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

The centripetal acceleration is given by:

v2
ac Units: m/s2
r

Where v is the linear speed of a particle moving in a circular path of radius r

The term centripetal means that the acceleration is always directed toward the center. The velocity and the
acceleration are not necessarily in the same direction; v points in the direction of motion which tangential to
the circle. v and a are perpendicular at every point.

The period T is the time for one complete revolution. The linear speed can be found by dividing the period
into the circumference:
2 r
v
T
1
The frequency is the number of rotations or revolutions per unit time: f the unit is called Hertz (Hz).
T

17. A 2 kg stone is tied to the end of a cord and whirled in a horizontal circle of radius 2 m. If the stone
makes half a revolution every second, determine its linear speed and its centripetal acceleration.

18. A small steel ball rolls counterclockwise around the inside of a 30.0-cm-diameter roulette wheel. The ball
completes exactly 2 revolutions in 1.20 s. Find the ball’s centripetal acceleration.

120
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
The inward force necessary to maintain uniform circular motion is defined as centripetal force. From
Newton's Second Law, the centripetal force is given by:
mv 2
Fc mac substituting the acceleration: Fc UNITS: N
r

The centripetal force is not a 'special' kind of force. The centripetal force is provided by the force that keeps
the object in a circle, this is called the centripetal force requirement.

19. A 1250 kg car traveling at a constant speed of is 45.0 m/s, makes a turn with a radius of 350.0 m. Find
the minimum coefficient of friction needed to keep the car along the path. (0.590)

20. A 75 g toy airplane is fastened to one end of a 44 cm string while the other end is held fixed at the
ceiling. The plane whirls in a horizontal circle with an angle to the vertical of 30˚.
a. Draw a neat, labeled FBD and write the net force equations.

b. What provides the centripetal force?

c. Calculate the tension of the string.

d. Calculate the speed of the plane

121
MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE
An object moves in a vertical circle at the end of a string.

At the highest point in the circular turn the centripetal force is given by:

At the lowest point in the loop the centripetal force is:

21. A string 0.5 m long is used to whirl a 1-kg stone in a vertical circle at a velocity of 5 m/s.
a. Calculate the tension in the string when the stone is at the top of the circle.

b. Calculate the tension in the string when the stone is at the bottom of the circle.

122
22. The diagrams below show circular sections of a roller coaster scale model. The circular sections have the
same radius R = 20 m. The roller coaster cart travels at the speeds indicated at each position.
For each case, draw the FBD, ΣF, and solve for the normal force. (20,440 N, 4165 N, 28,875 N, 27,440 N)

123
23. On a rainy day the coefficient of static friction between tires and the roadway is only 0.4. What is the
maximum speed at which a car can negotiate a turn of radius 80 m? (17.7 m)

24. A space station is designed to simulate gravity by spinning at a constant angular velocity. The plan is for
the station to simulate half of the earth’s gravitational force by spinning at 5.0 rpm. What radius does the
station need to have? (18 m)

25. In each case below, a stock car travels around a circular track at a constant speed. The radii of the tracks
and the speeds of the cars are given for each case.

Rank the magnitude of the net force acting on the cars on these tracks.

Explain your reasoning.

124
 26. An object of mass M on a string is whirled with increasing speed in a
horizontal circle. When the string breaks, the object has speed vo and the
circular path has radius R and is a height h above the ground. Neglect air
friction. Determine the following, expressing all answers in terms of h, vo,
and g.

a. The time required for the object to hit the ground after the string
break. ( t 2h / g )

b. The horizontal distance the object travels from the time the string breaks until it hits the ground. x v0
2h
g

iii. The speed of the object just before it hits the ground. Hint: question asks for resultant velocity not just vy
vR v02 2 gh

b. Draw and label all the forces exerted on the object when it is in the position shown in the diagram.

c. Determine the tension in the string just before the string breaks. Express your answer in terms of M, R, vo,
4
and g FT M g 2 v0
R

125
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Newton proposed that the force that causes objects to fall to the earth exists between all other bodies, even
the sun and planets. He found that the gravitational force varies inversely with the square of the distance
between two objects. This is also known as the inverse square law.

The Law of Universal Gravitation states that: "Every object in the universe attracts every other object in
the universe with a force that varies directly with the product of their masses and inversely with the square of
the distance between the centers of the two masses."

Gm1m2
FG Units: N
r2

Cavendish determined the first reasonably accurate numerical value for G more than one hundred years after
Newton’s Law was published. The value of the constant is: G = 6.67 x10-11 N.m2/kg2

27. The mass of an electron is 9.1 x10 -31 kg. The mass of proton is 1.7x10 -27 kg. They are about 1.0 x10-10 m
apart in a hydrogen atom. Calculate the gravitational force between the proton and the electron of a hydrogen
atom.

28. The radius of the earth is about 6.38x106 m and its mass is 5.98x1024 kg. Calculate the value of the
acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth.

126
29. If the centers of Earth (ME = 6x1024 kg) and the moon are 3.9 x108 m apart, the gravitational force
between them is about 1.9 x1020 N. What is the approximate mass of the moon? (7.2 x1022 kg)

30. If you weigh 637 N on Earth’s surface, how much would you weigh on the planet Mars? (Mars has a
mass of 6.37x1023 kg and a radius of 3.43x106 m.) (234.6 N)

31. What would be the value of g, acceleration of gravity, if

a. Earth’s mass was double its actual value, but its radius remained the same? (19.6 m/s2)

b. If the radius was doubled, but the mass remained the same? (2.45 m/s2)

c. If both the mass and radius were doubled? (4.9 m/s2)

32. On a distant planet, the acceleration due to gravity is 5.0 m/s2 and the radius of the planet is 4560 m.
Calculate the mass of this planet. (1.56x1018 kg)

127
33. Jupiter’s largest moon, Ganymede, is also the eight largest known object in the solar system. The
gravitational force between Ganymede and Jupiter is 1.636x10 22 N. Given that Jupiter’s mass is 1.9x1027 kg
and the distance between their centers of mass is 1.071x106 km, calculate Ganymede’s mass. (1.47x1023 kg)

34. The mass of the earth is about 81 times the mass of the moon. If the radius of the earth is 4 times that of
the moon, what is the acceleration due to gravity on the moon? Hint: Use proportional reasoning to answer
this question! (1.94 m/s2)

128
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 4. A ball is thrown into the air and follows a parabolic
trajectory. Point A is the highest point in the trajectory
1. Two balls, identical except for color, are projected and point B is a point as the ball is falling back to the
horizontally from the roof of a tall building at the same ground. Choose the correct relationship between the
instant. The initial speed of the red ball is twice the initial speeds and the magnitudes of the acceleration at the two
speed of the blue ball. Ignoring air resistance, points.
(a) the red ball reaches the ground first. (a) vA > vB and aA = aB
(b) the blue ball reaches the ground first. (b) vA < vB and aA > aB
(c) both balls land at the same instant with different (c) vA = vB and aA ≠ aB
speeds. (d) vA < vB and aA = aB
(d) both balls land at the same instant with the same
speed.

Questions 5-7. Two projectiles launched with the same

initial speed but at different launch angles 30° and 60° land
2. A person stands on the roof garden of a tall building at the same spot. Ignore air resistance.
with one ball in each hand. If the red ball is thrown Answer choices:
horizontally off the roof and the blue ball is simultaneously (a) projectile launched at 30°
dropped over the edge, which statement is true? (b) projectile launched at 60°
(a) Both balls hit the ground at the same time, but the (c) They are equal.
red ball has a higher speed just before it strikes the
ground. 5. Which has the larger horizontal velocity component vx ?
(b) The blue ball strikes the ground first, but with a
lower speed than the red ball.
(c) The red ball strikes the ground first with a higher
speed than the blue ball.
(d) Both balls hit the ground at the same time with the
same speed.
6. Which has a longer time of flight Δt (time interval
between launch and hitting the ground)?

3. A ball is thrown into the air and follows a parabolic

trajectory. At the highest point in the trajectory,
(a) the velocity is zero, but the acceleration is not zero.
(b) both the velocity and the acceleration are zero. 7. For which is the product v x Δt larger?
(c) the acceleration is zero, but the velocity is not zero.
(d) neither the acceleration nor the velocity are zero.

129
8. A spider sits on a turntable that is rotating at a constant 33 11. Two satellites are in orbit around Mars with the same
rpm. The acceleration aC of the spider is orbital radius. Satellite 2 has twice the mass of satellite 1.
(a) greater the closer the spider is to the central axis. The radial acceleration of satellite 2 has
(b) greater the farther the spider is from the central axis. (a) twice the magnitude of the acceleration of satellite 1
(c) nonzero and independent of the location of the spider on (b) the same magnitude as the acceleration of satellite 1
the turntable. (c) half the magnitude of the acceleration of satellite 1
(d) zero. (d) four times the magnitude of the acceleration of satellite 1

9. Multiple correct: If Spacecraft X has twice the mass of

Spacecraft Y, then true statements about X and Y include
which of the following? Select two answers.
(a) On Earth, X experiences twice the gravitational force 12. A 0.500-kg ball hangs from a 1.0 m long string. The
that Y experiences other end of the string is attached to a force scale. The string
(b) On the Moon, X has twice the weight of Y pulls up on the ball with a 9.8 N force, and the string and
(c) The weight of the X on Earth will always be equal to the ball in turn pull down on the scale with a 9.8 N
weight of Y on the Moon force-the scale reads 9.8 N. You pull the ball to
(d) When both are in the same circular orbit, X has twice the side and release it so that the ball swings
the centripetal acceleration of Y like a pendulum at the end of the string. What
will the scale reading be as the ball passes
directly under the scale?
(a) T > 9.8 N
(b) T= 9.8 N
(c) T < 9.8 N

10. A satellite of mass m and speed v moves in a stable,

circular orbit around a planet of mass M. What is the radius
of the satellite's orbit?
Gv GM GmM GmM
(a) (b) 2
(c) (d)
mM v v v2
14. An object moving in a circle at a constant speed has an
acceleration that is
(a) in the direction of motion
(b) toward the center of the circle
(c) away from the center of the circle
(d) zero

130
FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS

FRQ 1. A baseball is thrown from point S in right field to home plate. The dashed line in the diagram shows
the path of the ball. Use a coordinate system with up as the positive vertical direction and to the right as the
positive horizontal direction, with the origin at the point the ball was thrown from (point S).

On the axes below, sketch graphs for the indicated quantities:

a. The horizontal velocity versus time and the vertical velocity versus time.

Explain the shape of each of the graphs.

b. The horizontal acceleration versus time and the vertical acceleration versus time.

Explain the shape of each of the graphs.

131
FRQ 2. A golf ball is hit with a velocity of 24.5 m/s at 35.0° above the horizontal.
a. Calculate the maximum height of the ball. (10.1 m)

b. Calculate the maximum horizontal distance attained by the ball. (57.7 m)

FRQ 3. A ball with a weight of 2 N is attached to the end of a cord of

length 2 m. The ball is whirled in a vertical circle counterclockwise.
The tension in the cord at the top of the circle is 7 N, and at the bottom
it is 15 N. (The speed of the ball is not the same at these points.)

a. Three students discuss the net force on the ball at the top.

Alexis: The net force on the ball at the top position is 7 N since the net force is the same as the tension.
Lily: The net force on the ball at the top position is 9 N. Both the tension and the weight are acting
downward so you have to add them.
Eduardo: No, you are both wrong. You need to figure out the centripetal force (mv2/r) and include it in the
net force.
With which, if any, of these students do you agree?

Alexis _____ Lily _____ Eduardo _____ None of them _____ Explain your reasoning.

132
b. Now the students discuss the net force on the ball at the bottom.

Alexis: The net force on the ball at the bottom position is 15 N since the net force is the same as the
tension.
Lily: The net force on the ball at the bottom position is 17 N, since you need to add the weight of 2 N to
the tension of 15 N.
Eduardo: The net force on the ball at the bottom position is 13 N. I agree that you need to take into account
both the weight and the tension, but they are in different directions so they will subtract.

With which, if any, of these students do you agree?

Alexis _____ Lily _____ Eduardo _____ None of them _____ Explain your reasoning.

FRQ 4. A student is given the set of orbital data for some of the moons of Saturn and is asked to use the
data to determine the mass MS of Saturn. Assume the orbits of these moons are circular.

The equation for the orbital period T of a moon as a function of its orbital radius R is given by:
4 2 R 3 Where G is called the universal gravitation constant = 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2
T
GM S

a. Which quantities should be graphed to yield a straight line whose slope could be used to determine
Saturn's mass?

b. Complete the data table by calculating the two quantities to be graphed. Label each column and write the
units.

133
c. Plot the graph. Label the axes with the variables used and appropriate numbers to indicate the scale.

d. Using your best-fit line, calculate the slope of the graph. Write your answer with appropriate units.

e. Using the equation given and the value of the slope, calculate the mass of Saturn. (5.64x1026 kg)

134
FRQ 5. Spin Out is a carnival ride consisting of a large open cylinder. Riders stand inside with their backs
against the cylinder wall. As the ride starts to spin, the floor drops down.

a. Draw a neat, labeled FBD of the forces exerted on the rider.

b. What provides the centripetal force?

c. What is the centripetal force exerted on you in the ride if the radius of the cylinder is 3.5 m, your mass is
50 kg and you are traveling at 5 m/s? (357 N)

d. Calculate and name the force keeps you from sliding downward. (490 N)

135
 UNIT V
ENERGY

ENERGY
Energy - a conserved, substance-like quantity with the capability to produce change.
The idea of energy is an invention that proves very useful. Energy can be moved around and stored in a
variety of ways, but the energy itself is unchanged. Energy is universal and it does not come in different
"kinds" or exist in different "forms."

There are many mechanisms for energy storage such as elastic US, kinetic K, gravitational potential UG,
and chemical potential Echem, where the energy can be easily retrieved. Friction within a system often
causes energy to be irretrievably stored in Ethermal and Esonic which we lump together as energy dissipated,
Ediss or Einternal. A numerical amount of energy can be calculated for each storage mechanism.

Energy is a conserved quantity: as energy is transferred from one method of storage to another, the total
amount of energy stays constant.

When examining energy transfers, it is helpful to choose what methods of energy storage are in our system
and what methods are outside our system. Generally, the smallest system that contains all the needed ways of
storing energy is the easiest. Transferring energy from one storage method to another or transferring energy
into or out of a system is the process of "working", simply called “work."

Money analogy:
We will define "the system" as the personal and institutional places where you keep your money. You can
store your money in a number of ways, in a checking account, savings account, cash in a piggy bank, or a
stock mutual fund. As you transfer money from cash and savings to checking, the amount of money stays the
same (is conserved) even though the money is now stored somewhere else. Some transfers cost you money,
such as using a debit card. In this case the money is transferred out of your account and into the bank's
account. The money still exists, you just can't have it anymore. (This is like dissipated energy.)

ENERGY TRANSFER
Energy can be transferred in or out of a physical system in three ways:

1. Working: energy is transferred by forces that cause displacements.

2. Heating – temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance.
Temperature differences between a system and its surroundings cause energy to be transferred from the
warmer object to the cooler object. Not studied in this course.

3. Electromagnetic Radiation (such as visible light, microwaves, ultraviolet light and infrared light) can
transfer energy. Matter loses kinetic energy as it emits electromagnetic radiation and gains kinetic energy
when absorbing electromagnetic radiation. Not studied in this course.

WORK
Work is a measure of the amount of change that a force produces when it acts on a body. The change may be
in the velocity of the body, in its position, in its size or shape, and so forth. Work is a scalar quantity; no
direction is associated with it.

136
The work done by a force exerted on an object is equal to the product of the force and the distance through
which the force acts, if the F and d are in the same direction. Thus:

W=Fd UNITS: J (Joules)

In SI units, the unit of work is the joule (J). 1 J = 1 N.m

If F and x are not parallel but F is at the angle with respect to x, then: W = F d cos
When F is perpendicular to x, = 90 and cos 90 = 0. No work is done in this case.

KINETIC ENERGY
The energy a body has by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy. If the body's mass is m and its
velocity is v, its kinetic energy is:

1
K mv 2 UNITS: J (Joules)
2

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

The gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m at a height h above a given reference level is:

UG mgh Units: J (Joules)

ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Elastic potential energy is associated with elastic materials and is given by:

1
US kx 2 UNITS: J (Joules)
2

k is the spring constant or force constant in N/m and x is the displacement given in meters.

1a. Upon which basic quantity does kinetic energy depend?

b. Upon which basic quantity does gravitational potential energy depend?

c. Can gravitational potential energy ever be negative? Give a plausible reason for your answer without
using any formulas.

d. Can kinetic energy ever be negative? Give a plausible reason for your answer without using any formulas.

137
e. If an object’s speed increases by a factor of three, by what factor does its kinetic energy change?

f. Object A has half the mass and eight times the kinetic energy of object B. What is the speed ration v A/vB?

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY

For each situation first ask these questions:

1. Is the object at a height?

If yes, it has gravitational potential energy

2. Is the object moving?

If yes, it has kinetic energy

3. Is the object in contact with a spring?

If yes, it has elastic potential energy

4. Is a force exerted through a distance?

If yes, it work has been done.

BAR GRAPHS AND ENERGY FLOW DIAGRAMS

Energy can be stored and it can be transferred from one storage mechanism to another. This can be
represented with an energy conservation bar graph diagram.

Steps in constructing a bar graph/energy flow representation:

1. Identify the system.

2. Identify the initial energy storage modes, and represent them with bar graphs.
3. Identify the resulting final energies with final bar graphs.
4. Identify the energy transfer(s) that occur across the system boundary to cause the changes and represent
the transfer with quantified arrows pointing into or out of the energy flow diagram.
5. Write an equation of conservation of energy as shown on the energy bar chart.
In summary, you will use bar graphs to represent the Initial and Final energies, and the energy flow diagram
to represent the “during” processes. The difference in the Initial and Final energies is the change in
internal energy (or dissipated energy), Eint since ∆E = Ef - Ei.

138
Example of Bar Graph/Energy Flow Diagram
A person pushes a box from a 0 m position up a ramp to a stop.
v=0
System = box + surface of ramp + earth
Final
v=0
Initial y=0

Initial Energy Flow Final

K UG US Diagram K UG US Eint
W

system

0 0

Energy Conservation Equation: W = UG + Eint

Analysis:
1. Assuming the box starts at a 0 reference point, it has no initial energy.
2. Energy is transferred to the system via the external force provided by the person. This is defined as
working. The working arrow is 5 blocks long.
3. At the final point, the energy transferred by working done has been stored as the gravitational potential
energy, UG and some has been dissipated due to friction, E int
Note that UG and Eint add up to 5 blocks, in agreement with the Conservation of Energy.

2. For each of the following situations:

Show your choice of system in the energy flow diagram, unless it is specified for you. Always
include the earth in your system!
Sketch an energy bar graph for the initial situation.
Show any energy transfers and the final energy bar graph.
Write the Energy Conservation Equation

a. A car on a roller coaster track, launched by a huge spring, makes it to the top of the loop.
Friction? NO

Conservation of Energy:

139
b. A car moving up a hill coasts to a stop at the top.
Friction? YES

Conservation of Energy:

c. A load of bricks, resting on a compressed spring, is launched into the air.

Friction? NO

Conservation of Energy:

d. A bungee jumper falls off the platform and reaches the limit of stretch of the cord.
Friction? NO

Conservation of Energy:

140
e. A person pushes a stalled car to get it to the service station.
Friction? YES

Conservation of Energy:

f. A crate, starting at rest, is propelled up a hill by a tightly coiled spring.

Friction? YES

Conservation of Energy:

g. A speeding locomotive pushes Superman backwards a few meters in the process.

Friction? YES

Conservation of Energy:

141
3. A boy pulls a wagon with a force of 45 N by means of a rope that makes an angle of 40° with the ground.
How much work does he do in moving the wagon 50 m?

4. A block is pushed so that it moves up a ramp at constant speed.

Identify from choices (i)–(iv) below the appropriate description for the
work done by the specified force while the block moves from point A to
point B.
(i) is zero. (ii) is less than zero. (iii) is greater than zero.
(iv) could be positive or negative depending on the choice of coordinate systems.
(v) cannot be determined.

a. The work done on the block by the hand. _____ Explain your reasoning.

b. The work done on the block by the normal force from the ramp. _____ Explain your reasoning.

c. The work done on the block by friction. _____ Explain your reasoning.

d. The work done on the block by the gravitational force. _____ Explain your reasoning.

e. The net work done on the block. ______ Explain your reasoning.

142
POWER
W
Power is the rate at which work is done. Thus P UNITS: W (Watts)
t
When a constant force F does work on an object that is moving at the constant velocity v, if F is parallel to v
the power involved is:
W Fx
P Fv
t t

5. A man uses a horizontal force of 200 N to push a crate up a ramp 8 m long that is 20 above the
horizontal. If it takes 12 s to push the crate up the ramp, what is his power output?

6. A ski lift carries skiers along a 600 m slope inclined at 30°. Under maximum load conditions, six riders
per minute arrive at the top. If 60 percent of the energy supplied by the motor goes to overcoming friction,
what average power must the motor supply if the average mass of the riders is 70 kg? (51,450 W)

143
7. The engines of the Queen Mary could deliver 174 MW to propel the massive ship. How long does it take
for the engines to do 7.31x1010 J of work on the ship? (7 min)

8. A girl pulls a wagon along a level path for a distance of 15 m. The handle of the wagon makes an angle of
20o with the horizontal. The girl exerts a force of 35 N on the handle. If the friction force is 24 N, what is the
resultant work on the wagon? (133.5 J). Hint: Find the net force first!

9. Identical boxes of mass 10 kg are moving at the same initial velocity to the right on a flat surface. The
same magnitude force, F, is applied to each box for the distance, d, shown.

Rank the work done on the box by F while the box moves the indicated distance.

Explain your reasoning.

144
MECHANICAL ENERGY is the sum of kinetic energy and all forms of potential energy: ME = K + U

10. What velocity does a 1-kg object have when its kinetic energy is 2.5 J?

11. A 5.0 kg stone is slid up a frictionless ramp that has an incline of 25°. How long is the ramp if the
gravitational potential energy associated with the stone is 240 J?

WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
The net work done on an object equals the change in energy of that object: W = ΔKE = ΔPE

12. A 10-g bullet has a velocity of 600 m/s when it leaves the barrel of a rifle. If the barrel is 60 cm long,
find the average force on the bullet while it is in the barrel.

13. A dart of mass 100 g is pressed against the spring of a toy dart gun. The spring (k = 250 N/m) is
compressed 6.0 cm and released. If the dart detaches from the spring when the spring reaches its normal
length, what speed does the dart acquire?

145
 14. A 0.5 kg object rotates freely in a vertical circle at the end of a string of length 2 m as
shown above. As the object passes through point P at the top of the circular path, the
tension in the string is 20 N. Use g = 10 m/s2

a. On the following diagram of the object, draw a neat labeled FBD of the forces exerted
on the object when it is at the point P.

b. Calculate the speed of the object at point P. (10 m/s)

c. Calculate the increase in kinetic energy (ΔK) of the object as it moves from point P to point Q. (20 J)

d. Calculate the tension in the string as the object passes through point Q. (50 N)

146
15. Block A of mass 2.0 kg and block B of mass 8.0 kg are connected as shown above by a spring of spring
constant 80 N/m and negligible mass. The system is being pulled to the right across a horizontal frictionless
surface by a horizontal force of 4.0 N, as shown, with both blocks experiencing equal constant acceleration.

a. Calculate the force that the spring exerts on the 2.0 kg block. (0.8 N)

b. Calculate the extension of the spring. (0.01 m)

The system is now pulled to the left, as shown below, with both blocks again experiencing equal constant
acceleration.

c. Is the magnitude of the acceleration greater than, less than, or the same as before? Justify your answer.

____ Greater ____ Less ____ The same

d. Is the amount the spring has stretched greater than, less than, or the same as before? Justify your answer.

____ Greater ____ Less ____ The same

e. In a new situation, the blocks and spring are moving together at a constant speed of 0.50 m s to the left.
Block A then hits and sticks to a wall. Calculate the maximum compression of the spring. (0.16 m)

147
16. A bike and rider, 82.0-kg combined mass, are traveling at 4.2 m/s. A force of -140 N is exerted by the
brakes. What braking distance is needed to stop the bike? (5.17 m)

17. A 0.18 kg ball is placed on a compressed spring on the floor. The spring exerts an average force of 2.8 N
through a distance of 15 cm as it shoots the ball upward. How high will the ball travel above the release
spring? (0.24 m)

148
 18. A 0.20 kg object moves along a straight line. The
net force acting on the object varies with the object's
displacement as shown in the graph above. The object
starts from rest at displacement x = 0 and time t = 0
and is displaced a distance of 20 m.

Determine each of the following:

a. The acceleration of the particle when its displacement x is 6 m. (20 m/s2)

b. The time taken for the object to be displaced the first 12 m. (1.1 s)

c. The amount of work done by the net force in displacing the object the first 12 m. (48 J)

d. The speed of the object at displacement x = 12 m. (22 m/s)

e. The final speed of the object at displacement x = 20 m. (25.3 m/s)

149
19. A 50 kg circus performer jumps from a platform into a safety net below. The net, which has a force
constant of 3.4 x104 N/m, is stretched by 0.65 m. If the unstretched net is positioned 1 m above the ground,
what is the height of the platform? (14.7 m)

20. For extra excitement, a new roller coaster ride in Florida is designed to launch the riders over an
alligator-infested lagoon. The frictionless coaster starts at rest at point A. The coaster lands on a ramp on the
other side of the lagoon.

After it is airborne, will the maximum height of the coaster be:

(a) greater than, (b)less than, or (c) equal to the height at point A? _____

Explain your reasoning in a clear, coherent paragraph-length response

150
21. A 3.0 kg object subject to a restoring force F is undergoing simple harmonic motion with small
amplitude. The potential energy U of the object as a function of distance x from its equilibrium position is
shown above. This particular object has a total energy E of 0.4 J.

a. What is the object's potential energy when its displacement is +4 cm from its equilibrium position?
(0.05 J)

b. What is the farthest the object moves along the x-axis in the positive direction? (10 cm)
Explain your reasoning.

c. Determine the object's kinetic energy when its displacement is – 7 cm. (0.22 J)

d. What is the object's speed at x = 0? (0.5 m/s)

e. Suppose the object undergoes this motion because it is the bob of a simple
pendulum as shown above. If the object breaks loose from the string at the instant
the pendulum reaches its lowest point and hits the ground at point P shown, what is
the horizontal distance d that it travels? (0.16 m)

151
22. From the top of a cliff 80 m high, a ball of mass 0.4 kg is launched horizontally with a velocity of 30 m/s
at time t = 0. The potential energy of the ball is zero at the bottom of the cliff. Use g = 10 m/s2.

a. Calculate the potential, kinetic, and total energies of the ball at time t = 0. (320 J, 180 J, 500 J)

b. On the axes below, sketch and label graphs of the potential, kinetic, and total energies of the ball as
functions of the distance fallen from the top of the cliff.

c. How long does it take for the ball to hit the ground? ( 4 s)

152
d. On the axes below sketch and label the kinetic and potential energies of the ball as functions of time until
the ball hits.

23. A 100-N box is initially 0.40 m above the surface of a table and is moving
upward with a kinetic energy of 80 J. A man is applying a constant upward
force of 80 N with his hand to the box.

Discuss the energy processes in this scenario. Include an explanation of initial

and final energies and energy transfers.

153
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
The expression for gravitational potential energy mgh applies when the gravitational force is constant (or
nearly constant). If the gravitational force is not constant, such as when a satellite is placed into orbit around
the Earth, the equation cannot be used. Instead, we need to use an expression for gravitational potential
energy that corresponds to Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
Gm1m2
FG
r2
The corresponding expression for gravitational potential energy in terms of the distance between two bodies
Gm1m2
is: UG where UG = 0 when r = ∞ UNITS: J
r
A graph showing the gravitational potential energy as a function of r is shown in the figure

Note that we have assigned the potential energy to be zero at infinite separation ( UG = 0 when r = ∞ ). This
means that the gravitational potential energy is negative for any finite value of r, because potential energy
decreases as the objects get closer together and increases as they get farther apart.
The diagram below illustrates a comparison of gravitational potential energies.

154
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. After getting on the Santa Monica Freeway, a sports
car accelerates from 30 mi/h to 90 mi/h. Its kinetic energy
(a) increases by a factor of 3
(b) increases by a factor of 3
(c) increases by a factor of 9 Questions 4-6. The orbit of Pluto is much more eccentric
(d) increases by a factor that depends on the car’s mass than the orbits of the planets. That is, instead of being nearly
circular, the orbit is noticeably elliptical. The point in the
orbit nearest the Sun is called the perihelion and the point
farthest from the Sun is called the aphelion.
Answer choices for Questions 3–5:
(a) its maximum value
(b) its minimum value
(c) the same value as at every other point in the orbit

4. At perihelion, the gravitational potential energy of

2. If a kangaroo on Earth can jump from a standing start so Pluto’s orbit has
that its feet reach a height h above the surface,
approximately how high can the same kangaroo jump from a
standing start on the Moon’s surface? g Moon ≈ 1/6g Earth
.(Assume the kangaroo has an oxygen tank and pressure suit
with negligible mass.)
( a ) 6h
1
(b) h 5. At perihelion, the kinetic energy of Pluto has
6
( c ) 36h
1
(d ) h
36
6. At perihelion, the mechanical energy of Pluto’s orbit has

3. Two balls are thrown from the roof of a building with

the same initial speed. One is thrown horizontally while
the other is thrown at an angle of 20 ° above the horizontal. 7. As Pluto moves from the perihelion to the aphelion, the
Which hits the ground with the greatest speed? work done by gravity on Pluto is
Ignore air resistance. (a) zero
(a) The one thrown horizontally (b) positive
(b) The one thrown at 20 ° (c) negative
(c) They hit the ground with the same speed.
(d) The answer cannot be determined with the given
information.

155
8. A hiker descends from the South Rim of the Grand 11. A box is being pulled up a rough incline by a rope
Canyon to the Colorado River. During this hike, the work connected to a pulley. How many forces are doing work on
done by gravity on the hiker is the box?
(a) positive and depends on the path taken (a) one force
(b) negative and depends on the path taken (b) two forces
(c) positive and independent of the path taken (c) three forces
(d) negative and independent of the path taken (d) four forces
(e) zero

12. A car starts from rest and accelerates to 30 mph. Later, it

gets on a highway and accelerates to 60 mph. Which takes
Questions 9 and 10. A simple catapult, consisting of a more energy, the 0 to 30 mph, or the 30 to 60 mph?
leather pouch attached to rubber bands tied to two forks of a (a) 0 to 30 mph
wooden Y, has a spring constant k and is used to shoot a (b) 30 to 60 mph
pebble horizontally. When the catapult is stretched by a (c) both the same
distance d, it gives a pebble of mass m a launch speed v.
Answer choices:
(a) 3v
( b ) 3v

( c ) 3 3v
(d ) 9v
13. Doing work W on a car accelerates the car from 0 to 50
( e ) 27 v km/hr. How much work is needed to accelerate the car from
50 km/h to 150 km/h? Hint: use proportional reasoning!
9. What speed does the catapult give a pebble of mass m (a) 3 W
when stretched to a distance 3 d? (b) 6 W
(c) 8 W
(d) 9 W

10. What speed does the catapult give a pebble of mass

m /3 when stretched to a distance d?
14. Two paths lead to the top of a big hill. One is steep and
direct, while the other is twice as long but less steep. How
much more potential energy would you gain if you take the
longer path?
(a) twice as much
(b) four times as much
(c) the same

156
FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS

FRQ 1. Two skaters—a small girl and a large boy—are initially standing face-to-
face but then push off each other. After they are no longer touching, the girl has
more kinetic energy than the boy. Three physics students make the following
contentions about the forces the boy and girl exerted on each other:

Sabrina: “I think the boy pushed harder on the girl because he is bigger, so she
ended up with more kinetic energy than he did.”
Jake: “I disagree. They pushed equally hard on each other, but the girl moved
farther while they were pushing on each other, so she ended up with more kinetic
energy.”
Colby: “I think the girl had to push harder to get the boy moving since he is bigger, but that caused her to
accelerate more as she recoiled.”

With which of these students do you agree? Sabrina _____ Jake _____ Colby _____

Write a coherent, paragraph length explanation of the situation according to the statement made by the
student. Hint: do no re-write the statement as part of your explanation.

FRQ 2. A designer is working on a new roller coaster,

and she begins by making a scale model. On this model,
a car of total mass 0.50 kg moves with negligible
friction along the track shown in the figure above. The
car is given an initial speed vo = 1.5 m/s at the top of the
first hill of height 2.0 m. Point A is located at a height of
1.9 m at the top of the second hill, the upper part of which is a circular arc of radius 0.95 m.

157
a. Calculate the speed of the car at point A. (2.05 m/s)

b. On the figure of the car below, draw and label vectors to represent the forces on the car at point A.

c. Calculate the magnitude of the force of the track on the car at point A. (2.7 N)

d. In order to stop the car at point A, some friction must be introduced. Calculate the work that must be done
by the friction force in order to stop the car at point A. (-1.1J)

e. Explain how to modify the track design to cause the car to lose contact with the track at point A before
descending down the track. Explain your answer.

158
 FRQ 3. In an experiment, students are to calculate the spring
constant k of a vertical spring in a small jumping toy that initially
rests on a table. When the spring in the toy is compressed a
distance x from its uncompressed length L0 and the toy is
released, the top of the toy rises to a maximum height h above
the point of maximum compression. The students repeat the
experiment several times, measuring h with objects of various
masses taped to the top of the toy so that the combined mass of
the toy and added objects is m.

a. Derive an expression for the height h in terms of m, x, k, and fundamental constants.

With the spring compressed a distance x = 0.020 m in each trial, the students obtained the following data for
different values of m.
(b) i. What quantities should be graphed so
that the slope of a best-fit straight line through
the data points can be used to calculate the
spring constant k?

ii. Fill in one or both of the blank columns in the table with calculated values of your quantities, including
units.

c. Plot your data and draw a best-fit straight line. Label the axes and indicate the scale.

159
d. Using your best-fit line, calculate the numerical value of the spring constant. (≈524 N/m)

e. Describe a procedure for measuring the height h in the experiment, given that the toy is only momentarily
at that maximum height.

FRQ 4. A cart with a spring plunger runs into a fixed barrier. The mass of the cart, its velocity just before
impact with the barrier, and its velocity right after collision are given in each figure.

Rank the change in kinetic energy for each cart.

Explain your reasoning.

160
FRQ 5. The apparatus above is used to study conservation of mechanical energy. A spring of force constant
40 N/m is held horizontal over a horizontal air track, with one end attached to the air track. A light string is
attached to the other end of the spring and connects it to a glider of mass m. The glider is pulled to stretch the
spring an amount x from equilibrium and then released. Before reaching the photogate, the glider attains its
maximum speed and the string becomes slack. The photogate measures the time t that it takes the small block
on top of the glider to pass through. Information about the distance x and the speed v of the glider as it passes
through the photogate are given below.

a. Assuming no energy is dissipated write the equation for conservation of mechanical energy that would
apply to this situation.

b. On the grid below, plot v2 versus x2 . Label the axes, including units and scale. Draw a best-fit straight line
through the data.

161
c. Use the best-fit line to obtain the mass m of the glider. (0.2 kg)

The track is now tilted at an angle θ as shown below. When the spring is unstretched, the center of the glider
is a height h above the photogate. The experiment is repeated with a variety of values of x.

d. Assuming no energy is lost, write the new equation for conservation of mechanical energy that would
apply to this situation. (mg(h + x sin θ) + ½ kx2 = ½ mv2)

162
 UNIT VI
MOMENTUM

The impulse F t is a vector quantity equal in magnitude to the product of the force and the time interval in
which it acts. Its direction is the same as that of the force.
J=F t UNITS: N.s ([Link])

The momentum p of a particle is a vector quantity equal in magnitude to the product of its mass m and its
velocity v.
p=mv UNITS: kg.m/s (kilogram-meter per second)

And F t =m v Impulse = change in momentum

1. A 3 N baseball moving left toward the batter with a velocity of 15 m/s is struck with a bat which causes it
to move in a reversed direction with a velocity of 30 m/s. Calculate the average force exerted on the ball if
the bat is in contact with the ball for 0.01 s.

2. Which has the greater change in momentum, a 50 g clay ball that strikes a wall at 1.0 m/s and sticks or a
50 g superball that strikes a wall at 1.0 m/s and bounces away from the wall at 0.8 m/s? Explain your
reasoning.

3. A Hummer and a Prius traveling at equal speeds have a head-on collision.

a. Which vehicle will experience the greater force of impact? Justify your answer.

b. Which vehicle will experience the greater change in momentum? Justify your answer.

c. Which vehicle will experience the greater acceleration? Justify your answer.

163
4. Carts with spring plungers run into fixed barriers. The carts are identical but are carrying different loads
and so have different masses. The velocity of each cart just before and just after impact is given.

Rank the magnitude of the change in momentum of these carts.

Explain your reasoning.

5. A 2 kg object has the velocity graph shown. Show all your work!
a. What is the object's initial momentum? (-2 kg m/s)

b. What is the object's final momentum? (4 kg m/s)

c. What impulse does the object experience? (6 kg m/s)

d. Draw the force-time graph showing the force exerted on the object.

164
6. A 0.24-kg volleyball approaches Anna with a velocity of 3.8 m/s. Anna bumps the ball, giving it a velocity
of 2.4 m/s. Find the force exerted if the interaction time between her hands and the ball is 0.025 s? (-59.5 N)

7. In running a ballistics test at the police department an officer fires a 6 g bullet at 350 m/s into a container
that stops it in 0.30 m. What average force stops the bullet? (-1235.3 N)

8. A net force of 10 N to the right pushes a 3.0 kg book across a table. If the force acts on the book for 5.0 s,
what is the book’s final velocity? Assume the book to be initially at rest. (16.7 m/s, right)

9. A 0.5-kg wrench is dropped from a height of 10 m. Find the momentum just before it strikes the floor.
(7 kg.m/s)

165
10. How much time would it take for a 0.17 kg ice hockey puck to decrease its speed by 9.0 m/s if the
coefficient of kinetic friction between the ice and the puck is 0.05? (18.4 s)

11. Cars moving along horizontal roads are about to be stopped when they hit a protective barrier. All of the
cars are the same size and shape, but they are moving at different speeds and have different masses. The
barriers are all identical and exert the same constant force.

Rank the time that it takes to stop the cars as the barriers apply the same constant force.

Explain your reasoning.

166
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS: The area under the force vs time graph is the impulse.

12. The position-versus-time graph is shown for a 500 g object. Draw the corresponding momentum- versus-
time graph. p
a. Calculate the (kg m/s)
slopes of the x-t graph

t
(s)

b. Calculate the momentum.

13. The momentum-versus-time graph is shown for a 500 g object. Draw the corresponding acceleration-
versus-time graph. a
(m/s2)

a. Calculate the
slopes of the p-t graph

t
(s)

b. What does the slope represent?

c. Calculate the acceleration.

167
14. A 2 kg object is moving to the right with a speed of 1 m/s when it experiences an impulse due to the
force shown in the graph. What is the object's speed and direction after the impulse?
a. (0.5 m/s, right)

b. (1.0 m/s, right)

15. What is the change in momentum experienced by a 3.0 kg object as described by the graph? (0 kg.m/s)

168
16. A 10-kg box, initially at rest, moves along a frictionless horizontal surface. A horizontal force to the right
is applied to the box. The magnitude of the force changes as a function of time as shown.

Rank the impulse applied to the box by this force during each 2-second interval indicated below.
A. 0 to 2 s B. 2 to 4 s C. 4 to 6 s D. 6 to 8 s E. 8 to 10 s

Explain your reasoning.

17. Two boxes are tied together by a string and are sitting at rest on a frictionless surface. Between the two
boxes is a massless compressed spring. The string tying the two boxes together is cut and the spring expands,
pushing the boxes apart. The box on the left has four times the mass of the box on the right.

a. After the string is cut and the boxes lose contact with the spring, will the magnitude of the momentum of
the box on the left be:
(i) greater than, (ii) less than, or (iii) equal to the magnitude of the momentum of the box on the right?_____
Explain your reasoning.

b. At the instant (after the string is cut) that the boxes lose contact with the spring, will the speed of the box
on the left be (i) greater than, (ii) less than, or (iii) equal to the speed of the box on the right? _____
Explain your reasoning.

169
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

According to the law of conservation of linear momentum, when the vector sum of the external forces that
act on a system of bodies equals zero, the total linear momentum of the system remains constant no matter
what momentum changes occur within the system.

Although interactions within the system may change the distribution of the total momentum among the
various bodies in the system, the total momentum does not change. Such interactions can give rise to two
general classes of events:
a. explosions, in which an original single body flies apart into separate bodies, and
b. collisions, in which two or more bodies collide and either stick together or move apart, in each
case with a redistribution of the original linear momentum.

For two objects interacting with one another, the conservation of momentum is expressed as:

m1v1 m2 v2 m1v1' m2 v2'

' '
v1 and v2 are initial velocities, v1 and v2 are final velocities

COLLISIONS
A perfectly elastic collision is one in which the bodies involved move apart in such a way that kinetic
energy as well as momentum is conserved.

In a perfectly inelastic collision, the bodies stick together and the kinetic energy loss is the maximum
possible consistent with momentum conservation. Most collisions are intermediate between these two
extremes.

18. A 5-kg ball moving at 6 m/s strikes a 3-kg ball initially at rest. The 5-kg ball continues moving in the
same direction at 2 m/s. Find the velocity and direction of the 3-kg ball.

170
19. An unoccupied 1200-kg car has coasted down a hill and is moving along a level road at 10 m/s. A 6000-
kg truck moving in the opposite direction collides head-on with it. What was the truck’s velocity if both
vehicles come to a stop after the collision?

20. A child jumps from a moving sled with a speed of 2.2 m/s and in the direction opposite the sled’s motion.
The sled continues to move in the forward direction, but with a new speed of 5.5 m/s. If the child has a mass
of 38 kg and the sled has a mass 68 kg, what is the initial velocity of the sled? (2.7 m/s)

21. In the game of marbles, a shooter is a large marble about 2 cm in diameter that is used to knock smaller
marbles out of the ring. Suppose a shooter with a speed of 0.80 m/s hits a 4.8 g marble that is at rest in the
ring. The shooter continues forward with a speed of 0.51 m/s while the smaller marble moves forward with a
speed of 1.33 m/s. What is the mass of the shooter? (22 g)

171
22. You wear ice skates and a backpack on a frozen pond. How might you start moving without pushing off
on the ice? Explain your reasoning in a clear, coherent paragraph length response.

23. A 60 kg man on a lake of ice catches a 2 kg ball. The ball and man each move at 8 cm/s after the ball is
caught. a. What was the velocity of the ball before it was caught? (2.48 m/s)

b. How much energy was dissipated in the process? (5.95 J)

172
24. A wooden block has a mass of 1.5 kg. A 40-g projectile with an initial velocity of 80 m/s embeds itself
into the block. Determine the final height of the bullet-block system. (22 cm)

25. Evaluate the solution

The problem: You are traveling in your 2000-kg pick-up truck at 20 m/s up a hill with a 6.0o incline when
you see a duck crossing the road 24 m in front of you. You know from previous experience that when you hit
the brakes, a 16,000 N friction force opposes the car's motion. Will you hit the duck?
Proposed solution:
1
(2000 kg)(20 m/s)2 =(16,000 N kg)x
2
x 25 m Oops!
a. Identify any missing elements or errors in the solution.

b. Provide a corrected solution if you find any missing elements or errors.

173
26. Evaluate the solution
The problem: A 2000-kg van traveling at 20 m/s collides with a stationary 1000-kg compact car. The
vehicles lock together and skid for 16m until stopping on a level surface. Determine the coefficient of
kinetic friction between the tires and the road.

Proposed solution:
Part I: The collision
Momentum conservation:
(2000 kg)(20 m/s)=(3000 kg)v
v 13.3 m/s

Part II: Skidding to a stop

x 16 m
Stopping time: t = 1.2 s
v 13.3 m/s
m v 2000 kg(20 m/s)
Stopping force: FF = 33,300 N
t 1.2 s
FF 33,300 N
Coefficient of kinetic friction: K 1.1
mg 3000 kg (9.8 N/kg)

a. Identify any missing elements or errors in the solution.

b. Provide a corrected solution if you find missing elements or errors.

174
CENTER OF MASS
When a system consists of several objects, their motion can be quite complex. But one point associated with
the system undergoes a particularly simple motion, the center of mass (CM).

The center of mass is the average of each particle coordinate, weighted by the mass of each particle:
m1 x1 m2 x2 ... mx
xCM xCM
m1 m2 ... or m

From the definition of CM, uniform, symmetric objects will have their CM at their geometric center.

27a. Consider two masses on the x-axis, a 4-kg mass at x =18 cm and a 2-kg mass at x =6 cm.
Calculate the center of mass.

b. If the two masses were equal, where would the CM be located?

VELOCITY OF THE CENTER OF MASS

Since the total momentum of the system is the total mass multiplied by vCM, it’s as if the CM is moving as a
point particle with mass Mtotal and velocity vCM.

m1v1 m2v2 ...

vCM
M total

28. On a lightweight (air-filled)“banana boat,” three people of roughly

equal mass m sit along the x-axis at positions xA = 1.0 m, xB = 5.0 m and
xC = 6.0 m measured from the left-hand as shown in the figure. Find the
position of the CM. Ignore the mass of the boat. (4.0 m from left-hand end
of the boat)

175
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. A ball of mass m with initial speed v collides with

another ball of mass M, initially at rest. After the collision
the two balls stick together, moving with speed V.
The ratio of the final speed V to the initial speed v is
M
(a )
M m
m
(b)
M m
M m
(c)
M
M m
(d ) Multiple-Choice Questions 4-9 refer to a situation in
m which a golf ball is projected straight upward in the + y -
direction. Ignore air resistance. The answer choices are
found in the figure above.

4. Which graph shows the acceleration ay of the ball as a

function of time?

2. A 3.0-kg object is initially at rest. It then receives an

impulse of magnitude 15 N·s. After the impulse, the
object has
(a) a speed of 45 m/s
(b) a momentum of magnitude 5.0 kg·m/s 5. Which graph shows the vertical position y of the ball as
(c) a speed of 7.5 m/s a function of time?
(d) a momentum of magnitude 15 kg·m/s

6. Which graph shows the momentum py of the ball as a

function of time?

3. An object of mass m drops from rest a little above the

Earth’s surface for a time t. Ignore air resistance. After
time t the magnitude of its momentum is
( a ) mgt 2 7. Which graph shows the kinetic energy of the ball as a
function of time?
(b) mgt
( c ) mg t
(d ) mgt
8. Which graph shows the potential energy of the ball as a
function of time?

176
9. Which graph shows the total energy of the ball as a 13. Car A is traveling west with speed 20 m/s when it
function of time? collides with Car B, traveling east at 10 m/s. Which of the
following are possible velocities of the cars after the
collision? The cars have the same mass.
(a) Car A 10 m/s west, Car B 20 m/s east
(b) Car A 5 east, Car B 25 m/s west
(c) Both cars 5 m/s west
(d) Car A 18 m/s west, Car B 2 m/s west
10. Two particles A and B of equal mass are located at some
distance from each other. Particle A is at rest while B moves
away from A at speed v. What happens to the center of mass
of the system of two particles?
(a) It moves with a speed v away from A.
(c) It moves with a speed v toward A.
(d) It moves with a speed 1 v away from A.
2
(e) It moves with a speed 1
v toward A.
2

14. Maggie drops a stuffed bear over the side of her crib. It
hits the floor with speed v and comes to rest. She then drops
a rubber ball with the same mass from the same height, and
11. Two uniform spheres with equal mass per unit volume it bounces back upwards with speed v. Compare the change
are in contact with one another. The mass of sphere A is five in momentum of the bear and the ball.
times that of sphere B. The center of mass of the system is
(a) at the point where A and B touch. (a) p = p
bear ball
(b) inside sphere B somewhere on the line joining the
centers of A and B. (b) p =2 p
(c) inside sphere A somewhere on the line joining the bear ball

centers. (c) p =½ p
(d) at the center of sphere A. bear ball
(e) outside of both spheres.
(d) p =- p
bear ball

12. Two objects with different masses have the same kinetic
energy. Which has the larger magnitude of momentum?
(a) the larger mass
(b) the smaller mass
(c) they have the same momentum 15. Suppose you throw a rubber ball at an approaching
(d) impossible to tell truck. When it bounces back to you, is it traveling faster,
slower, or with the same speed at which you threw it?
(a) faster
(b) slower
(c) at the same speed

177
FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS

FRQ 1. A carnival game requires you to knock over a wood post by throwing a ball at
it. You're offered a very bouncy rubber ball and a very sticky clay ball of equal mass.
Assume that you can throw them with equal speed and equal accuracy. You only get
one throw.
a. Which ball will you choose? Why?

b. Both balls have the same initial momentum p just before hitting the post. The clay ball sticks, the rubber
ball bounces off with essentially no loss of speed. What is the final momentum of each ball?

Clay ball:

Rubber ball:

c. What is the change in momentum of each ball?

Clay ball:

Rubber ball:

d. Which ball experiences a larger impulse during the collision? Explain.

e. From Newton’s third law, the impulse that the ball exerts on the post is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction, to the impulse that the post exerts on the ball. Which ball exerts the larger impulse on the post?
Explain.

178
 FRQ 2. In Case A, a metal bullet penetrates a wooden block. In
Case B, a rubber bullet with the same initial speed and mass
bounces off of an identical wooden block.
a. Will the speed of the wooden block after the collision be:

________ greater in Case A _____ greater in Case B or

______ the same in both cases? Explain your reasoning.

b. In Case B, will the speed of the bullet after the collision be: _____ greater than _____ less than or

_____ the same as the speed of the bullet just before the collision? Explain your reasoning.

FRQ 3. A block of mass M is resting on a horizontal, frictionless table and is

attached as shown above to a relaxed spring of spring constant k. A second
block of mass 2M and initial speed vo collides with and sticks to the first block.
Develop expressions for the following quantities in terms of M, k, and vo
a. v, the speed of the blocks immediately after impact (2/3 vo)

b. x, the maximum distance the spring is compressed 4 Mv02

3k

179
 FRQ 4. Several students are riding in bumper cars at an
amusement park. The combined mass of car A and its occupants is
250 kg. The combined mass of car B and its occupants is 200 kg.
Car A is 15 m away from car B and moving to the right at 2.0 m/s,
as shown, when the driver decides to bump into car B, which is at rest.

a. Car A accelerates at 1.5 m/s2 to a speed of 5.0 m/s and then continues at constant velocity until it strikes
car B. Calculate the total time for car A to travel the 15 m. (3.6 s)

b. After the collision, car B moves to the right at a speed of 4.8 m/s. Calculate the speed of car A after the
collision. (1.2 m/s)

c. Is this an elastic collision? ____ Yes ____ No Justify your answer qunatitatively.

180
FRQ 5. Two identical objects A and B of mass M move on a one-dimensional, horizontal air track. Object
B initially moves to the right with speed v0. Object A initially moves to the right with speed 3v0, so that it
collides with object B. Friction is negligible.

Express your answers to the following in terms of M and v0.

a. Determine the total momentum of the system of the two objects. 4Mv0

b. A student predicts that the collision will be totally inelastic (the objects stick together on collision).
Assuming this is true, determine the following for the two objects immediately after the collision.
i. The speed 2v0

ii. The direction of motion: _______Left _______ Right

When the experiment is performed, the student is surprised to observe that the objects separate after the
collision and that object B subsequently moves to the right with a speed 2.5v0 .

c. Determine the following for object A immediately after the collision.

i. The speed 1.5v0

ii. The direction of motion: _______Left _______ Right

d. Determine the kinetic energy dissipated in the actual experiment. 0.75Mv02

181
 UNIT VII
ROTATIONAL MOTION

ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS

Angular Displacement, θ (theta)

s
The angular displacement is:
r
Measured in revolutions, degrees, or radians:

1 rev = 3600 = 2π rad

1. Convert:
a. 90o to radians

b. 6 radians to degrees

c. 1.5 revolutions to both radians and degrees

Angular Velocity, ω (omega)

Angular velocity, ω is the rate of change in angular displacement, (radians per second)

2
or UNITS: rad/s
t T

Angular Acceleration, α (alpha)

Angular acceleration is the rate of change in angular velocity.

UNITS: rad/s2
t

The equations for translational motion: displacement, velocity and acceleration have corresponding
equations for rotational motion.
182
The table summarizes the equations for both translational (linear) and rotational motion:

The table below shows how to translate between translational and angular variables when you know the
radius (r) of the point of interest on a rotating object. The translational velocity and acceleration are also
called tangential velocity and tangential acceleration.

2. A ceiling fan’s angular speed increases from 5.2 rad/s to 20.9 rad/s. The fan moves through an angular
displacement of 216 rad. How long does it take the fan to reach its final angular speed? (16.6 s)

3. A spinning ride at a carnival has an angular acceleration of 0.50 rad/s 2. How far from the center is a rider
who has a tangential acceleration of 3.3 m/s2 ? (6.6 m)

183
4. A pulley 320 mm in diameter rotating at 4 rev/s receives a constant angular acceleration of 2 rad/s2.
a. What is the linear velocity of a belt around the pulley after 8 s? (6.58 m/s)

b. What is the tangential acceleration of the belt? (0.32 m/s2)

5. The wheel on an upside-down bicycle moves through 11.0 rad in 2.0 s. What is the wheel's angular
acceleration if its initial angular speed is 2.0 rad/s? (3.5 rad/s2)

6. On a rotating carousel one child sits on a horse near the outer edge and another child sits on a lion halfway
out from the center.
a. Which child has the greater linear velocity? Explain.

b. Which child has the greater angular velocity? Explain.

184
7. A carousel is initially at rest. At t = 0 it is given a constant angular acceleration of 0.060 rad/s2 which
increases its angular velocity for 8.0 s.
a. Determine the angular velocity of the carousel at t = 8 s. (0.48 rad/s)

b. Calculate the linear velocity of a child located 2.5 m from the center at t = 8 s. (1.2 m/s)

c. Determine that child’s tangential (linear) acceleration. (0.15 m/s2)

d. Determine that child’s centripetal acceleration. (0.58 m/s2)

e. Determine that child’s total acceleration. (0.60 m/s2)

8. A centrifuge rotor is accelerated for 30 s from rest to 20,000 rpm (revolutions per minute).
a. What is its average angular acceleration? (70 rad/s2)

b. Through how many revolutions has the centrifuge rotor turned during its acceleration period, assuming
constant angular acceleration? (5000 rev)

185
9. A bicycle slows down uniformly from 8.4 m/s to rest over a distance of 115 m. Each wheel and tire has a
diameter of 68.0 cm.
a. Find the angular velocity of the wheels at t=0. (24.7 rad/s)

b. Determine the total number of revolutions each wheel rotates before coming to rest. (53.8 rev)

c. Calculate the angular acceleration of the wheel. (-0.902 rad/s2)

d. Find the time it took to come to a stop. (27.4 s)

10. For each situation shown in the figure, determine the signs of the net torque, the initial angular velocity
and the angular acceleration. The signs are +for counterclockwise, - for clockwise, and 0 for zero torque or
for a stationary disk. Note that the curved arrows on the illustrations represent the initial direction of rotation,
and the straight arrows represent the direction of a rope pulling on the pulley.

τ = ___ τ = ___ τ = ___ τ = ___

ω= ___ ω= ___ ω= ___ ω= ___

α=___ α=___ α=___ α=___

186
11. The graph below shows the torque on a rotating wheel as a function of time. The wheel’s rotational
inertia is 10 kg.m2. Draw graphs of α-versus-t and ω-versus-t

α ω
(rad/s2) (rad/s)

t t
(s) (s)

TORQUE
Torque is a measure of a force's ability to rotate an object. It depends on the magnitude of the applied force
and on the length of the moment arm r, according to the following equation:

τ = F r sin θ UNITS: N.m

r is measured perpendicular to the line of action of the force F. If θ is 90o then τ = F r

Sign Convention:
Torque will be positive if F tends to produce counterclockwise rotation. Torque will be negative if F tends
to produce clockwise rotation.

187
ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM
An object is in rotational equilibrium when the sum of the forces and torques acting on it is zero.

First Condition of Equilibrium: ΣF=0 (translational equilibrium)

Second Condition of Equilibrium: Στ=0 (rotational equilibrium)

By choosing the axis of rotation at the point of application of an unknown force, problems may be
simplified.

12a. What is the resultant torque about point A in the figure. (90 Nm CCW)

15 N
4m 2m 3m

A
30 N 20 N

b. Find the resultant torque if the axis is moved to the left end of the bar. (- 120 Nm or 120 Nm,CW)

13. A uniform beam of negligible weight is held up by two supports A and B. Given the distances and forces
listed find the forces exerted by the supports. (51 N, 49 N)

188
 14. A 300 N girl and a 400 N boy stand on a 16 m platform
supported by posts A and B as shown. The platform itself
weighs 200 N. What are the forces exerted by the supports on
the platform? (183.3 N, 716.7 N)

15. A piece of angle iron is hinged at point A as shown. Determine the resultant torque at A due to the 60 N
and 80 N forces acting together.

189
16. An angler balances a fishing rod on his finger as shown below:

If he were to cut the rod along the dashed line, would the weight of the piece on the left-hand side be

_____ greater than, _____ less than, or _____ equal to the weight of the piece on the right-hand side?

Explain your reasoning.

17. A guy is sitting on a beam of length L. Apply the conditions of equilibrium

separately to the guy and to the beam. Determine the tension in the cable and
the force that the guy exerts on the beam. The gravitational force that the Earth
exerts on the guy is 600 N. (272 N, 328 N)

18. A 4-m pole is supported at each end by hunters carrying an 800-N deer which is hung at a point 1.5 m
from the left end. Draw a force diagram and calculate the upward forces required by each hunter. (500 N,
300 N)

190
19. Karen (56 kg) and Alice (43 kg) want to balance on a 1.75-m-long seesaw. Where should they place the
pivot point? (0.99 m from Alice)

20. A student is holding a meterstick by one end. A 1.0 kg mass is hung on the metersticks. All of the
metersticks are identical, but the distance along the meterstick at which the 1.0 kg mass is hung and the
angles at which the student holds the meterstick vary. (Ignore the mass of the meterstick.)

Rank the difficulty of holding the meterstick from the left end in the position shown.

Explain your reasoning.

191
ROTATIONAL INERTIA

The resistance of an object to changes in rotational motion is measured by a quantity called the rotational
inertia or moment of inertia. The moment of inertia is a measure of the object's resistance to a change in its
rotational motion about some axis. Moment of inertia is the rotational analog of mass.

The moment of inertia is similar to mass because they are both forms of inertia. However, there is an
important difference between the inertia that resists changes in translational motion (mass) and the inertia
that resists changes in rotational motion (moment of inertia).

Mass is an intrinsic property of an object, and the moment of inertia is not. It depends on the object's mass
and the distribution of that mass around the axis of rotation. The farther the mass of an object is, on average,
from the axis of rotation, the greater is the object's moment of inertia and the more difficult it is to rotate the
object.

The general equation for the rotational inertia is: I mR2 UNITS: kg·m2

These are the most common rotational inertias:

192
21. A rod is made of three segments of equal length with different masses. The total mass of the rod is 6m.

Will the moment of inertia of the rod be:

(i) greater about the left end or (ii) greater about the right end, or (iii) the same about both ends? ______
Explain your reasoning.

22. The two rings have equal mass. Would it be more difficult, less difficult,
or the same difficulty to start the larger radius ring spinning about an axis
through its center compared to the difficulty of spinning the smaller radius
ring about its center axis? Explain your reasoning.

23. Two small “weights,” of mass 5.0 kg and 7.0 kg, are mounted 4.0 m apart on a
light rod (whose mass can be ignored), as shown in the figure.
a. Calculate the rotational inertia of the system when rotated about an axis halfway
between the weights,

b. Calculate the rotational inertia of the system when rotated about an axis 0.50 m to the left of the 5.0-kg
mass.

193
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW FOR ROTATION
The rotational equivalent of this law, Newton’s 2nd Law for Rotation, relates the torque on an object to its
resulting angular acceleration. The larger the net torque, the greater the rotational acceleration and the larger
the rotational inertia, the smaller the rotational acceleration:

Consider Newton’s second law for the inertia of rotation to be patterned after the law for translation.
F
a
m

A similar equation may be derived for all other portions of a rotating object.

The angular acceleration will be constant for every portion regardless of its mass or distance from the axis:

The net torque will be: I UNITS: N.m

24. Fill in the table for the three situations shown. The rotational inertia of the multi-radius pulley shown
below is I, the inner radius is a, and the outer radius is 2a.

a. Choose a system

b. Draw a FBD

c. Write Newton's second

law for rotational motion
(or translational motion for
the pail).

194
 25. A 15.0 N force is exerted to a cord wrapped around a pulley of mass 4 kg and radius
33 cm. The pulley accelerates uniformly from rest to an angular speed of 30 rad/s in 3.0
s. If there is a frictional torque of 1.1 N.m at the axle, determine the rotational inertia of
the pulley.

26. A solid steel wheel has a rotational inertia of 0.36 kg.m2. The wheel starts at
rest and you want to make it rotate at 8.0 rev/s in 15 s.
a. What torque must be applied to the wheel? (1.2 N.m)

b. If you apply the torque by wrapping a strap around the outside of the wheel, how much force should you
exert on the strap? (5.5 N)

195
27. A softball player swings a bat, accelerating it from rest to 2.6 rev/s in a time of 0.20 s. Approximate the
bat as a 0.90-kg uniform rod of length 0.95 m, and find the torque the player applies to one end of it. (22 Nm)

28. An Atwood machine consists of two masses, mA = 65 kg and mB = 75 kg connected by a

cord of negligible mass that passes over a pulley free to rotate. The pulley is a solid cylinder
of radius 0.45 m and mass 6.0 kg.

a. Draw a neat, labeled force diagram for the pulley and the hanging masses.
A
B

b. Determine the acceleration of each mass.

c. What percent error would be made if the rotational inertia of the pulley is ignored?

196
29. A grinding wheel is a solid, uniform disk of mass 2.5 kg and radius 9.0 cm. Starting from rest, what
constant torque must a motor supply so that the wheel gets a rotational speed of 126 rev/s in a time of 6.0 s?
(1.33 N.m)

230. A helicopter rotor blade can be treated as a long thin rod, as shown.

a. If each of the three rotor helicopter blades is 3.75 m long and has a mass of
135 kg, calculate the rotational inertia of the three rotor blades about the axis of
rotation. (1898 kg m2)

b. Calculate the torque applied by the motor to bring the blades from rest up to 6.0 rev/s in 8.0 s? (8944 Nm)

197
31. A 0.31 kg cart on a horizontal air track is attached to a string. The string passes over a disk-shaped pulley
of mass 0.080 kg and radius 12 cm. The cart is pulled vertically downward with a constant force of 1.1 N.
Find the acceleration of the cart and the tension in the string between the pulley and the cart.
Include neat, labeled force diagrams, and all the steps of your derivations. (3.1 m/s2, 0.97 N)

198
ROLLING MOTION
Rolling is a combination motion in which an object rotates about an axis that is moving along a straight -line
trajectory. To understand rolling motion, consider the figure below, which shows a round object that rolls
forward, without slipping, exactly one revolution.

2 R 2
The speed of the object’s center will be given by: v and since we have:
T T
v R
This equation is the rolling constraint, the basic link between translation and rotation for objects that roll
without slipping.

We can find the velocity for any point on a rolling object by adding the velocity of that point when the object
is in pure translation, without rolling, to the velocity of the point when the object is in pure rotation, without
translating. The figure below shows how the velocity vectors at the top, center, and bottom of a rotating
wheel are found in this way.

Thus the point at the top of the wheel has a forward speed of v due to its translational motion plus a forward
speed of ωR = v due to its rotational motion. The speed of a point at the top of a wheel is then 2v = 2ωR, or
twice the speed of its center of mass.
The point at the bottom of the wheel, where it touches the ground, still has a forward speed of v due to its
translational motion. But its velocity due to rotation points backward with a magnitude of ωR = v Adding
these, we find that the velocity of this lowest point is zero. In other words, the point on the bottom of a
rolling object is instantaneously at rest.
Although this seems surprising, it is really what we mean by "rolling without slipping." If the bottom point
had a velocity, it would be moving horizontally relative to the surface. In other words, it would be slipping or
sliding across the surface. To roll without slipping, the bottom point, the point touching the surface, must be
at rest.

199
ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY
1 2
The rotational kinetic energy is given by: K I UNITS: J
2

32. A 1.2 kg disk with a radius of 10 cm rolls without slipping with a linear speed
of 1.41 m/s,
a. Find the translational kinetic energy

b. Find the rotational kinetic energy

c. Find the total kinetic energy of the disk

33. The figures below show hollow spheres (not drawn to scale) that are rolling at a constant rate without
slipping. The spheres all have the same mass, but their radii as well as their linear and angular speeds vary.

Rank the rotational kinetic energy of the spheres.

Explain your reasoning.

200
 34. What will be the speed of a solid sphere of mass M and radius R when it
reaches the bottom of an incline if it starts from rest at a vertical height H and
rolls without slipping?

b. A block of mass M slides down the frictionless incline. What will be the speed at the bottom of the
incline?

c. Compare your results from scenario (a) and (b). Explain your reasoning.

201
35. Discuss the energy transfers for each of the cases below. Show all your work include a neat, labeled LOL
diagram.

I. A thin hoop or ring with a radius of 2 m is moving so that its center of mass is initially moving at 20 m/s
while also rolling without slipping at 10 rad/s along a horizontal surface. It rolls up an incline, coming to
rest.

II. A solid disk is initially rolling without slipping along a flat, level surface. It then rolls up an incline,
coming momentarily to rest as shown.

202
 36. A solid cylinder with mass M, radius R, and
rotational inertia ½MR2 rolls without slipping down
the inclined plane shown above. The cylinder starts
from rest at a height H. The inclined plane makes an
angle with the horizontal.
Express all solutions in terms of M, R, H, , and g.

4
gH
3
a. Determine the translational speed of the cylinder when it reaches the bottom of the inclined plane.

b. On the figure below, draw and label the forces acting on the cylinder as it rolls down the inclined plane
Your arrow should begin at the point of application of each force.

c. Show that the acceleration of the center of mass of the cylinder while it is rolling down the inclined plane
is 2/3 g sin .

203
d. Determine the minimum coefficient of friction between the cylinder and the inclined plane that is required
tan
for the cylinder to roll without slipping. 3

e. The coefficient of friction is now made less than the value determined in part (d), so that the cylinder
both rotates and slips.

i. Indicate whether the translational speed of the cylinder at the bottom of the inclined plane is greater than,
less than, or equal to the translational speed calculated in part (a). Justify your answer.

ii. Indicate whether the total kinetic energy of the cylinder at the bottom of the inclined plane is greater than,
less than, or equal to the total kinetic energy for the previous case of rolling without slipping. Justify your
answer.

204
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
The total angular momentum L is equal to the product of an object’s angular velocity and its moment of
inertia. You can see the analogy to the linear momentum equation:
p m v

L I and L = mvr UNITS: kg m2/s

CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

We can understand the definition of angular momentum better if we return to the fundamental equation for
angular motion:
0
I and angular acceleration is: f

t
f 0
we can write Newton’s second law as I
t

Multiplying by Δt we obtain: t I f I 0 and t I

angular impulse = change in angular momentum

If no external torque is applied to a rotating body, we can set τ = 0 yielding:

I f I 0

Final angular momentum = Initial angular momentum

Conservation of angular momentum: “If the sum of the external torques acting on a body or system of
bodies is zero, the angular momentum remains unchanged.”

37. Assume that the woman holding the extended weights has a rotational inertia
of 6 kg.m2 and that the rotational inertia is decreased to 2 kg.m2 when she brings
them close to her body. With the weights in their extended position, she is set into
rotation at 1.4 rev/s.

What will be her rate of rotation when she brings the weights close to her body?

205
 38. A simple clutch consists of two cylindrical plates that can be pressed together to
connect two sections of an axle. The two plates have masses mA = 6.0 kg and mB = 9.0 kg
and with equal radii = 0.60 m. They are initially separated. Plate A is accelerated from
rest to an angular velocity 7.2 rad/s in time = 2.0 s. (I = ½ MR2)

a. Calculate the angular momentum of plate A. (7.8 kg.m2/s)

b. Calculate the torque required to accelerate plate A. (3.9 N.m)

c. Next, plate B initially at rest but free to rotate without friction, is placed in firm contact with freely rotating
plate A and the two plates then both rotate at a constant angular velocity ω 2 which is considerably less than
ω1. Explain why does this happen, and what is the new angular velocity? (2.9 rad/s)

206
39. A girl has a mass of 30 kg. She runs toward a merry-go-round at 3.0 m/s and jumps on it. The merry-go -
round is initially at rest, has a mass of 100 kg and a radius of 2.0 m and can be treated as a uniform disk.
Find the rotation speed of the merry-go-round after the girl jumps on. (0.56 rad/s)

40. A child is standing at the edge of a rotating platform. The platform completes one rotation in 2.5 seconds.
The child now walks to the center of the platform, and stops at the center. At this point the platform
completes one rotation every 2.0 seconds. Given that the initial rotational inertia of the system is I1, what is
the rotational inertia I2 of the system after the child moves to the center? (0.80 I1)

207
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

4. Two copper disks (labeled “A” and “B”) have the same
radius but disk B is thicker with four times the mass of disk
A. They spin on frictionless axles. If disk A is rotating twice
as fast as disk B, which disk has more rotational kinetic
1. A heavy box is resting on the floor. You would energy?
like to push the box to tip it over on its side, using the (a) The faster rotating disk A
minimum force possible. Which of the force vectors in the (b) The thicker disk B
diagram shows the correct location and direction of the (c) Both disks have the same rotational kinetic energy
force? The forces have equal horizontal components. (d) It depends on the actual numerical values of the angular
Assume enough friction so that the box does not slide; speeds of the disks
instead it rotates about point P.

2. Which of the forces in the figure

5. On a horizontal floor, a rigid sphere rolls without slipping
produces the largest magnitude
and a rigid cube slides without rotating. Both objects have
torque about the rotation axis
the same mass M. At a certain instant, the points at the
indicated?
center of mass of the sphere and the cube have the same
(a) 1
(b) 2 speed v relative to the floor. Which one of the following
statements is necessarily true at that instant?
(c) 3
(a) The cube and the sphere have the same total kinetic
(d) 4
energy
(b) The cube has a smaller total kinetic energy than the
sphere
(c) The work required to stop the cube is greater than that
required to stop the sphere
(d) Which object has a larger total kinetic energy depends on
the actual numerical value of the mass M

6. The moment of inertia of a rigid cylinder

(a) does not depend on the radius of the cylinder
3. Which cases have a non-zero net torque acting on the rod (b) does not depend on the mass of the cylinder
about its center? All forces labeled F have the same (c) depends on the choice of rotation axis
magnitude. (d) depends on the angular acceleration of the cylinder
(a) (I) only.
(b) (II) only.
(c) (III) only.
(d) (I) and (II) only.

208
 8. Rank order the speeds of points A, B, C at the rim of the
wheel with respect to the road, largest first:
(a) vA = vB = vC
(b) vA > vB > vC
(c) vC > vA > vB
[Link] aluminum disk and an iron wheel (with spokes of (d) vC > vB > vA
negligible mass) have the same mass M and radius R.
They are spinning around their frictionless axles with the
same angular speed as shown. Which of them has more
rotational kinetic energy?
(a) The aluminum disk.
(b) The iron wheel.
(c) Both have the same rotational kinetic energy.
(d) It depends on the actual numerical value of the mass M

9. You apply a horizontal force, F, to the center of a rigid

wheel which is initially at rest on a horizontal floor. If the
wheel starts rolling without slipping, then:
(a) All of its kinetic energy is in rotational form
(b) The coefficient of static friction between the wheel and
the floor must be precisely equal to 1
(c) It will roll better on a frictionless floor
Questions 7-8. A rigid wheel of radius R rolls without (d) The coefficient of static friction between the wheel and
slipping on a horizontal road. The linear velocity of the the floor cannot be zero
center of the wheel with respect to the road is v and the
angular speed is ω.

7. Which one of the following statements is true about the 10. A high diver in midair pulls her legs inward toward
speed of the points at the rim of the wheel with respect to the her chest in order to rotate faster. Doing so changes
road? which of these quantities: her angular momentum L,
(a) It is larger for points at the bottom of the wheel than for her rotational inertia I, and her rotational kinetic
points at the top of it energy K rot ?
(b) It is smaller for points at the bottom of the wheel than for (a) L only
points at the top of it (b) I only
(c) It is the same for all points, with v = ω R (c) K rot only
(d) It is the same for all points, with v = 2 ωR (d) L and I only
(e) I and K rot only
(f) all three

209
FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS

FRQ 1. Shown below in a top view are six uniform rods that vary in mass (M) and length (L). The circles
represent a vertical axis around which the rods are going to be rotated in a horizontal plane and the arrows
represent the forces exerted to rotate the rods.

Rank these rods, from greatest to least, on the basis of their change in the magnitude of angular
momentum for the same time period.

Explain your reasoning.

210
FRQ 2. A merry-go-round of mass mmgr and radius Rmgr is rotating freely as shown. A child (mass mc) is
eager to enjoy a ride, so she steps onto the edge of the merry-go-round. After she gets on, she notices that the
angular velocity of the merry-go-round has decreased slightly.

mmgr
a. Determine the ratio of the final angular velocity to the initial angular velocity? f

0 mmgr mc

211
 FRQ 3. A simplified diagram of the orbit of the Earth around the Sun is
shown. In a clear, coherent, paragraph-length response, explain how the
rotational inertia of the Earth associated with its orbital motion around
the Sun changes as the Earth moves through its orbit. How are these
changes connected to changes in the Earth’s speed?

FRQ 4. The wheel in the figure is rolling to the right without slipping.

a. On the figures below draw the velocity vectors at the points labeled 1 through 5 for the
motion indicated: translational, rotation and rolling.

b. Rank in order, from fastest to lowest, the speeds of the points labeled 1 through 5. Explain your
reasoning.

212
FRQ 5a. The figure shows the angular position-time graph for an object moving in a circle. Draw the
corresponding angular velocity-time graph. Show all your calculations.

b. The figure shows the angular velocity-time graph for another object moving in a circle. Draw the
corresponding angular acceleration-time graph.

213
 FRQ 6. A weight is tied to a rope that is wrapped around a pulley. The pulley is initially
rotating counterclockwise and is pulling the weight up. The tension in the rope creates a
torque on the pulley that opposes this rotation. The weight slows down, stops
momentarily, and then moves back downward.

a. Graph of the angular velocity (ω) versus time for the period from the initial instant
shown until the weight comes back down to the same height. Take the initial angular
velocity as (+)

b. Graph the angular acceleration (α) versus time for the same time period.

c. A second setup now shows two pulleys with different radii (labeled a and b) attached to one another so
that they rotate together. Each pulley has a string wrapped around it with a weight hanging from it. The
pulleys are free to rotate about a horizontal axis through the center. The radius of the larger pulley is twice
the radius of the smaller one (b = 2a).

Write a coherent, paragraph length explanation of the direction of the angular

acceleration in terms of the torque.

214
 UNIT VIII
ELECTRICITY

HISTORY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE

The search for the atom began as a philosophical question. The natural philosophers of ancient Greece began
the search for the atom by asking such questions as: What is stuff composed of? What is the structure of
material objects? Is there a basic unit from which all objects are made? As early as 400 B.C., some Greek
philosophers proposed that matter is made of indivisible building blocks known as atomos. (Atomos in Greek
means indivisible.) To these early Greeks, matter could not be continuously broken down and divided
indefinitely. This indivisible building block of which all matter was composed became known as the atom.
From the 1600s to the present century, the search for the atom became an experimental pursuit. Several
scientists are notable; among them are Robert Boyle, John Dalton, J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, and
Neils Bohr.

The conclusions regarding atomic structure are:

All material objects are composed of atoms. There are different kinds of atoms known as elements;
these elements can combine to form compounds. Different compounds have distinctly different
properties. Material objects are composed of atoms and molecules of these elements and compounds,
thus providing different materials with different electrical properties.
An atom consists of a nucleus and a vast region of space outside the nucleus. Electrons are present
in the region of space outside the nucleus. They are negatively charged and weakly bound to the
atom. Electrons are often removed from and added to an atom by normal everyday occurrences.
The nucleus of the atom contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons. These protons
and neutrons are not removable by usual everyday methods. It would require some form of high-
energy nuclear occurrence to disturb the nucleus and subsequently dislodge its positively-charged
protons.

ELECTRIC CHARGE
Electric charge, like mass, is one of the basic properties of certain of the elementary particles of which all
matter is composed.
There are two kinds of electrical charges, positive (+) and negative (-).

Positively-Charged Negatively-Charged Uncharged

Possesses more Possesses more Equal numbers of
protons than electrons electrons than protons protons and electrons

An electrically neutral object is an object that has a balance of protons and electrons. In contrast, a charged
object has an imbalance of protons and electrons.

215
 CHARGE INTERACTIONS

Any charged object can exert an electric force upon other objects - both charged and uncharged objects.
Electric forces are forces-at-a-distance.

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

Case I. Case II.

Any charged object - whether positively-charged or negatively-charged - will have an attractive interaction
with a neutral object. Positively-charged objects and neutral objects attract each other; and negatively-
charged objects and neutral objects attract each other.

Charging objects by conduction (contact):

216
1. On two occasions, the following charge interactions between balloons A, B and C are observed. In each
case, it is known that balloon B is charged negatively. Based on these observations, what can you
conclusively confirm about the charge on balloon A and C for each situation:

2. Upon entering the room, you observe two balloons suspended from the ceiling. You notice that instead of
hanging straight down vertically, the balloons seems to be repelling each other. You can conclusively say ...
a. both balloons have a negative charge.
b. both balloons have a positive charge.
c. one balloon is charge positively and the other negatively.
d. both balloons are charged with the same type of charge.
Explain your answer.

3. Chris is investigating the charge on several objects and makes the following findings.
Object C Object D Object E Object F
attracts B repels C attracts D attracts A
repels F

He knows that object A is negatively charged and object B is electrically neutral. What can he conclude
about the charge on objects C, D, E, and F? Explain.

217
4. Balloons X , Y and Z are suspended from strings as shown at the right. Negatively-charged balloon X
attracts balloon Y and balloon Y attracts balloon Z.
Balloon Z _____. Circle all that apply.
a. may be positively-charged
b. may be negatively-charged
c. may be neutral
d. must be positively-charged
e. must be negatively-charged
f. must be neutral

5. The following charge interactions between balloons A, B and C are observed. It is known that balloon B is
charged negatively. Based on these observations, what can you conclusively confirm about the charge on
balloon A and C.

6. Your physics teacher has prepared the room for the class's entry by suspending
several inflated balloons from the ceiling. Upon entering the physics room, you
observe two balloons being drawn towards each otheras shown. The attraction of
these balloons for one anotheprovides evidence that ______.
aboth balloons are charged with the opposite type of charge
b. both balloons are charged - either with the same type or opposite type of charge
c. only one of the balloons is charged; the other is neutral
d. at least one of the balloons is charged; the other is either charged or neutral
Explain your reasoning.

218
CHARGE AS A QUANTITY
The unit of charge is the coulomb (C). The charge of the proton is +1.6 x10 -19 C, and the charge of the
electron is -1.6 x10-19 C

7. An object has - 1 C of charge. Calculate the number of electrons it contains.

COULOMB'S LAW
Electrical charges exert a force on other electrical charges. This electrostatic force is directly proportional to
the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of their distance of separation. Coulomb’s
Law describes the electrostatic force between two charged objects.

k q1q2
F Units: N k = 9x109 Nm2/C2
r2

F is the electrostatic force in Newtons (N). It is either attractive or repulsive; q is the magnitude of each
charge in Coulombs (C) and r is the distance of separation in meters (m)

Prefixes:
1 C (1 micro Coulomb)= 1 x10-6 C 1 nC (1 nano Coulomb) = 1x10-9 C

8. What is the magnitude and nature of the force on a charge of +4 nC that is 5 cm from a charge of +50 nC?

9. Two charges, one of +5 x10-7 C and the other of -2 x10-7 C attract each other with a force of 100 N. How
far apart are they? (3x10-3 m)

219
10. Two charged objects are separated by a distance of 0.9 m. One carries a charge of 18 μC and the force
between them is 2.7 N. What is the charge on the second object? (13.5 μC)

11. Determine the new force for each of the scenarios below:
a. Two charged objects have an attractive force of .080 N. If the distance separating the objects is
quadrupled, then what is the new force?

b. Two charged objects have a repulsive force of .080 N. If the distance separating the objects is halved, then
what is the new force?

c. Two charged objects have a repulsive force of .080 N. If the charge of one of the objects is doubled, and
the distance separating the objects is doubled, then what is the new force?

d. Two charged objects have a repulsive force of .080 N. If the charge of both of the objects is doubled and
the distance separating the objects is doubled, then what is the new force?

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY
- Find the interaction between the charges: is it attractive or repulsive?

- Draw a neat force diagram showing the direction of the forces

- Apply Coulomb's Law to find the electric forces between two charges. Do NOT include the sign of the
charges in the equation!

- Write down your answer indicating the magnitude of the force in Newtons and whether the force is
attractive or repulsive. If three forces are interacting, also indicate the direction of the net force.
220
12. A charge q1 of +1 C is placed halfway between a charge q2 of +5 C and a charge q3 of +3 C that are
20 cm apart. Find the resultant force on the +1 C charge. Draw a sketch.

a. What are the interactions of the + 1 μC charge?

b. Write down the data paying attention to the distances between the charges and the units!

c. Draw neatly labeled forces that represent the interactions mentioned above.

d. Calculate the forces.

e. Find the net force: magnitude and direction.

221
13. A +4 C charge lies 2 m to the left of a –5 C charge. A –6 C charge lies 4 m to its right. What is the
resultant force on the center charge (- 5 C)? Draw a sketch.

a. What are the interactions of the - 5 μC charge?

b. Write down the data paying attention to the distances between the charges and the units!

c. Draw neatly labeled forces that represent the interactions mentioned above.

d. Calculate the forces.

e. Find the net force: magnitude and direction.

222
14. Three charges are on a straight line as shown below. What is the resultant force on the - 5 μC charge?
(284.4 N, to the right)

q1 8 cm q2 13 cm q3
- 5 μC +30 μC +72 μC

15. Three charges are on a straight line as shown below. What is the resultant force on the + 72 μC charge?
(1076.8 N, to the right)

q1 8 cm q2 13 cm q3
- 5 μC +30 μC +72 μC

223
ELECTRIC CURRENT
An electric circuit is a closed path in which an electric current carries energy from a source (such as a
battery or generator), to a load (such as a motor or a lamp).

The direction of conventional current is always the same as the direction in which positive charges would
move (from the positive to the negative terminal of the battery) even if the actual current consists of a flow
of electrons.

A conductor is a substance through which charge can flow easily, and an insulator is one through which
charge can flow only with great difficulty.

If an amount of charge q passes a given point in a conductor in the time interval t, the current in the
conductor is
q
I UNITS: A (ampere), where 1A = 1 C/s
t

16. A wire carries a current of 1.5 A. How many electrons pass any point in the wire each second?

OHM’S LAW
For a current to exist in a conductor, there must be a potential difference between its ends, just as a
difference in height between source and outlet is necessary for a river current to exist.
In the case of a metallic conductor, the current is proportional to the applied potential difference.

V
This relationship is known as Ohm’s law and is expressed in the form: I
R
I is the current in amperes (A),
V is the voltage or potential difference in volts (V)
R is the resistance in ohms (Ω).

17. Find the current in a 200 Ω resistor when the potential difference across it is 40 V.

224
ELECTRIC POWER
The rate at which work is done (power) to maintain an electric current is given by the product of the current
I and the potential difference V:

P = VI Units: Watts (W)

18a. Combine Ohm’s law with the power equation to create two new equations:

b. Sketch qualitative curves of power versus current and power versus potential difference.

The electric energy transferred to a resistor in a time interval t (in seconds) is converted to thermal energy
(heat) then:
E = Pt Units: Joules (J)

19. A 6 V battery delivers 0.5 A of current to an electric motor connected across its terminals.
a. What is the power rating of the motor?

b. How much energy does the motor use in 5.0 min?

20. A 100 W light bulb is 20% efficient. That is, 20% of the electric energy is converted to light energy.
a. How much energy does the light bulb convert into light each minute it is in operation?

b. How much heat does the light bulb produce each minute?

225
RESISTIVITY
The resistance of a wire of uniform cross-sectional area is determined by:
o The kind of material
o The length l
R Units: ohms (Ω)
o The cross-sectional area A
o The temperature

Where ρ is the resistivity of the material in Ω.m, l is the length in m, and A is the cross-sectional area in m2.

21. A nichrome wire (ρ= 100x10 -8 Ω.m) has a length of 40 m at 20 C. What is its diameter if the total
resistance is 500 ? (3.19x10-4 m)

22. Four different resistors are created from the same piece of carbon. The length and the diameter of each
resistor are shown.

Rank the resistance of the four resistors.

Explain your reasoning.

226
23. Does a 60 W lightbulb have more or less resistance than a 100 W lightbulb? Explain your reasoning.

24. A 75 W light bulb is used in a lamp connected to a 120 V power source. If the light bulb is 75% efficient,
how much energy per minute is given of as light and as heat? (3375 J and 1125 J)

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
The following symbols are used in electric circuits:

A V

Resistor Ammeter Voltmeter Light Bulb Battery

An ammeter measures current and it must be connected so that all of the

electrons flow through it.

This connection is called a series connection.

A voltmeter measures the potential difference across a circuit element.

One voltmeter terminal is connected to one side of the element. The other
terminal is connected to the other side.

This connection is called a parallel connection.

227
DC circuit with meters:

25. Draw a circuit diagram to include a 60-V battery, an ammeter, a voltmeter and a resistance of 12.5 .
Indicate the ammeter reading and the voltmeter reading.

KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
Kirchhoff developed two laws related to circuits.

RULE 1. Conservation of Charge

The sum of the currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that junction.

Iin I out

A junction refers to any point in the circuit where two or three wires come
together.

RULE 2. Conservation of Energy

The sum of the potential differences around any closed current loop is equal to
the sum of all the IR drops around that loop.

V IR

228
RESISTORS IN SERIES

- In a series circuit, the current is the same at all points along the wire.

IT = I1 = I2 = I3

- An equivalent resistance is the resistance of a single resistor that could replace

all the resistors in a circuit. The single resistor would have the same current
through it as the resistors it replaced.

RE= R1 + R2 + R3

- In a series circuit, the sum of the voltage drops equals the voltage drop across
the entire circuit.

VT = V1 + V2 + V3

26. A 5 resistor and a 10 resistor are connected in series and placed across a 45 V potential difference.
Label the circuit below:

a. What is the equivalent resistance of the circuit?

b. What is the current through the circuit?

c. What is the voltage drop across each resistor?

d. What is the total voltage of the circuit?

229
27. A 10 resistor, a 15 resistor and a 5 resistor are connected in series and placed across a 90 V
potential difference. Label the circuit below:

a. What is the equivalent resistance of the circuit?

b. What is the current through the circuit?

c. What is the voltage drop across each resistor?

28. All of the bulbs in the circuits below are identical, as are all of the batteries.
Rank the magnitude of the potential difference between points M and N.

Explain your reasoning.

230
PARALLEL CIRCUITS

- In a parallel circuit, each resistor provides a new path for electrons to flow. The
total current is the sum of the currents through each resistor.

IT = I1 + I2 + I3

- The equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit decreases as each new resistor is

added.
1 1 1 1
RE R1 R2 R3

- The voltage drop across each branch is equal to the voltage of the source.

VT = V1 = V2 = V3

29. A 60 resistor, a 30 resistor and a 20 resistor are connected in parallel across a 90-V potential
difference. Label the circuit below.

a. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

b. Find the current in the entire circuit.

c. Find the current through each branch of the circuit.

231
30. A 120 resistor, a 60 resistor and a 40 resistor are connected in parallel and placed across a 120-V
potential difference. Label the circuit below.

a. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit. (20 )

b. Find the current in the entire circuit. (6 A)

c. Find the current through each branch of the circuit. (1 A, 2 A, 3 A)

31. All of the bulbs in the circuits below are identical, as are all of the batteries.
Rank the current measured by the ammeter.

Explain your reasoning.

232
32. All of the bulbs in the circuits below are identical, as are all of the batteries.

Rank the magnitude of the potential difference between points M and N.

Explain your reasoning.

33. A battery is connected to a circuit with two bulbs and a switch as shown.

When the switch is closed, does the current in bulb A:

_____increase,_____decrease, or _____remain the same? Explain your reasoning.

233
 34. For the circuit shown, identify, from choices (i)–(iv), how each change
described below will affect the current in the battery.

This change will:

(a) increase the current in the battery.
(b) decrease the current in the battery.
(c) have no effect on the current in the battery.
(d) have an effect on the current in the battery that cannot be determined.

a. The resistance in R1 is reduced. _____ Explain your reasoning.

b. The resistance in R2 is reduced. ______ Explain your reasoning.

c. The resistance in R1 and R2 are increased by the same amount. ______ Explain your reasoning.

d. The resistance in R1 is reduced, and in R2 it is increased. ______ Explain your reasoning.

35. Five identical resistors and a switch are connected to a battery as

shown. When the switch closes, will the current in resistor A (a) increase,
(b) decrease, or (c) remain the same? _____

Explain your reasoning.

234
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS
The current in a complex circuit can be found by first calculating the effective resistance of the parallel
circuits. Then the effective resistance of the parallel circuits and all the series resistances can be combined
into one total effective resistance and the total current can be determined.

36. A 30 Ω and a 20 Ω resistor are connected in parallel. This arrangement is connected in series with an 8 Ω
resistor. The voltage in the circuit is 60 V. Label the circuit below:

a. Find the equivalent resistance of the parallel portion of the circuit.

b. What is the equivalent resistance of the entire circuit?

c. What is the current in the entire circuit?

d. What is the voltage drop across the 8 resistor?

e. What is the voltage drop across the parallel portion of the circuit?

f. What is the current in each branch of the parallel portion of the circuit?

235
37. A hair dryer with a resistance of 12 Ω and a lamp with a resistance of 125 Ω are connected in parallel to a
125 V source through a 1.5 Ω resistor in series. Draw the circuit.

a. Find the equivalent resistance (12.4 Ω)

b. Find the total current (10 A)

c. Find the voltage through the 1.5 Ω (15. V)

d. Find the current through the lamp and through the hair dryer. (0.84 A, 9.16 A)

236
38. Rank the brightness of the bulbs in each exercise. Explain your reasoning.
a.

b.

c.

39. For circuits 1 and 2 rank the brightness:

a. When the switch is closed.
b. When switch is opened. Explain your reasoning.

1. a.

b.

237
2. a.

b.

40. In the circuit the potential difference, V, across the circuit is 12 V. The values of the four resistors are as
follows: R1 = 2 Ω, R2 = 3 Ω, R3 = 4 Ω and R4 = 6 Ω. Determine:

a. The equivalent resistance of the circuit (3.33 Ω)

b. The total current of the circuit (3.6 A)

c. The current through each resistor (2.4 A, 2.4 A, 1.2 A, 1.2 A)

d. The potential difference across each resistor (4.8 V, 7.2 V, 4.8 V, 7.2 V)

e. The power dissipated by each resistor (11.5 W, 17.3 W, 5.8 W, 8.6 W)

238
41. In the circuit the potential difference, V, across the circuit is 12 V. The values of the four resistors are as
follows: R1 = 2 Ω, R2 = 3 Ω, R3 = 4 Ω and R4 = 6 Ω
Determine:
a. The equivalent resistance of the circuit (3.33 Ω)

b. The total current of the circuit (3.6 A)

c. The potential difference across each resistor (7.2 V, 4.8 V, 4.8 V, 4.8 V)

d. The current through each resistor (3.6 A, 1.6 A, 1.2 A, 0.8 A)

e. The power dissipated by each resistor (25.9 W, 7.7 W, 5.8 W, 3.8 W)

239
42. For the following circuit calculate:

85.0 35.0 115

R1 R2 V
R3 6.00 V
R4

25.0
a. The total resistance of the circuit (45.4 Ω )

b. The total current in the circuit, (0.29 A)

c. The power developed in the circuit. (3.8 W)

d. The voltage of the battery (13.2 V)

240
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 5. Which graph depicts an ohmic circuit element?

1. Two charged particles attract each other with a force of

magnitude F acting on each. If the charge of one is doubled
and the distance separating the particles is also doubled, the
force exerted on each of the two particles has magnitude
(a) F /2
(b) F /4
(c) F
(d) 2 F
(e) 4 F

2. A charged insulator and an uncharged metal object near

one another
(a) exert no electric force on one another
(b) repel one another electrically
(c) attract one another electrically
(d) attract or repel, depending on whether the charge is
positive or negative

3. Which of these statements comparing electric and

gravitational forces is correct?
(a) The direction of the electric force exerted by one point
particle on another is always the same as the direction of the
gravitational force exerted by that particle on the other 6. Given the circuit above, what can you say about the
(b) The electric and gravitational forces exerted by two current flowing into points A, B, C, and D?
particles on one another are inversely proportional to the (a) IA > IB > IC > ID
separation of the particles (b) IA = ID > IB = IC
(c) The electric force exerted by one planet on another is (c) IA < IB < IC < ID
typically stronger than the gravitational force exerted by that (d) IA = IB = IC = ID
same planet on the other
(d) none of the above

4. How does the resistance of a piece of conducting wire

change if both its length and diameter are doubled?
(a) Remains the same
(b) 2 times as much
(c) 4 times as much
(d) 1/2 as much
(e) 1/4 as much

241
 7. 10. How much work is done by a 12.0-V ideal battery that
Three identical conducting spheres initially have the charges supplies a 5.00-A current for 30.0 minutes?
shown above. If they are moved together in a line and (a) 1800 J
brought into contact, which of the following would be the (b) 1.08 x 105 J
resulting charge distribution in the new arrangement (c) 4320 J
arrangement? (d) 750 J
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

11. A copper wire is an Ohmic resistor. The resistance is

given by the slope of the in in which of the following
graphs?

8. A circuit consists of three resistors connected in parallel

across a potential V. If R1 > R2 > R3, which of the following
is a true statement about the current flowing through each
resistor?
(a) I1 > I2 > I3
(b) I1 = I2 = I3
(c) I1 < I2 < I3
(d) Cannot be determined

12. You are designing the wiring for your new house. You
would like for a single switch to turn on three floodlights.
To get the greatest illumination, you should wire the lights in
the circuit in
(a) series.
9. A circuit consists of three resistors connected in series (b) parallel.
across a potential V. If R1 > R2 > R3, which of the following (c) it won't matter since the bulbs are a fixed wattage.
is a true statement about the current flowing through each
resistor?
(a) I1 > I2 > I3
(b) I1 = I2 = I3
(c) I1 < I2 < I3
(d) Cannot be determined

242
FREE- RESPONSE QUESTIONS

FRQ 1. With two identical lightbulbs and two identical batteries, clearly explain how and why you would
arrange the bulbs and batteries in a circuit to get the maximum possible total power to the lightbulbs. (Ignore
internal resistance of batteries.)

FRQ 2. A battery that produces a potential difference V is connected to a 5 W lightbulb. Later, the 5 W
lightbulb is replaced by a 10 W lightbulb.
a. In which case does the battery supply more current? Explain your answer.

b. Which lightbulb has the greatest resistance? Explain your answer.

243
 FRQ 3. In the circuit shown, A, B. C, and D are
identical light bulbs. Assume that the battery maintains a
constant potential difference between its terminals (i.e.,
the internal resistance of the battery is assumed to be
negligible) and the resistance of each light bulb remains
constant.

a. Draw a diagram of the circuit below. Label the resistors A, B, C, and D to refer to the corresponding light
bulbs.

b. List the bulbs in order of brightness, from brightest to least bright. If any two or more bulbs have the same
brightness, state which ones. Justify your answer.

c. Bulb D is then removed from its socket.

i. Describe the change in the brightness, if any, of bulb A when bulb D is removed from its socket. Justify
your answer.

ii. Describe the change in the brightness, if any, of bulb B when bulb D is removed from its socket. Justify
your answer.

244
 FRQ 4. The circuit above contains a battery with negligible internal
resistance, a closed switch S, and three resistors, each with a resistance of
R or 2R.

(a) Rank the currents in the three resistors from greatest to least, with number 1 being greatest. If two
resistors have the same current, give them the same ranking. Explain your answer.

____ IA ____ IB ____ IC

b. Rank the voltages across the three resistors from greatest to least, with number 1 being greatest. If two
resistors have the same voltage across them, give them the same ranking. Explain your answer.

____ VA ____ VB ___ VC

For parts (c) and (d) use ε = 12 V and R = 200 Ω.

c. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit. (533 Ω)

d. Calculate the current in resistor RC . (0.015 A)

245
FRQ 5. Two small spheres, each of mass m and positive charge q, hang from light threads of lengths l. Each
thread makes an angle with the vertical as shown above.

a. Draw and label all forces on sphere I.

b. Using the conditions of equilibrium, write two equations that could, together, be solved for q and the
tension T in the right–hand string.

246
 UNIT IX
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is periodic motion that occurs when the restoring force on an object
displaced from an equilibrium position is proportional to the displacement and opposite in direction.

The amplitude A of a body undergoing SHM is the maximum value of its displacement on either side of the
equilibrium position.

PERIOD OF A MASS-SPRING SYSTEM

The period T of an object of mass m attached to a spring of force constant k

m
T 2 UNITS: s
k

1. A box is placed on a spring scale whose spring constant is 362 N/m. If the scale’s platform oscillates with
a frequency of 1.20 Hz, what is the mass of the box?

2. A block rests on a frictionless surface and is attached to the end of a spring. The other end of the spring is
attached to a wall. Four block–spring systems are considered. The springs are stretched to the right by the
distances shown in the figures and then released from rest. The blocks oscillate back and forth. The mass and
force constant of the spring are given for each case.

Rank the frequency of the oscillatory motion of the block.

Explain your reasoning.

247
THE SIMPLE PENDULUM
A simple pendulum has its entire mass concentrated at the end of a string. It undergoes SHM provided that
the arc through which it travels is only a few degrees. The period of a simple pendulum of length L is given
by:
L
T 2 where g is the acceleration due to gravity UNITS: s
g

3. The simple pendulum shown of a mass M attached to a massless string of length L. If the mass is pulled to
one side a small distance and released, it will swing back and forth.

Rank the oscillation frequency of the masses.

Explain your reasoning.

4. You are conducting an experiment to measure the acceleration due to gravity gu at an unknown location.
In the measurement apparatus, a simple pendulum swings past a photogate located at the pendulum's lowest
point, which records the time t10 for the pendulum to undergo 10 full oscillations. The pendulum consists of
a sphere of mass m at the end of a string and has a length l. The data table is shown below.

a. For each pendulum, calculate the period T and the square of the period. Use a reasonable number of
significant figures. Enter these results in the table below.

(cm) t10 (s) T (s) T2 (s2)

12 7.62

18 8.89

21 10.09
32 12.08

248
b. On the axes below, plot the square of the period versus the length of the pendulum. Draw a best-fit straight
line for this data.

c. Assuming that each pendulum undergoes small amplitude oscillations, from your fit determine the
experimental value gexp of the acceleration due to gravity at this unknown location. (8.77 m/s2)

d. If the measurement apparatus allows a determination of gu that is accurate to within 4%, is your
experimental value in agreement with the value 9.80 m/s2 ? Justify your answer. (11.7%)

e. Someone informs you that the experimental apparatus is in fact near Earth's surface, but that the
experiment has been conducted inside an elevator with a constant acceleration a. Assuming that your
experimental value g is exact, determine the magnitude and direction of the elevator's acceleration.
(–1.03 m/s2 (down))

249
5. The diagram to the right shows a block attached to a Hookean
spring on a frictionless surface. The block experiences no net force
when it is at position B. When the block is to the left of point B the
spring pushes it to the right. When the block is to the right of point
B, the spring pulls it to the left.
The mass is pulled to the left from point B to point A and released. The block then oscillates between
positions A and C. Consider point B to be zero position and right of B positive.

a. On the grid below, sketch a graph that you think reflects how the restoring force applied to the block by
the spring changes as a function of time. Start your sketch at time = 0 which represents the block as it passes
point B moving to the right just after the block is released.
b. Having completed the sketch of force vs. time, sketch the acceleration vs. time, position vs. time, and
velocity vs. time.

B C B A B C B A B C B A B C B A B
force

time
acceleration

time
position

time
velocity

time

B C B A B C B A B C B A B C B A B

250
6. The diagram to the right shows a block attached to a Hookean spring. The block hangs at rest
at position B. The block is raised to A and released. The lowest position it reaches is C. (During
the oscillations, the spring is only being stretched, never compressed.)
The block then oscillates between positions A and C. Consider point B to be zero position, above
B positive and below B negative.

a. Sketch a force diagram for the block at positions A, B, C, B, and A as it moves through a
complete oscillation. Your arrow sizes should reflect which force is the largest.

A B C B A

b. On the grid below, sketch a graph that you think reflects how the net force acting on the
block changes as a function of time. Start your sketch at time = 0 which represents when
the block was released at Point A.

c. Having completed the sketch of force vs. time, sketch the acceleration vs. time, position vs. time, and
velocity vs. time

251
7. The diagram to the right shows a 0.100 kg block
attached to a Hookean spring. The block experiences no
net force when it is at position C. When the block is to
the left of point C the spring pulls it to the right. When the
block is to the right of point C, the spring pushes it to the
left. The mass is pulled to the left from point C to point A
and released. The block then oscillates between positions
A and E. Assume that the system consists of the block, spring, and the horizontal surface on which the spring
oscillates.

1. When there is no friction between the block and the surface, the force required to hold the block at rest at
position A is 5.00 N. Calculate the spring constant for the spring.(50 N/m)

2. Calculate the elastic potential energy at the following positions:

a. Position A (0.250 J)

b. Position B (0.625 J)

c. Position C (0)

d. Position D (0.625 J)

e. Position E (0.250 J)

3. Calculate the kinetic energy of the system at each of the following positions:
a. Position A (0)

b. Position B (0.1875)

c. Position C (0.250 J)

d. Position D (0.1875 J)
252
e. Position E (0)

8. A 50-g mass vibrates in SHM at the end of a spring with spring constant 0.68 N/m. The amplitude of the
motion is 12 cm, and the period is 1.70 s. Find:
a. The frequency, (0.588 Hz)

b. The maximum speed of the mass, (0.44 m/s)

c. The maximum acceleration of the mass, (-1.6 m/s2)

d. The speed when the displacement is 6.0 cm, and (0.38 m/s)

e. The acceleration when x = 6.0 cm (-0.816 m/s2)

253
9. A 2.0 kg block is attached to a spring. A force of 20 N stretches the spring to a displacement of 50 cm.
Find:
a. The spring constant (40 N/m)

b. The total energy. (5 J)

c. The speed of the block at the equilibrium position. (2.2 m/s)

d. The speed of the block at x = 30 cm. (1.8 m/s)

e. The magnitude of the acceleration at x = 50 cm. (10 m/s2)

f. The net force at x = 25 cm. (- 10 N)

g. The position where the kinetic energy is equal to the potential energy. (0.35 m)

254
GRAPHS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Consider an object moving in a horizontal circle f radius A at constant angular

velocity ω as shown on the diagram. At any given point I n time, the x-position of
the object can be described by x A cos and y Asin

Therefore: x A cos t A cos(2 ft )

This can be represented by either a cosine or a sine curve. If the motion starts at maximum amplitude then
use the cosine curve. If the motion starts at x = 0 then use the sine curve.

10. A loudspeaker has a movable diaphragm (the cone) that vibrates back and forth to produce sound waves.
The displacement of a loudspeaker cone playing a sinusoidal test tone is graphed in the figure.
a. Find the amplitude of the motion. (0.015 m)

b. Find the period and frequency of the motion.

d. Write the equation for x(t)

255
11. A 20 kg box on a horizontal frictionless surface is moving to the right at a speed of 4.0 m/s. The box hits
and remains attached to one end of a spring of negligible mass whose other end is attached to a wall. As a
result, the spring compresses a maximum distance of 0.50 m, and the box then oscillates back and forth.

a. The spring does work on the box from the moment the box first hits the spring to the moment the spring
first reaches its maximum compression. Indicate whether the work done by the spring is positive, negative,
or zero.

_____Positive _____Negative _____Zero

Justify your answer.

ii. Calculate the magnitude of the work described in part i. (160 J)

b. Calculate the spring constant of the spring. (1280 N/m)

c. Calculate the magnitude of the maximum acceleration of the box. (32 m/s2)

d. Calculate the frequency of the oscillation of the box. (1.27 Hz)

256
e. Let x = 0 be the point where the box makes contact with the spring, with positive x directed toward the
right.

i. On the axes below, sketch the kinetic energy K of the oscillating box as a function of position x for the
range x = -0.50m to x = +0.50m.

ii. On the axes below, sketch the acceleration a of the oscillating box as a function of position x for the range
x = -0.50m to x = +0.50m.

257
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 6-15.
See the graph of v x ( t ) for an object in SHM.
Questions 1–4. An object is suspended vertically from an
ideal spring. The spring is initially in its relaxed position.
The object is then released and oscillates about the
equilibrium position.
Answer choices
(a) The spring is relaxed Answer choices:
(b) The object is at the equilibrium point (a) 1 s, 2 s, 3 s
(c) The spring is at its maximum extension (b) 5 s, 6 s, 7 s
(d) The spring is somewhere between the equilibrium point (c) 0 s, 1 s, 7 s, 8 s
and maximum extension (d) 3 s, 4 s, 5 s
(e) 0 s, 4 s, 8 s
1. The acceleration is greatest in magnitude and is directed (f ) 2 s, 6 s
upward when: (g) 3 s, 5 s
(h) 1 s, 3 s
(i) 5 s, 7 s
( j) 3 s, 7 s
(k) 1 s, 5 s
2. The speed of the object is greatest when: 6. When is the kinetic energy maximum?

7. When is the kinetic energy zero?

8. When is the potential energy maximum?

3. The acceleration of the object is zero when:

9. When is the potential energy minimum?

10. When is the object at the equilibrium point?

4. The acceleration is greatest in magnitude and is directed
downward when:
11. When does the acceleration have its maximum
magnitude?

12. Which answer specifies times when the net force is in

5. Two simple pendulums, A and B, have the same length, the + x -direction?
but the mass of A is twice the mass of B. Their vibrational
amplitudes are equal. Their periods are TA and TB and their
energies are EA and EB . Choose the correct statement. 13. Which answer specifies times when the object is on the
(a) TA = TB and EA > EB −x-side of the equilibrium point ( x < 0)?
(b) TA >TB and EA > EB
(c) TA > TB and EA < EB
(d) TA = TB and EA < EB 14. Which answer specifies times when the object is moving
away from the equilibrium point?

15. Which answer specifies times when the potential energy

is decreasing?

258
16. A pendulum of length L has a period T. What would be 21. A mass on a spring has amplitude A and period T.
the period if the length were increased to 4L? What is the total distance traveled by the mass after a time
(a) 1/2 T interval T?
(b) 2 T (a) zero
(c) 4 T (b) A/2
(d) 16 T (c) A
(d) 2A
(e) 4A

17. A grandfather clock is running too fast. To fix it, should

the pendulum be lengthened or shortened?
(a) lengthened
(b) shortened
(c) need to know the period 22. A mass on a spring has amplitude A and period T. At
what point in the motion are v = 0 and a = 0 simultaneously?
(a) x = A
(b) x > 0 but x < A
(c) x = 0
18. A mass on a vertical spring has a period of oscillation of (d) x < 0
one second on earth. On Mars, the mass-spring system will (e) none of the above
have a period of oscillation
(a) greater than one second
(b) equal to one second
(c) less than one second

23. A mass attached to a spring is pulled back 5 cm and

released; the resulting motion has frequency f. If the spring
constant is doubled, the new frequency is
19. A mass on a spring as shown has amplitude A. If A is (a) 4f
doubled, the maximum velocity is (b) 2f
(a) doubled.
(c) 2f
(b) quadrupled.
(c) the same. (d) f/ 2
(d) halved. (e) f/2
(e) 1/4 as much

20. A mass on a spring has amplitude A. If A is doubled, the

total energy of the system is:
(a) doubled.
(b) quadrupled.
(c) the same.
(d) halved.
(e) 1/4 as much

259
FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS

FRQ 1. Two equal masses are attached to separate identical springs next to one another. One mass is pulled
so its spring stretches 40 cm and the other is pulled so its spring stretches only 20 cm. The masses are
released simultaneously. Which mass reaches the equilibrium point first? Explain your answer.

FRQ 2. A mass is oscillating up and down at the end of a spring. Three students are discussing
the acceleration of the mass:

Sophia: “I think the acceleration of the mass will be largest when it is at the end of its
oscillations turning around. That’s where the spring is stretched the most.”
Steve: “No, I don’t see how that can be. Its velocity is zero at that point, so its acceleration
has to be zero also.”
Joe: “I disagree. The acceleration is largest when the mass is halfway between the middle
and the end because that is where its speed is changing the most.”

With which, if any, of these students do you agree?

Sophia _____ Steve _____ Joe _____ None of them_____ Explain your reasoning.

260
 FRQ 3. A cart attached to a spring is displaced from equilibrium and then
released. There is no friction. A graph of velocity as a function of time for the cart
is shown. The arrows and signs above the cart indicate the positive and negative
directions for the position of the cart.

a. What is the period of the motion for this cart?

Explain your reasoning

b. What is the frequency of the motion for this cart?

Explain your reasoning.

c. In which direction was the cart displaced from equilibrium before it was released?
Explain your reasoning.

261
 FRQ 4. A frictionless cart of mass m is attached to a spring with
spring constant k. When the cart is displaced from its rest position and
released, it oscillates with a period T.
The graph of the position of this cart as a function of time is labeled
Experiment A.

Graphs for two other experiments that use different masses are shown below this. The same spring is used in
all three experiments.

a. Compared to Experiment A, in Experiment B the

cart has
(i) twice as much mass.
(ii) four times as much mass.
(iii) one-half the mass.
(iv) one-fourth the mass.
(v) the same mass.
Explain your reasoning.

b. Compared to Experiment A, in Experiment C the

cart has
(i) twice as much mass.
(ii) four times as much mass.
(iii) one-half the mass.
(iv) one-fourth the mass.
(v) the same mass.
Explain your reasoning.

c. Suppose that in a fourth experiment (Experiment D), the mass used in Experiment A was doubled and the
spring was replaced with a spring with spring constant 2k. The period in Experiment D would be
(i) the same as the period in Experiment A.
(ii) double the period in Experiment A.
(iii) four times the period in Experiment A.
(iv) one-half the period in Experiment A.
(v) one-fourth the period in Experiment A.
Explain your reasoning.

262
 FRQ 5. A cart attached to a spring is displaced from equilibrium and then
released. A graph of displacement as a function of time for the cart is shown.
There is no friction. Points are labeled A–H in the graph.

For each question below, choose from the

labeled points above or state “none” for the
mass-spring-earth system.

a. At which point or points are the spring

potential energy and the cart’s kinetic energy
both at their maximum values? __________
Explain your reasoning.

b. At which point or points is the kinetic energy equal to zero? ____________ Explain your reasoning.

c. At which point or points is the total energy at its maximum value? _________ Explain your reasoning.

d. At which point or points is the spring potential energy negative? ________ Explain your reasoning.

e. At which point or points is the kinetic energy positive? __________ Explain your reasoning.

f. At which point or points is the kinetic energy at its maximum value and the spring potential energy at its
minimum value? ________Explain your reasoning.

g. At which point or points is the kinetic energy at its minimum value and the spring potential energy at its
maximum value? ________ Explain your reasoning.

263
 UNIT X
WAVES AND SOUND

A wave is, in general, a disturbance that moves through a medium. (An exception is an electromagnetic
wave, which can travel through a vacuum. Examples are light and radio waves.) A wave carries energy, but
there is no transport of matter. In a periodic wave, pulses of the same kind follow one another in regular
succession.

In a transverse wave, the particles of the medium move back and forth perpendicular to the direction of the
wave. Waves that travel down a stretched string when one end is shaken are transverse.

In a longitudinal wave, the particles of the medium move back and forth in the same direction as the wave.
Waves that travel down a coil spring when one end is pulled out and released are longitudinal. Sound waves
are also longitudinal.

Water waves are a combination of longitudinal and transverse waves.

WAVE PROPERTIES

The period T of a wave is the time required for one complete wave to pass a given point. The frequency f is
the number of waves that pass that point per second.

The amplitude A of a wave is the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium through which the
wave passes on either side of their equilibrium positions. In a transverse wave, the amplitude is half the
distance between the top of a crest and the bottom of a trough.

The wavelength λ (lambda) of a periodic wave is the distance between adjacent wave crests. Frequency and
wavelength are related to wave velocity by:

v f and v UNITS: m/s

T

The speed of a mechanical wave is constant in a given medium. The amplitude of a wave does not affect its
wavelength, frequency or velocity.

264
When a wave passes into a new medium, its speed changes. The wave must have the same frequency in the
new medium as in the old medium, thus, the wavelength adjusts.

1. Water waves in a small tank are 6.0 cm long. They pass a given point at the rate of 4.8 waves per second.
a. What is the speed of the water waves?

b. What is the period of the waves?

2. Microwaves are electromagnetic waves that travel through space at a speed of 3x10 8 m/s. Most
microwave ovens operate at a frequency of 2450 MHz.
a. What is the period of these microwaves?

b. How long is the wavelength of these microwaves?

265
3. The drawings represent snapshots taken of waves traveling to the right along strings. The grids shown in
the background are identical. The waves all have the same speed, but their amplitudes vary.

Rank the wavelength of the waves.

Explain your reasoning.

4. The drawings represent snapshots taken of waves traveling to the right along strings. The grids shown in
the background are identical. The waves all have the same speed, but their amplitudes and wavelengths vary.

Rank the frequency of the waves.

Explain your reasoning.

266
5. A transverse wave is shown. It has a frequency of 12 Hz. (12 cm, 28cm, 0.0833 s, 3.36 m/s)

Find the amplitude: ______________, wavelength: ______________

Period:

Speed of the wave:

6. A longitudinal wave is shown. It has a frequency of 8 Hz. (12 cm, 28cm, 0.125 s, 2.24 m/s)

Find the amplitude: ______________, wavelength: ______________

Period:

Speed of the wave:

267
WAVES ON A STRING

The velocity of a wave depends on the properties of the medium through which it travels. For a transverse
wave on a string, the velocity is given by the following equation:

FT
v Units: m/s
m/L

FT is tension in the string and m/L is the mass per unit length of the string (linear density).

This equation shows that when the tension is greater, we expect the speed to be greater since each segment of
cord is in tighter contact with its neighbor. Also, the greater the mass per unit length, the more inertia the
cord has and the more slowly the wave would be expected to propagate.

7. A metal wire of mass 500.0-g and length 50.0-cm is under a tension of 80 N. What is the speed of a
transverse wave in the wire?

BOUNDARY BEHAVIOR
As a wave travels through a medium, it will often reach the end of the medium and encounter an obstacle or
perhaps another medium through which it could travel. The behavior of a wave upon reaching the end of a
medium is referred to as boundary behavior.

REFLECTION

When a pulse (or wave) is generated in a spring it soon arrives

at the other end of the spring. If that end is held in place, the
total pulse reflects from the end and travels back toward the
source. The reflected pulse is always inverted relative to the
incident pulse.

In an ideal medium, the other properties of the pulse (amplitude, length, and speed) are unaffected by
reflection. These properties of the reflected pulse are identical to those of the incident pulse.

When a wave train is generated in the spring, the crests of the incident wave are reflected as troughs while
the troughs of the incident wave are reflected as crests
268
 8. Reflection/Transmission
1.
a. In the box below, draw the pulse as it b. Draw the pulse as it returns
returns after reflecting from a fixed end. after reflecting from a free end.

2.

a. Draw the pulse as it returns after b. Draw the pulse as it returns

reflecting from a fixed end. after reflecting from a free end.

3. The diagram to the right shows a pulse traveling from a

“light” string to a “heavy” string. In the box below, P
draw the reflected and transmitted pulses after the
original pulse has reached point P.

4. The diagram to the right shows a pulse traveling from a P

“heavy” string to a “light” string. Draw the reflected and
transmitted pulses after the original pulse has reached point P.

5. Below is a pulse in a light rope approaching a heavy rope. Sketch the two rope system just after the pulse hits the
wall.
wall
wall

6. To the right is a two-rope system soon after

a pulse arrived at the center.

a) If the right rope is the heavy rope, what did the system look like just after the system was shaken? In other words,
show with a sketch which end was shaken and if the shake was up or down.

b) If the left rope is the heavy rope, what did the system look like just after the system was shaken?

269
9. On the lines below draw the pulses as they would appear after they have completed their reflection from the end.
Slanted lines, (//), following the barrier line represent a fixed end. Otherwise the barrier is a “free end.” Use the right
half of the grid to show the reflected pulse, using the right edge as the boundary. Make your drawing at the time the
leading point of the pulse reflects to the 7th box from the left. (Where the * is on the first diagram.)

INTERFERENCE
Interference: When two or more waves meet, their displacements add. This process is called superposition.
The effect of two or more waves traveling through a medium is called interference. Waves can produce
constructive or destructive interference.

Constructive Interference occurs when two waves combine to produce a wave of greater amplitude.
Destructive Interference occurs when two waves combine to produce a wave with smaller amplitude than
either the original amplitudes.

After two waves pass through one another, they return to their original shapes.
270
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

To determine the resultant wave we can use the Principle of Superposition:

“When two waves interfere, the resulting displacement of the medium at any location is the algebraic sum of
the displacements of the individual waves at that same location.”

10. To determine the precise shape of the medium at a given instant in time, the principle of superposition
must be applied to several locations along the medium. In this example several locations have been labeled.
Use the principle of superposition for each location and mark the resultant amplitude with a dot. Neatly
connect the dots to find the resultant waveform.

271
11. The following diagrams show pulses A and B at time = 0 as they head toward each other. Each pulse
travels at a constant speed of 2 squares per second on a string which is 16 squares long. At t = 1 s, 2 s, 3 s,
and 4 s, show the position of pulse A in red and pulse B in blue. Using the principle of superposition, show
the resultant displacement of the string in green.

272
12. The following diagrams show pulses A and B at time = 0 as they head toward each other at the same
constant speed of 1 square per second. The string is 16 squares long. At t = 3 s, 4 s, 5 s, and 6 s, show the
position of pulse A in red and pulse B in blue. Using the principle of superposition, show the resultant
displacement of the string in green.

273
SOUND WAVES
Sound is a longitudinal wave produced by a vibration and which travels away from the source through
solids, liquids or gases, but not through a vacuum. The speed of sound depends on the medium. As a result,
sound waves generally travel faster through solids than through gases.

Pitch usually refers to the frequency of a sound wave and is measured in Hz. The range of human hearing
(audible range) is from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Above 20,000 Hz waves are ultrasonic and below 20 Hz waves
are infrasonic.

DOPPLER EFFECT
When a source of sound waves and a listener approach one another, the pitch of the sound is increased as
compared to the frequency heard if they remain at rest. If the source and the listener recede from one another,
the frequency is decreased.

SOURCES OF SOUNDS: MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

STRING INSTRUMENTS
The sounds produced by vibrating strings are not very loud. Many stringed instruments make use of a
sounding board or box, sometimes called a resonator, to amplify the sounds produced. The strings on a piano
are attached to a sounding board while for guitar strings a sound box is used. When the string is plucked and
begins to vibrate, the sounding board or box begins to vibrate as well. Since the board or box has a greater
area in contact with the air, it tends to amplify the sounds.

STANDING WAVES IN STRINGS

At certain frequencies standing waves can be produced in which the waves seem to be standing still rather
than traveling. This means that the string is vibrating as a whole. This is called resonance and the
frequencies at which standing waves occur are called resonant frequencies or harmonics.

The points of destructive interference (no vibration) are called nodes (N), and points of constructive
interference (maximum amplitude of vibration) are called antinodes (A).

The distance between two anti-nodes is only ½ λ because it is the distance from a peak to a trough in one of
the waves forming the standing wave. It is the same as the distance between two adjacent nodes.

The lowest possible frequency that can produce a standing wave in a string fixed at both ends is called the
first harmonic. This frequency is also referred to as the fundamental frequency or first mode of vibration.
The next possible frequency is the second harmonic or second mode of vibration. The frequencies of the
harmonics are consecutive whole number multiples of the first harmonic.

274
The frequency of the particular harmonic can be determined as follows:

fn = n f'

Where n is the harmonic and f' is the fundamental frequency.

Fundamental or First Harmonic

1
L 1
2

Second Harmonic

L 2

Third Harmonic
3
L 3
2

Fourth Harmonic
4
L 4
2

13. A metal string is under a tension of 88.2 N. Its length is 50 cm and its mass is 0.500 g.
a. Find the velocity of the waves on the string. (297 m/s)

b. Determine the frequencies of its fundamental, second and third harmonics. (297 Hz, 594 Hz, 891 Hz)

275
 14. A string 2.0 m long is driven by a 240 Hz vibrator at
its end. The string resonates in four segments. What is
the speed of the waves on the string? (240 m/s)

15. One of the harmonics on a string 1.30 m long has a frequency of 15.60 Hz. The next higher harmonic has
a frequency of 23.40 Hz.
a. Find the fundamental frequency. (7.80 Hz)

b. Find the speed of waves on this string. (20.3 m/s)

16. A banjo string 30 cm long resonates in its fundamental to a frequency of 256 Hz. What is the speed of the
waves on the string? (154 m/s)

WIND INSTRUMENTS
The sounds that are produced by a wind instrument are the result of standing waves produced in the air
contained within the instrument. In some wind instruments, such as woodwinds or brasses, the air is set into
vibration by a vibrating reed or the vibrating lip of the musician. In other cases, e.g., the flute or organ, a
stream of air is directed against one edge of an opening or mouthpiece. The resulting turbulence produces
vibrations within the instrument. The vibrations cover a range of frequencies that are due to longitudinal
standing waves that are created in the air column.
276
STANDING WAVES IN AN AIR COLUMN

OPEN PIPE
A wind instrument that is open to the air at both ends is known as an open tube or pipe. The longitudinal
standing wave that produces the sound has an antinode at each end and at least one node in the air column.
For a periodic wave, the frequency produced depends on the length of the tube. The possible modes of
vibration, called harmonics, are similar to those produced in strings. The frequencies of the harmonics are
consecutive whole number multiples of the first harmonic.

Fundamental or First Harmonic

1
L 1
2

Second Harmonic
L 2

Third Harmonic
3
L 3
2

CLOSED PIPE
A wind instrument that is open to the air at one end but closed at the other end is known as a closed tube or
closed pipe. The longitudinal standing wave produced in the pipe has an antinode at the open end but a node
at the closed end. The frequency produced depends on the length of the tube. The frequencies of successive
harmonics for a pipe closed at one end are consecutive odd number multiples of the first harmonic.

The distance from the node to the anti-node is half the distance between two anti-nodes. This is half of half a
wavelength which is one quarter of a wavelength, 1/4λ.

First Harmonic or Fundamental

1
L 1
4

Third Harmonic
3
L 3
4

Fifth Harmonic
5
L 5
4

277
17. A pipe open at both ends is 55 cm long. What are the wavelengths of the fundamental and the next three
harmonics? (1.1 m, 0.55 m, 0.37 m, 0.275 m)

18. What are the fundamental frequency and the next two harmonics for a 35.0 cm pipe with a closed end?
Assume sound travels at 345 m/s. (246.4 Hz, 739.3 Hz, 1232 Hz)

19. An organ pipe that is open at both ends has a fundamental frequency of 370.0 Hz when the speed of
sound in air is 331 m/s. What is the length of this pipe? (44.7 cm)

20. A pipe that is closed on one end has a seventh harmonic frequency of 466.2 Hz. If the pipe is 1.53 m
long, what is the speed of the waves in the pipe? (407.6 m/s)

278
BEATS

Two waves of equal amplitude but slightly different frequencies traveling in the same direction give rise to
pulsations of maximum and minimum sound known as beats.

The number of beats per second is equal to the difference between the frequencies of the component waves
and is known as the beat frequency
f1 f 2

21. Two sources emit frequencies of 545 Hz and 548 Hz simultaneously. What beat frequency will be heard?

279
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 5. The higher the frequency of a wave,
(a) the smaller its speed
1. Standing waves are produced by the superposition of (b) the shorter its wavelength
two waves with (c) the greater its amplitude
(a) the same amplitude, frequency, and direction of (d) the longer its period
propagation
(b) the same amplitude and frequency, and opposite
propagation directions
(c) the same amplitude and direction of propagation, but
different frequencies
(d) the same amplitude, different frequencies, and opposite
directions of propagation 6. In a transverse wave, the individual particles of the
medium
(a) move in circles
(b) move in ellipses.
(c) move parallel to the direction of the wave’s travel
(d) move perpendicularly to the direction of the wave’s
travel

2. A transverse wave travels on a string of mass m, length

L, and tension F. Which statement here is correct?
(a) The energy of the wave is proportional to the square
root of the wave amplitude
(b) The speed of a moving point on the string is the
same as the wave speed
(c) The wave speed is determined by the values of m, L, 7. Which is the only one of these properties of a wave that
and F could be changed without changing any of the others?
(d) The wavelength of the wave is proportional to L (a) amplitude
(b) wavelength
(c) speed
(d) frequency

3. A violin string of length L is fixed at both ends. Which

one of these is not a wavelength of a standing wave on
the string?
(a) L
(b) 2 L
(c) L /2 8. The fundamental frequency of a pipe closed at one end
(d) L /3 is f 1 . How many nodes are present in a standing wave of
(e) 2L /3 frequency 9 f1 ?
(f) 3L /2 (a) 4
(b) 5
(c) 6
(d) 8
(e) 9
(f) 10

4. The speed of waves in a stretched string depends on

which one of the following?
(a) The tension in the string
(b) The amplitude of the waves
(c) The wavelength of the waves
(d) The gravitational field strength

280
Questions 9-10
12. The three lowest resonant frequencies of a system are
50 Hz, 150 Hz, and 250 Hz. The system could be:
(a) a tube of air closed at both ends
(b) a tube of air open at one end
(c) a tube of air open at both ends
(d) a vibrating string with fixed ends

9. An organ pipe is closed at one end. Several standing wave

patterns are sketched in the drawing. Which one is not a 13. A trombone and a bassoon play notes of equal loudness
possible standing wave pattern for this pipe? with the same fundamental frequency. The two sounds differ
primarily in
(a) pitch
(b) amplitude.
(c) timbre
(d) wavelength

10. Of the standing wave patterns sketched in the drawing,

which shows the lowest frequency standing wave for an
organ pipe closed at one end?

11. The length of a pipe closed at one end is L. In the

standing wave whose frequency is 7 times the fundamental
frequency, what is the closest distance between nodes?
(a) 1/14 L
(b) 1/7 L
(c) 2/7 L
(d) 4/7 L
(e) 8/7 L

281
FREE- RESPONSE QUESTIONS

FRQ 1. James hits the end of a bar 1.2 m long with a hammer. Sketch the standing wave on the bar for the
following situations. The speed of waves in the bar is 6,500 m/s.

MODE DIAGRAM WAVELENGTH FREQUENCY

Fundamental
frequency
(1st harmonic)

2nd overtone
(3rd harmonic)

Resonating with
4 nodes

Resonating with
4 antinodes

FRQ 2. A particular organ pipe can resonate at 264 Hz, 440 Hz, and 616 Hz, but not at any other
frequencies in between.
a. Explain why this is an open or a closed pipe.

b. What is the fundamental frequency of this pipe? (88.12 Hz)

282
FRQ 3. Sketch the standing wave pattern on a resonating object that has a fixed boundary on one end and a
free boundary on the other. The length of the resonating object is 90.0 cm.

MODE DIAGRAM Number of Waves WAVELENGTH

Fixed boundary

Free boundary
Fundamental
frequency
(1st harmonic) Fixed boundary

Free boundary
Resonating with
2 nodes
Fixed boundary

Resonating with Free boundary

3 antinodes
Fixed boundary

Free boundary

Resonating in
5th mode

FRQ 4. The figure above shows a string with one end attached to an oscillator and the other end attached to
a block. The string passes over a massless pulley that turns with negligible friction. Four strings, A, B, C, and
D, are set up side by side, as shown in the diagram below. Each oscillator is adjusted to vibrate the string at
its fundamental frequency f. The distance between each oscillator and pulley L is the same, and the mass M
of each block is the same. However, the fundamental frequency of each string is different.

283
The equation for the velocity v of a wave on a string is , where FT is the tension of the string and
m/L is the mass per unit length (linear mass density) of the string.

a. What is different about the four strings shown above that would result in their having different
fundamental frequencies? Explain your answer.

b. A student graphs frequency as a function of the inverse of the linear mass density. Will the graph be
linear? Explain your answer.

c. The frequency of the oscillator connected to string D is changed so that the string vibrates in its second
harmonic. On the side view of string D below, mark and label the points on the string that have the greatest
average vertical speed.

284
FRQ 5. One end of a string is attached to a tuning fork with frequency 120 Hz. The other end of the string
passes over a pulley and is connected to a suspended mass M as shown in the figure above. The value of M
is such that the standing wave pattern has four "loops." The length of the string from the tuning fork to the
point where the string touches the top of the pulley is 1.20 m. The linear density of the string is 1.0 x 10 –4
kg/m, and remains constant throughout the experiment.

a. Determine the wavelength of the standing wave.( 0.60 m)

b. Determine the speed of transverse waves along the string. (72 m/s)

c. The speed of waves along the string increases with increasing tension in the string. Indicate whether the
value of M should be increased or decreased in order to double the number of loops in the standing wave
pattern. Justify your answer.

d. If a point on the string at an antinode moves a total vertical distance of 4 cm during one complete cycle,
what is the amplitude of the standing wave? (1 cm)

285
 LAB INVESTIGATIONS

UNIT I.
1. Lab Investigation: Experimental Design
2. Lab Exercise: Graphing Practice
3. Lab Practicum: Dart Gun
4. Invention Tasks: Inventing an Index
UNIT II.
5. Lab Investigation: Buggy Cars
6. Lab Investigation: Buggy Cars Video Analysis
7. Lab Practicum: Buggy Meeting Point
8. Lab Investigation: Ball Down the Incline
9. Claim Analysis: Constant Acceleration?
UNIT III.
10. Lab Practicum: Mystery Loads
11. Predict and Test: Myths or Facts about Forces
12. Lab Investigation: Acceleration of a System
13. Lab Investigation: Coefficients of Friction
14. Lab Practicum: Falling Height Prediction Challenge
UNIT IV.
15. Prediction Challenge: Hit the Target
16. Testing Investigation: Flying in Circles
UNIT V.
17. Lab Investigation: Spring Force and Energy
18. Lab Investigation: Elastic Potential Energy
19. Lab Practicum: Conservation of Energy
UNIT VI.
20. Lab Investigation: Collisions
UNIT VII.
21. Testing Investigation: Frogs in Balance
22. Lab Investigation: Rotational Inertia
23. Prediction Challenge: Downhill Races
24. Prediction Challenge: Rolls in Sync
UNIT VIII.
25. Observation Investigations: Sticky Tape
26. Lab Investigation: Brightness Analysis
27. Claim Analysis: Is it Ohmic?
UNIT IX.
28. Lab Investigation: Period of a Mass-Spring System
UNIT X.
29. Lab Investigation: Wave Speed
30. Lab Investigation: Speed of Sound

286
 1. LAB INVESTIGATION: EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

When scientists set up experiments they often attempt to determine how a given variable affects another
variable. This requires the experiment to be designed in such a way that when the experimenter changes one
variable, the effects of this change on a second variable can be measured. If any other variable that could
affect the second variable is changed, the experimenter would have no way of knowing which variable was
responsible for the results. For this reason, scientists always attempt to conduct controlled experiments.
This is done by choosing only one variable to manipulate in an experiment, observing its effect on a second
variable, and holding all other variables in the experiment constant.

Suppose you wanted to test how changing the mass of a pendulum affects the time it takes a pendulum to
swing back and forth (also known as its period). You must keep all other variables constant. You must make
sure the length of the pendulum string does not change. You must make sure that the distance that the
pendulum is pulled back (also known as the amplitude) does not change. The length of the pendulum and
the amplitude are variables that must be held constant in order to run a controlled experiment. The only
thing that you would deliberately change would be the mass of the pendulum. This would then be
considered the independent variable, because you will decide how much mass to put on the pendulum for
each experimental trial. There are three possible outcomes to this experiment:
1. If the mass is increased, the period will increase.
2. If the mass is increased, the period will decrease.
3. If the mass is increased, the period will remain unchanged.
Since you are testing the effect of changing the mass on the period, and since the period may depend on the
value of the mass, the period is called the dependent variable.

In review, there are only two variables that are allowed to change in a well-designed experiment. The
variable manipulated by the experimenter (mass in this example) is called the independent variable. The
dependent variable (period in this case) is the one that responds to or depends on the variable that was
manipulated. Any other variable which might affect the value of the dependent value must be held constant.
We might call these variables controlled variables. When an experiment is conducted with one (and only
one) independent variable and one (and only one) dependent variable while holding all other variables
constant, it is a controlled experiment.

TASK: Determine the relationship between the length of a pendulum and the time it takes the pendulum to
make one back-and-forth swing. The time it takes the pendulum to swing back and forth once is called the
period.

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Write a title for your lab in the form of a question.
2. List the equipment used.
3. Create a data table to record your measurements. Hint: Time ten back-and-forth swings and then divide
by 10 to get a more accurate value for the period. Do at least seven lengths from 10 cm to 100 cm.
4. Use Logger Pro to graph your data. Label each axis and add units and title the graph.
5. If the graph is not linear, make a new plot. From the Insert menu select Graph. Under the Page menu
Auto Arrange will organize the windows. From the Data menu select New Calculated Column. Fill out
the calculated column dialog box. Graph the new plot on the lower graph window by clicking on the axis
label and selecting the name of your calculated column.
6. Once you have a linear plot, perform a linear fit to the data. Make sure all graphs are labeled and titled, set
print orientation to landscape, and put your name in the text box before printing. Paste your graph.
7. Write the mathematical model with appropriate units.
287
 2. LAB EXERCISE: GRAPHING PRACTICE

TASK: For each data set below, determine the mathematical expression.

PROCESS:
Graph the original data in LoggerPro.
Assume the 1st column in each set of values to be the independent variable and the 2nd column the
dependent variable.
Taking clues from the shape of the first graph, modify the data to obtain a straight line.
Using the slope and y-intercept of the straight-line graph, write an appropriate mathematical
expression for the relationship between the variables. Be sure to include units!

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Create separate sections for each data set.
2. Copy the data set
3. Paste your original graph and the linearized graph as appropriate
4. Write the mathematical model with appropriate units.

Data set 1 Data set 2

Volume Pressure Time Position
(m3) (Pascals) (s) (m)
0.1 40.0 0.10 0.03
0.5 8.0 0.20 0.12
1.0 4.0 1.0 3.0
4.0 1.0 2.0 12.0
5.0 .80 3.0 27.0
8.0 .50 4.0 48.0
10.0 .40 5.0 75.0

Data set 3
Mass Velocity
(kg) (m/s)
1.0 22.4
2.0 19.6
3.0 16.5
4.0 13.3
5.0 10.4
6.0 7.7
7.0 4.6
8.0 1.1

288
 3. LAB PRACTICUM: DART GUN

TASK: Determine the relationship between the mass of the dart and load and the height reached.

SETUP:
1. Place a meterstick next to the stand.
2. Find the mass of each dart/stopper to the nearest gram.
3. Perform multiple trials for each mass.
4. Record your measurements in a data table. Include a column for each trial and a column
for the average height.
5. Use Logger Pro to create your graphs. If your graph is not linear, add a calculated column
to create a linear plot.
6. Perform a linear fit to the data.
7. Make sure all graphs are labeled and titled, set print orientation to landscape, and put your
name and your partner's in the text box before printing. Paste your graphs.

BE CAREFUL NOT TO SHOOT YOURSELF IN THE FACE!

QUESTIONS:
1. Describe measurement techniques you used to obtain a more accurate result.
2. Why were you asked to repeat the procedure for different values of the independent variable?
3. Based on your original graph:
a. describe the relationship between the independent and dependent variables in words
b. describe the relationship between the independent and dependent variables mathematically.
4. Based on your linearized graph:
a. describe the relationship between the independent and dependent variables in words
b. describe the relationship between the independent and dependent variables mathematically.
5. Discuss possible sources of error in this experiment.

289
 4. INVENTION TASKS: INVENTING AN INDEX

An index is a number that helps people compare things.

Miles per gallon is an index of how well a car uses gas.
Batting average is an index of how well a baseball player hits.
Grades are an index of how well students perform on a test.

TASK: Invent a procedure for computing an index that helps make comparisons.

EXERCISE 1. The Popping Index

Three companies make popcorn. They use different types of corn so the popping is fast or slow.
Invent a procedure for computing a “popping index” to let consumers know how fast each brand pops.

Rules for the Index

1. The same brand of popcorn pops at the same speed. So a brand of popcorn only gets a single popping
index.
2. You have to use the exact same procedure for each brand to find its index.
3. A big index value should mean that the popcorn pops faster. A small index number should mean that the
popcorn pops slower.

290
EXERCISE 2. Fastness Index
Determine a fastness index for cars with dripping oil. You will see
a bunch of cars, and you need to come up with one number to stand
for each car’s fastness. There is no watch or clock to tell you how
long each car has been going. However, all the cars drip oil once a
second. (They are not very good cars!)

Some relevant information:

• A company makes cars that all have the same fastness.
• We will not tell you how many companies there are.
• You have to decide which cars are from the same company.

Invent a procedure to determine:

1. Make a fastness index for each car.
2. Decide how many companies there are.

REASONING:
Answer these questions in your lab journal.
1. Which popcorn is fastest? Give an explanation why you picked that popcorn.
2. Which cars are fastest? Give an explanation why you picked that car.
3. For each question below, describe the steps that you would take to get an answer:
a. A full bowl of popcorn has 60 popped corns in it. How long does it take the fastest popcorn to fill
a bowl of popcorn?
b. How long does it take for the fastest car to travel 15 blocks?

291
 c. How many popped corns will the fastest popcorn pop in 70 seconds?
d. How far will the fastest car travel in 20 seconds?
4. Another company, “Acme,” has an index of 2.5.
a. Let’s say that Acme makes popcorn. Using everyday language, describe the specific information
that the number 2.5 tells about this their popcorn.
b. Make a sketch that explains your answer to part a).
c. Now let’s say that Acme makes cars. Using everyday language, describe the specific information
that the number 2.5 tells about their car.
d. Make a sketch that explains your answer to part c).
5. Explain why you think there were less than 6 car companies, even though there were six different
diagrams describing the car companies.

EXERCISE 3. The Steepness Index

As the owner of 2-Die-4 Water Park, you are in charge of buying the slides. Most of your clients are
teenagers, and they like the steepest slides they can find. You want to buy slides that will attract the most
business. You are trying to choose between the slides shown below.

Invent a procedure for computing a “steepness index” so that you can buy the best slides, and prove to your
customers that you have the steepest slides in town.

Rules for the Index

1. Each slide gets one steepness index because it has the same steepness all the way down.
2. You have to use the exact same procedure for each slide to find its index.
3. A big index value should mean that the slide is steep. A small index number should mean that the slide is
less steep.

REASONING:
Answer these questions in your lab journal.
1. Which slide is steepest? Give an explanation why you picked that slide.
2. For each question below, describe the steps that you would take to get an answer:
a. In another portion of the steepest slide, it drops down by 14 feet. How far does the slider move
horizontally when she goes down that part of the slide?
b. How far down has she dropped when she has moved horizontally 5 feet?
3. Another company, “Acme,” has an index of 0.75.
a. Let’s say that Acme makes slides and 0.75 is the steepness index. Using everyday language,
describe the specific information that the number 0.75 tells about their slides.
b. Make a sketch that explains your answer to part a)
292
 5. LAB INVESTIGATION: BUGGY CARTS

TASK: To determine the kind of motion two cars have.

GIVEN: Two battery-operated cars, meterstick, stopwatch (your phone)

LAB JOURNAL:
Write the following sections in your journal:
1. Lab Investigation Question
Write the task to be investigated as a question. Your question provides the overall direction for the lab
investigation and must be addressed in the conclusion.

2. Equipment Setup
Draw a labeled diagram to illustrate the configuration of the equipment.

3. Step-by-Step Procedure
Neatly explained in a numbered sequence. Things to consider: What data needs to be taken? How
many trials do you have to include?
List the physical quantities you will measure and how you will measure them.
Briefly describe how the independent variable is controlled
What data needs to be taken?
How many trials do you have to include?

4. Data
Construct a table for raw data prior to beginning data collection.
The independent variable is recorded in the leftmost column (by convention).
Each column of the data table is labeled with the name of the variable it contains.
Below each variable name is the name of the unit of measurement (or its symbol) in parentheses.
Data is recorded to an appropriate number of decimal places as determined by the precision of the
measuring device.

5. Data Analysis
How do you interpret data?
Include graphs and analysis of graphs as appropriate
Show all calculations from graphs as appropriate
Determine the speed of each car

6. Conclusions
Write the conclusion using complete sentences.
Explain the possible source of any error or questionable results.

293
 6. LAB INVESTIGATION: BUGGY CARTS USING VIDEO ANALYSIS

TASK: To determine the kind of motion two cars have.

GIVEN: Two battery-operated cars, meterstick, your laptop

PROCEDURE
1. Place a meterstick on the table and put the car behind the meterstick.
2. Open LoggerPro
3. Under INSERT select VIDEO CAPTURE
4. Take the video of the moving car, be sure to keep the laptop steady,

5. Open the toolbar

6. Set the origin

7. Set the scale

8. Click on Add Point (VA)

9. Under OPTIONS select MOVIE OPTIONS

a. Set the time associated with the First VA point to zero. This option will “start the clock” at the first
marked frame, regardless of the time stamp on the frame.
b. You may advance the movie a certain number of frames. For example 3, 5 etc.

10. Carefully mark your video by placing the VA on the same location.
11. When done marking the video, click on the graph. Go to the data table and delete column ‘Y’
12. Use the Analysis feature
13. Before printing, be sure that your graph is prepared with a title, footer with your name and your partners’
name. The printing should be in LANDSCAPE.

LAB JOURNAL
Paste each of the graphs on separate pages.
Under the graph write a quantitative verbal description of the motion.
Write the mathematical model described on each graph. Don’t forget the units!

294
 7. PREDICTION CHALLENGE: BUGGY MEETING POINT

CHALLENGE: At what position will two buggy cars collide if they are released from opposite ends at
different times?

Cars are ________ m apart and one car is released ______ seconds after the first one.

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Write the investigation question
2. Identify: what measurements do you need to make? what quantities do you need to calculate?
3. Describe the procedure you will follow to take each of the measurements identified in (1).
4. Show all your calculations to determine the quantities identified in (2).
5. Use equations to make your prediction: clearly show each step of the derivation
6. Write a verbal description of each car
7. Draw a motion diagram: for each car
8. Outcome: Was your prediction correct?
9. What were the sources of uncertainty in your experiment and how do you think they affected the reliability
of your data?

8. LAB INVESTIGATION: BALL DOWN THE INCLINE

TASK: To determine the kind of motion of a ball rolling down an incline.

GIVEN: A ball, dynamics track, your phone

LAB JOURNAL:
Write the following sections in your journal:
1. Lab Investigation Question
2. Equipment Setup
3. Step-by-Step Procedure
4. Write a verbal description of the motion.
5. Draw a motion diagram.
6. Create position versus time and velocity versus time graphs.
For each graph:
8. Describe the relationship between the independent and dependent variables in words
9. Describe the relationship between the independent and dependent variables mathematically.
10. Conclusions:
a. Write the conclusion using complete sentences.
b. Explain the possible source of any error or questionable results

9. CLAIM ANALYSIS: CONSTANT ACCELERATION?

SCENARIO: A company makes the following claim about their pullback cars: “Our cars demonstrate nearly
constant acceleration”

TASK: Design and perform a lab to determine if the claim is valid.

LAB JOURNAL: Support your answer with multiple representations.

295
 10. LAB PRACTICUM: MYSTERY LOADS

EQUIPMENT:
Two low friction pulleys
Assorted masses
String
Protractor

TASK:
Given a protractor and the mass of one of the Mystery Loads you will determine the weight of the other two
loads.

LAB JOURNAL
1. Write the investigation question.
2. Use a ruler to draw a neat, labeled sketch of the assigned configuration, this is NOT meant to be the FBD!
3. Without touching the setup use the protractor to measure the angles. Record in a data table.
4. Draw a neat, labeled FBD clearly identifying the forces and showing the angles θ1 and θ2. You may draw
the components as appropriate.
5. Write the net force equations for both axes.
6. Use your equations to solve for the unknowns. Neatly show ALL your work.

RESULTS
Write down the weights of the Mystery Loads

11. PREDICT AND TEST: MYTHS OR FACTS ABOUT FORCES

TASK: Four statements about motion and force are provided below. Use any equipment in the lab to try to
disprove the statements.

LAB JOURNAL: For each statement you will complete the following three items:
1. Devise an experiment whose predicted outcome might contradict the statement.
2. Predict the outcome of the experiment, supposing that the statement was correct.
3. Perform the experiment; record the outcome, and make a judgment about the statement.

STATEMENTS:
a. An object always moves in the direction of the unbalanced force exerted on it.
b. An object pushed by a person continues to move with constant speed until the person stops pushing it.
c. If two objects exert forces of the same strength but in opposite directions on the object of interest, the
object of interest is always at rest.

296
 12. LAB INVESTIGATION: ACCELERATION OF A SYSTEM

TASK: Design an investigation to determine the relationship between the acceleration and the mass of the
fan cart-object system

GIVEN: fan cart, track, balance, assorted masses, stopwatch (your phone)

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Write an investigation question.
2. Identify the independent and dependent variables of the investigation.
3. Draw a neat, labeled FBD of the forces exerted on the cart.
4. Prepare a data table:
Δx = ______________

Mass Time t Time t Time t Time t

1 2 3 avg
(kg)
(s) (s) (s) (s)

5. Collect data (time to travel a set distance Δx) for 6 masses (cart alone and cart + mass).
6. Perform three trials for each mass and calculate the average time
7. Calculate the acceleration of the cart for each mass. Show ONE complete calculation. Record your results
in a separate table (mass and acceleration).
8. Use Logger Pro to create your graphs. If your graph is not linear, add a calculated column to create a
linear plot. Perform a linear fit to the data.
9. Make sure all graphs are labeled and titled, set print orientation to landscape, and put your name and your
partner's in the text box before printing. Paste each of the graphs on separate pages.

CONCLUSION:
1. For each graph describe the relationship between the variables.
2. Write the mathematical model described on each graph.
3. Write the slope of the line with appropriate units.
4. What does the slope represent?
5. Write an operational definition for the acceleration of the system.
6. Discuss sources of error in the experiment.
297
 13. LAB INVESTIGATION: COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION

TASK: Design an investigation to determine the coefficients of static and kinetic friction of each shoe in
your group.

GIVEN: Spring scale, balance, wooden plank

LAB JOURNAL

PART I.
1. Write an investigation question.
2. Outline the procedure in a neat numbered sequence.
3. Perform the investigation and record your data.
4. Your analysis should include a neat, labeled FBD of the forces exerted on the shoe, net force equations as
appropriate.

PART II.
1. Given an ramp at known angle θ, derive an equation to determine the coefficient of static friction of an
object. Your derivation should include a neat FBD, net force equations.
2. Perform the experiment and compare the values found in the first part.

CONCLUSIONS:
1. What is the relationship between the coefficient of friction and of the gripping quality of the surfaces
involved?
2. Which shoe had the strongest grip?
3. What would you use a high coefficient of friction shoe for? What would you use a low coefficient of
friction shoe for? Explain with examples from the sporting world.
4. Calculate the percent difference of the value found for static friction in Parts I and II.
5. Discuss the sources of error in this investigation.

Note: The Percent Difference is used when comparing two experimental quantities, E 1 and E2, neither of
which can be considered the “correct” value. The percent difference is the absolute value of the difference
over the mean times 100.
E1 E2
% difference 100
1
( E1 E2 )
2

298
 14. LAB PRACTICUM: FALLING HEIGHT PREDICTION CHALLENGE

GIVEN: Dynamics track and cart, string, hanging mass, balance, meterstick

TASK: Predict the time a given mass released from rest at a known height will take to reach the floor.

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Write an investigation question.
2. Measure the known values when the incline angle is:______
3. Your prediction should include a neat, labeled FBD, net force equations and calculation of the time.
4. Test your prediction.
5. Determine the percent error.
6. Discuss the sources of error and how your assumptions might have affected your results.

Note: The Percent Error is applied when comparing an experimental quantity, E, with a theoretical
quantity, T, which is considered the “correct” value. The percent error is the absolute value of the
difference divided by the “correct” value times 100.
T E
% error : 100
T

15. PREDICTION CHALLENGE: HIT THE TARGET

GIVEN: projectile launcher, meterstick

TASK: Predict the distance at which the projectile will land when it is shot at an angle.

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Write an investigation question.
2. Use the photogate to determine the muzzle velocity. Show your calculation.
3. Derive an equation to predict the landing spot.
4. Test your prediction.
5. Determine the percent error.
6. Discuss the sources of error.

299
 16. TESTING INVESTIGATION: FLYING IN CIRCLES

INVESTIGATION 1.

GIVEN: Airplane, a meterstick, balance, stopwatch (your phone)

TASKS:
a. Determine the speed of the pig
b. Determine the tension in the string

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Record the known data:
Length of string
Diameter of path
Mass of the pig
2. Labeled force diagrams, theoretical speed derivation
3. Percent error between the experimental and the theoretical speed of the plane.

INVESTIGATION 2.

GIVEN: Airplane, a meterstick

TASK:
Determine the reading on a stopwatch that has recorded the time to make 15 revolutions.

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Record the known data:
Length of string
Height from ceiling to airplane level
2. Labeled force diagrams, theoretical derivation of the period
3. Percent error between the experimental and the theoretical period

300
 17. LAB INVESTIGATION: SPRING FORCE AND ENERGY

TASK: To determine the spring constant of a spring and the energy stored in a spring.

GIVEN: A spring, assorted masses, support stand, meterstick

LAB JOURNAL:
Write the following sections in your journal:
1. Lab Investigation Question
2. Equipment Setup
3. Step-by-Step Procedure
4. Write a verbal description of the motion.
5. Draw a motion diagram.
6. Data table or graph(s) as appropriate.
For each graph:
7. Describe the relationship between the independent and dependent variables in words
9. Describe the relationship between the independent and dependent variables mathematically.
10. Conclusions:
a. Write the conclusion using complete sentences.
b. Explain the possible source of any error or questionable results

18. LAB INVESTIGATION: ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

TASK: To determine the spring constant of the projectile launcher by two

methods.

GIVEN: Projectile launcher, ball, photogate, meterstick and balance

LAB JOURNAL:
Write the following sections in your journal for each method:
1. Lab Investigation Question
2. LOL diagram(s)
3. COE statements
4. Step-by-Step procedure
5. Data table of measurements
6. All calculations
7. Percent difference calculation
8. Conclusions: Explain the possible source of any error or questionable results

301
 19. LAB PRACTICUM: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

TASK: Determine the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the board.

GIVEN: You may only use a meterstick (and a balance to measure the masses). You may not use a
stopwatch.

1. Assemble the following setup of a modified Atwood’s machine as shown below. Be sure that the length
marked as d is greater than h.
2. Release the hanger and clearly write down your observations. Repeat a couple of times so you can
describe what happens in detail.

LAB JOURNAL:
Your work needs to include information about:
System(s)
Energy bar chart(s)
Conservation of Energy Statement(s)
Full derivation (show all the steps) to determine the final equation of the µk
Identify each of the variables in the equation
Perform the experiment and record: Data, Substitution and Calculation

CONCLUSIONS:
Discuss sources of uncertainty in your measurements.
How can you determine the validity of your answer?
Describe a second experiment that could be performed to determine the coefficient of kinetic friction.
There are no restrictions regarding equipment. Include all the details of the experimental procedure,
measurements to be taken, equations that are needed, and calculations to be performed. You do not
need to do this experiment.

302
 20. LAB INVESTIGATION: COLLISIONS

TASK: Design an experiment to determine the type of collision between two carts.
NOTE:
1. Carts should have different masses
2. Carts can move apart after the collision or stick together.

LAB JOURNAL:
Write the following sections in your journal:
1. Lab Investigation Question
2. Experimental setup diagram
3. Graph
4. Conservation of Momentum statements
5. Conclusions:
a. Write the conclusion using complete sentences.
b. Explain the possible source of any error or questionable results

21. TESTING INVESTIGATION: FROGS IN BALANCE

TASKS:
a. Determine the mass of two frogs.
b. Determine the mass of the meterstick.

LAB JOURNAL
1. Investigation question
2. Set up of equipment
3. Neat, labeled force diagrams
4. Equations for translational and rotational equilibrium
5. Equations solved for unknowns
6. Calculation of percent error
7. Sources of error
303
 22. LAB INVESTIGATION: ROTATIONAL INERTIA

TASK: Design an investigation to determine the rotational inertia of the contraption.

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Lab Investigation Question
2. Step-by-Step Procedure
3. Identify the experimental variables
4. Data table
5. One sample calculation of acceleration
6. Graph
7. Neat, labeled force diagram and net torque equation
9. Describe the relationship between the independent and dependent variables mathematically.
10. Conclusions:
a. Calculation of rotational inertia.
b. Explain the possible source of any error or questionable results

23. PREDICTION CHALLENGE: DOWNHILL RACES

GIVEN: A ring and a disk, inclined plane, meterstick, stopwatch

TASK: Predict which object will reach the bottom of the incline first.

CONCLUSION: Was your prediction correct?

Write an explanation of the results of the lab.

304
 24. PREDICTION CHALLENGE: ROLLS IN SYNC

GIVEN: Two rolls of toilet paper and a meterstick

TASK: Determine the ratio of heights so that both rolls land at the same time when
dropped as shown on the picture.

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Write an investigation question.
2. Force diagrams
3. Complete derivation of height ratio

DATA:
1
I unr M r2 3R 2
2

25. OBSERVATION INVESTIGATIONS: STICKY TAPE

Part I – Top tapes

1. Take a 15 cm piece of transparent tape and make a handle on the end by folding under the first cm of tape,
sticky side to sticky side. Place this tape on the lab table. This is the base tape.
2. Attach a second similarly prepared strip of tape onto the base tape. Label this tape “T” for top.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 so that you have two sets of base and top tapes.
4. Quickly peel the first of the T tapes from the base, and hang the T tape from the edge of the table.
5. Quickly peel the second of the T tapes from the base and slowly bring the second T tape near the
hanging T tape.

Describe what you see. Include a series of sketches of the tapes as they approach one another with vectors
to represent the forces on the tapes. Label the forces.

Part II – Top and Bottom tapes

6. Repeat steps 1 through 3 above, but do not label the tapes yet. Place another 15 cm tape with handle on
top of each of the tape sets. You now have two sets of 3-layer tapes.
7. Label uppermost tape “T” for top, and the middle tape “B” for bottom.
8. Cut 2 pieces of paper, the same dimensions as the tapes, and hang one from the edge of the table. Label
the hanging paper “P." Approach the hanging paper with the other piece of paper. Describe what you see.
9. Cut 2 pieces of aluminum foil, the same dimensions as the tapes, and hang one from the edge of the table.
Label the hanging foil “F." Approach the hanging foil with the other piece of foil. Describe what you see.

305
10. Peel one set of T and B tapes from its base tape, keeping the T and B tapes together. Quickly peel them
apart.
11. Hang each strip next to the hanging paper and foil.

F P T B table

12. Repeat step 10 with the other set of tapes.

13. With a T tape hanging from one hand and a B tape hanging from the other, experiment by approaching
each of the hanging tapes.

Describe what you see. Include a series of sketches of the tapes as they approach one another with vectors
to represent the forces on the tapes. Label the forces.

Our Model of the Atom and the assignment of (+) and (-) charges

Our current model of the atom is consistent with the existence of 2 types of charge. An atom has a positively
charged nucleus surrounded by mobile negatively charged electrons. Materials become charged by the gain
or loss of these mobile electrons. Based on a number of observations we have assigned the label of negative
to a hard rubber or plastic rod when rubbed with fur or wool. The fur or wool, having lost electrons to the
rubber or plastic, becomes positively charged.

14. Rub a plastic comb with wool and approach the T tape, then the B tape with the comb. Describe what
you see.

15. Based on your observations from using the comb, label the T and B tapes with either a + or -.

Restate the interaction between T and B tapes using the terms positive and negative instead of top and
bottom.

16. Approach the hanging strip of paper and foil with the comb. Then approach the hanging strip of paper
and foil with the piece of wool. Describe what you see. How does the strength of these interactions
compare to those observed with the T and B tapes?

306
 26. LAB INVESTIGATION: BRIGHTNESS ANALYSIS

TASK: Assemble a variety of circuits with light bulbs, a battery and wire to observe the brightness of the
lightbulbs.

DIRECTIONS
Assemble the circuits. In your Lab Journal copy the schematic diagrams and answer the questions.

1. Build circuit A and then notice the brightness of the bulb. Then build circuit B and notice the brightness
of the bulbs. Explain the differences in your observations.

2. Build circuit C and notice the brightness of the bulbs. Explain your observations .

3. Build circuit D and notice the brightness of the bulbs. Then build circuit E and notice the brightness of the
bulbs. Explain the differences in your observations.

27. CLAIM ANALYSIS: IS IT OHMIC?

GIVEN: a resistor, a small lightbulb, an LED, a variable DC power supply, extra resistors, connecting wires,
and multimeter

TASK: Determine whether the electrical devices exhibit ohmic behavior.

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Write an investigation question.
2. For each material, write a claim, gather data and graph the data.
3. Use the evidence to refute or validate your claim.

307
 28. LAB INVESTIGATION: PERIOD OF A MASS-SPRING SYSTEM

TASK: Design an experiment to determine the variables that affect the period of a mass-spring system.

GIVEN: set of springs, assorted masses, stopwatch (your phone)

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Write an investigation question
2. Determine the experimental variables
3. Briefly describe your procedure
4. Data table for multiple trials
5. Graphs of data including linearized graphs
6. Write a mathematical model that represents the results of your experiment.

29. LAB INVESTIGATION: WAVE SPEED

TASK: Design an experiment to determine if a transverse pulse or a longitudinal pulse moves with greater
speed along a Slinky".

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Write an investigation question.
2. Sketch the experimental setup.
3. Explain in words how you will measure the speed for each kind of pulse.
4. List quantities that you will measure and quantities that you will calculate.
5. List your assumptions and experimental uncertainties.
6. Perform the experiment; record the results and describe your conclusion.

308
 30. LAB INVESTIGATION: SPEED OF SOUND

TASK: Find a relationship between speed of sound, resonant frequency, and length
of tube closed on one end.

LAB JOURNAL:
1. Write an investigation question.
2. What factors will influence the resonance of the sound produced by the tuning
fork?
3. How will the frequency be measured?
4. What will change as a result of changing the frequency?
5. How will you measure the dependent variable?
6. Gather enough data to produce a graph of tube length versus frequency
7. Linearize the graph.
8. Determine the speed of sound from the graph.

309