NO WATER, NO LIFE, NO BLUE, NO GREEN!!

WATER IS ALL OUR ---------------!

---------------!!
--------------!!!

THERE FOR, WE MUST DO -----------?

------------??
----------???
AMHARA NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE
WATER, IRRIGATION AND ENERGY
RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT BUREAU

CENTRAL GONDAR ZONE WATER,

IRRIGATION AND ENERGY RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

HYDROGEOLOGICAL & GEOPHYSICAL

FESIBILITY STUDY

FOR:
DEEP WELL SITE LOCATING IN CENTRAL
GONDAR -ZONE WEGERA DISTRICT

WUBETU ABEBAW
(HYDROGEOLOGIST)
ALAMIREW SALILEW
By (HYDROGEOLOGIST)
HABTIE ABERA
(GEOPHYSICIST)

FEBRUARY ‒ 2013 E/C

GONDAR/ETHIOPIA
 SUBMITTED TO:

YOTOR FARMERS CHARITABLE

ASSOCIATION /YFCA/

FEBRUARY-2021 G/C
- BAHIR-DAR /ETHIOPIA
- STOCOLM / SWEEDEN
 Acknowledgement

Prior to any thing, I would have thank and glorify the almighty GOD who is the ultimate
means of my success.

I would like to express my great deal of gratitude to Central Gondar zone Water, Irrigation &
Energy resource development department, especially water supply core process, for
arranging the field work and giving me the chance to go to the study area as well as the
guidance, encouragement and constructive comments during conducting this project.
I don‘t like to pass without mentioning that I am thank full to ato Alamirew Salilew
(Hydrogeologist), ato Habtie (Geophysicist) and ato Mihret Teka (the driver, during the time
of field study) for their measure less devotion, punctuality, honesty and patience.

I would also love to express my heartfelt thanks to Wegera woreda water resource
development office for their kind support with input data, giving general information about
the study area as well as minimization of the labor cost by coordinating and participating the
local youths as a labor that reduces our labor cost.

Finally, I would love to extend my gratitude to the Ethiopian Yotor farmers charitable
association coordinators (the client of the project), for their spectacular decision to flow their
budget and sharing of financial power to solve the critical problems of water with the main
objective of irrigation and supply quality & purified water for the user, the gratitude includes
ato Wubie (field coordinator with in this study) for his genuine idea, constructive comments,
sharing of his experiences about managmental issue‘s as well as he describe his feeling
freely about the site and sharing of some field related photos. In addition to this, I need also
to give many thanks to the community of the surrounding area (Direct beneficiaries of the
project) for their responsibility and promise to manage and correct any road condition from
the asphalt and gravel road to the site, their own active participation and for all their
countless support during the field work.

i
 Abstract
The present study is carried at Wegera wereda in Taga kebelle, located in northern Ethiopia,
55km North-east of Gondar town, with the main objective of Identifying ground water
potential site and to select the deep well sites, by using Geophysical methods, specifically of
electrical resistivity method (ERM) and Hydro geologically by determining the aquifer
properties of soils and rocks as well as by analyzing different geological structures for clean
water supply & Irrigation purposes, which are to be used for the surrounding community
and indirectly for the country as a whole.
To achieve the particular objective of the study, technical methods are deployed. Such
methods are carried during field work, pre field and after field work.

The climatically conditions of the study area is grouped under Dega (Temperate) climatic zone of
the country, with average temperature of 10˚c - 20˚c and mean annual rainfall of 950mm-1100mm.

In the study area different types of lithological units are existed. Among these, Dolerite, weathered
and fractured basalt, Tuff unit, clay, quaternary and alluvial sediment, trachyte, Vesicular Basalt and
the mineral quartz can be mentioned. But, clay, dolerite, weathered and fractured basalt as well as
quaternary alluvio - colluvio sediments are the most common one relative to other lithological units.
Each lithological unit has their own characteristics, hydro geological aspects and economic
importance. These units are followed by different types of geological structures. From such
structures: - fault, joint, mud cracks, subsidence structures and geological flute marks can be
mentioned.
During conducting this study, we have tried to correlate the local geology to the regional
geology & integrate geological, hydrogeological and geophysical methods for successful site
location in terms of ground water potential. Therefore, special attention is given to locate potential
groundwater sites for the safe water supply.
Finally, by following each procedure with detail observation and identification of each lithological
unit and by using Geo physical methods with IPI2 wine software, two deep well sites are selected by
comparing from different well fields for the purpose of Irrigation.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page No
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................... i
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... iii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER ONE 1
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Back ground .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Problem statement ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Objective of the project ............................................................................................................. 3
1.3.1 General Objective .................................................................................................................. 3
1.3.2 Specific Objective................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Description of the study area .................................................................................................... 4
1.4.1 Location ................................................................................................................................. 4
1.4.2 Accessibility ........................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.3 Physiography ......................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.4 Climate ................................................................................................................................... 6
1.4.5 Drainage pattern.................................................................................................................... 6
1.4.6 Land use and Land cover ....................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Methodologies and Materials .................................................................................................... 8
1.5.1 Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 8
[Link]. Pre-field Works ............................................................................................................ 8
[Link]. During Field Works....................................................................................................... 8
[Link] Post Field Works ......................................................................................................... 10
1.5.2 Materials .............................................................................................................................. 10
1.6 Existing Water Supply System ............................................................................................... 11
1.6.1 Existing water supply ........................................................................................................... 11
1.6.2 Water Demand ..................................................................................................................... 13
1.6.3 Identification of well site...................................................................................................... 13

iii
CHAPTER TWO 15
GEOLOGICAL SETTING 15
2.1. Regional Geology .................................................................................................................. 15
2.1.1 Basement rock ...................................................................................................................... 15
2.1.2 Paleozoic sedimentary rocks................................................................................................ 16
[Link] Enticho sandstone formation (ESF) ............................................................................ 16
[Link] Edaga Arbi Tillite Formation (EAF) .............................................................................. 17
2.1.3 Mesozoic sedimentary rocks ................................................................................................ 17
[Link] Adigrat sandstone formation (ASF) ............................................................................ 18
[Link] Transition bedes.......................................................................................................... 18
[Link] Antalo Limestone formation (ALF).............................................................................. 19
[Link] Agula shale / mudstone formation (ASF).................................................................... 19
[Link] Umbaradom sandstone formation (USF) ................................................................... 19
2.1.4 Cenozoic Rocks and Associated Sediment ........................................................................... 20
[Link]. Ashanghe Basalts ....................................................................................................... 24
[Link]. Aiba Basalt ................................................................................................................. 25
[Link]. Alaje Formation.......................................................................................................... 25
[Link]. Tarmaber Basalts ....................................................................................................... 25
2.2 Local Geology......................................................................................................................... 26
2.2.1 General description of the local geology of the study area. ................................................ 26
2.2.2 Detailed description of the local geology of the study area:- .............................................. 26
[Link] Amygdaloidal Basalte .................................................................................................. 27
[Link] Boulder unit ................................................................................................................ 28
[Link] Clay unit ...................................................................................................................... 29
[Link] Dolerait rock unit ........................................................................................................ 30
[Link] Quaternary sédiment .................................................................................................. 31
[Link] Quartz Mineral ............................................................................................................ 32
[Link] Tuff unit....................................................................................................................... 33
[Link] Vesicular Basalt ........................................................................................................... 34
2.3 Geological structures of the study area ................................................................................... 36
2.3.1 Faults ................................................................................................................................... 36
2.3.2 Joints .................................................................................................................................... 37
2.3.3 Mud cracks ........................................................................................................................... 37
2.4 Geological processes ............................................................................................................... 38
2.4.1 Weathering ........................................................................................................................... 38
2.4.2 Erosion ................................................................................................................................. 39
CHAPTER THREE 40
HYDROGEOLOGICAL SETTING 40

iv
3.1 Regional Hydrogeology .......................................................................................................... 40
3.2 Local Hydrogeology ............................................................................................................... 42
3.2.1Dolerite rock unit .................................................................................................................. 43
3.2.2 Quaternary sediment ............................................................................................................ 43
3.2.3 Tuff unit ................................................................................................................................ 43
3.2.4. Vesicular basalt .................................................................................................................. 44
CHAPTER FOUR 45
METHODOLOGY 45
4.1 Geophysical signature ............................................................................................................. 45
4.1.1 Electrical Resistivity Method (ERM) ................................................................................... 45
[Link] Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) ............................................................................... 48
[Link] Resistivity Profiling ...................................................................................................... 49
4.1.2 Electrode configuration ....................................................................................................... 50
[Link] Schlumberger électrode Array .................................................................................... 51
[Link] Wenner électrode array.............................................................................................. 51
4.1.3 Relation between Geology and Resistivity ........................................................................... 52
4.1.4 Limitation of the Electrical Resistivity Method ................................................................... 53
4.2 Data Acquistion and Processing ............................................................................................. 53
4.2.1 Field Procedure and Data Acquisition of ERM ................................................................... 54
4.2.2 Data Processing and Data Presentation ERM .................................................................... 56
4.3 Result and Discussion ............................................................................................................. 57
4.3.1 VES 1 (Gezewuye) ................................................................................................................ 57
4.3.2 VES 2 (Gichit) ...................................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER FIVE 60
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 60
5.1 Amygdaloidal basalt ............................................................................................................... 60
5.2 Dolerite ................................................................................................................................... 60
5.3 Clay ......................................................................................................................................... 61
5.5 Quartz ...................................................................................................................................... 61
5.6 Tuff unit .................................................................................................................................. 62
CHAPTER SIX 63
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 63
6.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 63

v
6.2. Recommendations .................................................................................................................. 65
References ..................................................................................................................................... 66
Annex one ..................................................................................................................................... 67

vi
 List of Figures
Figure1.1 location map of the study area ............................................................................................. 4
Figure1.2 physiographic lay out of the study area ............................................................................... 5
Figur1.3 meandering river types in the study area............................................................................... 6
Figure1.4 Very elongated crops of Chickpea &Onion in and around the study area that taken at the
time of the study and at the season ....................................................................................................... 7
Figure1.5 The activities during the field work...................................................................................... 9
Figure1.6 Nonfunctional water schemes in and around the study area ............................................. 12
Figure2.1 Map of the Northern part of Ethiopian Plateau showing volcanic province (Source: Kiffer
et, al 2004) 23
Figure2.2 Amygdaloidal rock units .................................................................................................... 27
Figure2.3 Boulder units ...................................................................................................................... 28
Figure2.4 Brownish color Clay unit ................................................................................................... 29
Figure2.5 Dolerite rock units ............................................................................................................. 30
Figure2.6 Quaternary sediments ........................................................................................................ 31
Figure2.7 Quartz mineral ................................................................................................................... 32
Figure2.8 Tuff units ............................................................................................................................ 33
Figure2.9 Vesicular basalts ................................................................................................................ 34
Figure2.10 Geological Map of the study area .................................................................................... 35
Figure2.11 Minor fault lines ............................................................................................................... 36
Figure2.12 Joints ................................................................................................................................ 37
Figure2. 13 Mud crack ....................................................................................................................... 37
Figure2.14 weathering and its effects ................................................................................................. 38
Figure2.15 Gully erosion .................................................................................................................... 39
Figure4.1ABEM Terra meter LS geo-electrical imaging system 48
Figure4.2 Schematic Plans for Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) (After Loke, 2001) .................... 48
Figure4.3 Schematic Plans for Electrical resistivity profiling (After Loke, 2001) ............................. 49
Figure4.4 conventional electrode configurations ............................................................................... 50
Figure4.5 Schematic diagram of a four point schlumberger array .................................................... 51
Figure4.6 wenner electrode array configurations .............................................................................. 51
Figure4.7 Field Procedures ................................................................................................................ 54
Figure4.8 VES 1 model curve, resistivity and thickness of each layer ............................................... 58
Figure4.9 VES 2 model curve, resistivity and thickness of each layer ............................................... 59

vii
 List of Tables
Table1. 1 Some notes about each site ......................................................................................14
Table1.2 Bill of quantity for one deep well DTH/MUD drilling systems in Wegera wereda,
Taga kebelle .............................................................................................................................67

viii
 ACRONYMS

ALT: Altitude
BW: Bore well/shallow well
C1 Current electrode one
C2 Current electrode two
CGZ: Central Gondar zone
DTH: Drilling down the hole
EFBs: Ethiopian flood Basalts
ERM Electrical resistivity method
FIG: Figure
GPS: Global positioning system
GTP: Growth and transformation plane
HDW: Hand dug well
L: Litter
M: Meter
MM: Millimeter
MUD Drilling with mud system
P1 Potential electrode one
P2 Potential electrode two
SGZ South Gondar Zone
UTM: Universal transverse Mercator
VES Vertical electrical sounding

ix
 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Back ground

Water is the vital tool for all living things, which plays a crucial role in the existence of life on earth,
as being one of the key natural resources of the world. Without water humans can stay only for
hours. Moreover food is the other basic need where the crops, fish and animals depend on water to
grow and survive. The need for the quality and availability of water resources has always been the
primary concern of our societies, especially in semi-arid and arid regions, and even the areas with
abundant rainfall such as tropical region.

Ground water is the main source for potable water supply, domestic, industrial and
agricultural uses. The existence of ground water resource is basically renewable resource but
the volume of water and quality actually in storage may vary greatly from place to place
depending on its agricultural land activity, climate of regional hydrogeology and rate of
different uses for different purposes. Due to this reason, the scarcity of ground water
increases day to day, additionally with rapid population, urbanization, industrial and
agricultural related activities, in such away surface water cannot be dependable throughout
the year; hence other alternative is needed in order to supplement for surface water, i.e.
drilling to the overburden depth, to add underground water source. These facts made humans
from the beginning to study the occurrence, sources, characteristics, development and quality
of water and even consider it as one of the basic natural resources.

Therefore, the central Gondar zone water resource development department, water supply core
process is responsible to conduct water resource study, design and supervision within the zone to
provide safe and adequate water throughout the zone. Hence, the core process has assigned a
geologist from the region & zone (CGZ & SGZ) water resource development office, in order to
accomplish the particular activity of deep well site selection. Then, the study is conducted at two
similar well fields and the resulting well sites are selected.

1
 1.2 Problem statement
The Ethiopian water resource is still not well studied and even the areas which are
potentially known did not come in to practice. Those may due to economic problems since
water resource development requires a large capital and well qualified professionals.
One of the fundamental conditions for growth and development of a nation like, Ethiopia is
certainly the progressive fulfillment of its most urgent water needs.
In the case of our country, all most all of the rural areas are formed scaterilly without
considering the existence of water near by the villages. However these areas have no enough
supply of water, most societies get water from the cultural hand dug well, unprotected
springs and rivers nearby. Especially in dry seasons when the other water source options
become depleted, the communities (especially women and children) suffer a lot, also in the
rainy season the springs and rivers become polluted from flooding and this also makes things
more difficult. The problem also continues to the urban area (starting from small towns to
capital cities), this is not seen only from scarcity point of view but also from purified clean
water supply point of view, rather considering irrigation in such away and from such kind of
place is headache and unbelievable.
Therefore, to improve the live hood of the societies and to solve the critical problem of water
with in the country as a whole, investigation, extracting and construction of new water
supply project is mandatory. Then, Yotor Farmrs Charitable Association (YFCA) assumes
these issues and selects the potential deep well sites by using experts in the northern part of
the country, specifically in Central Gonder zone – Wegera wereda in Taga kebelle (Gichit &
Gezewuye gote) to solve the critical problems of water and to use Irrigation in the area. Side
by side the activity supports governmental millennium development goals /for secondary
growth and transformation plane (GTP2)/.

2
1.3 Objective of the project

1.3.1 General Objective

The general objective of the study is to identify ground water potential site and to select the
specific deep well sites, by using Geophysical methods, specifically of electrical resistivity
method (ERM) and Hydro geologically, by determining the aquifer properties of soils and
rocks as well as by analyzing different geological structures for Irrigation purposes, which is
carried by Yotor Farmrs Charitable Association (YFCA) (the client of the project) to solve
the critical water shortage problem in the area and to use Irrigation with in the kebelle as a
whole.

1.3.2 Specific Objective

 To conduct hydro geological investigation and identify the aquifer types in the
study area,
 To map sub surface resistivity stratification of the study area,
 To know unsaturated zone moisture movement,
 To know the depth of existing water table
 To give general sub surface picture by correlating geophysical log with
hydrogeological well data,
 To increase more productivity and improve the live hood of the user, better than the
current activities and conditions within the kebelle as a whole,
 To protect water born disease in the user.

3
1.4 Description of the study area

1.4.1 Location
The project area (deep well sites) is located in Amhara national regional state, Central
Gondar zone, Wegera wereda in Gichit & Gezewuye kebelle.
The average distance of the selected sites are, 18km, 48km, and 228Km from Amba-
Giyorgis (Wereda center), Gondar (zone center) and Bahir Dar (region center) respectively.
Geographically, the area is located between latitude of N12°26‘497‘‘ and longitude of
E037°30‘277‘‘ in UTM of north western flat plain part of the country.

Figure1.1 location map of the study area

4
1.4.2 Accessibility
The main high way connects Addis Ababa with the study area via Debremarkos- Bihar Dar- Wereta-
Azezo –Gonder – Ambagiyorgis lines; the gravel road also connects south-east of Amba-Giyorgis to
Taga kebelle (study area) From woreda center Amba-Giyorgis, the average distance of the study area
is 18-20km. But, in some parts of the study area the branched road needs from low to medium
maintenance, otherwise it may usually reduce our activity during the actual work (drilling & related
activities), especially if the season is rainy.

1.4.3 Physiography
According to the main Ethiopian physiographic classification system, the study area is grouped
under the north western highland and lowland areas (Fig: 1.2).

Figure1.2 physiographic lay out of the study area

Generally, the most part of the study area (Wegera woreda) is steppy to undulating plain with
general slop inclination from northwest to south east, interrupted by valleys, streams,
scattered hills and seasonal wetland.

5
1.4.4 Climate
The study area is classified under dega (Temperate) climatic zone of the country, according
to the traditional climatically zone presented by Ethiopian mapping agency and has an
average temperature of 10˚c-20˚c in the dry season, and 7˚c-12˚c in rainy season. The area
has also a mean annual rainfall of 950mm-1100mm and the pattern shows high reading with
in the months of June to September.

1.4.5 Drainage pattern

The study area is dominated by the topography of mostly gentle and flat land areas, it has
dendrite drainage pattern, flowing towards lowland and the gentlest slope of the study area
and have denser green natural vegetation‘s along the tributary. The study area streams are
majorly meandering river types and are nearly flowing along the geologically weak zones
and joined to the main rivers and streams of the area.

Figur1.3 meandering river types in the study area

6
1.4.6 Land use and Land cover
The study area (Wegera woreda) has a total land coverage area of 1486.3 square kilometers.
Most parts of the study area are covered by vegetations, largely grouped under woodland
vegetation ecosystem with deciduous tree species. Some part of the study area is also
covered with grasslands and thorny plant species which could be categorized in the Acacia-
Commiphora ecosystem. As being flat land area, the study area is used as a farmland for
agricultural purposes, there is also a forest in some parts of the study area (Amba-Giorgis
zuria), which is used as a home of different small wild animals and for the balancing of
natural ecosystems. From the agricultural products; wheat, lentil, teff, sorghum, barley,
potato, onion, chickpea and so on are the most dominant crops and vegetable types in the
study area.

Figure1.4 Very elongated crops of Chickpea &Onion in and around the study area
that taken at the time of the study and at the season

7
1.5 Methodologies and Materials

1.5.1 Methodology
As a common practice, review of published and unpublished sources is the most important
tool to get an insight into the geological, hydro geological and geophysical conditions of the
project area.
To achieve the general and specific objectives of the study, the methods listed below have
been deployed. Which are performed at; pre field work, during field work and post field
work.

[Link]. Pre-field Works

 Preparation of working plan and scheduling the overall activities.
 Identification of the objective of the study and the problem within the area.
 Identification of important field equipment‘s.
 Existing water point data such as borehole (shallow wells and deep wells), Hand dug
well, and developed springs have been collected and reviewed with respect to
groundwater potential of the area.
 Meteorological data have been collected from different sources before the
commencement of the fieldwork.

[Link]. During Field Works

After collecting necessary information about general over view of the study areas, the field
started to the actual area of the works and accomplished the following activities;
 Collect information/data from woreda water resource development office and other
persons who have some knowhow about the study area and Wegera woreda as a whole,
 Different traverses have been selected along the rivers in order to see the subsurface
nature of the rock on the bank of the rivers. Across the rivers, traverses were taken to
observe the lateral variation of rocks from geological and hydro geological point of
view.

8
  Detail investigation and identification of different lithological units, i.e. geological,
geomorphological and hydrogeological conditions of the identified areas of interest based
on the prepared base map,
 Observation of certain type of vegetation was also studied, which are indicative of
occurrence of groundwater. Since the structural features like dykes and faults play a
significant role in the groundwater movement and accumulation, a thorough
investigation were made in this fieldwork phase.
 Conducting geophysical investigations (VES) at the identified areas of interest, based on
geological, Geomorphological and hydrogeological characteristics of the area by using
the ABEM 400 Geophysical terra-meter with two current and potential electrodes and
record the resulting resistivity value,
 Take location (GPS) reading at the recommended deep well sites.

Figure1.5 The activities during the field work

9
[Link] Post Field Works
Post field work activities include;
 Arranging the notes and all coordination‘s,
 Arrangement of the collected data,
 Putting the resistivity data‘s in the computer and analyze the resulting VES image
using IPI2 win software,
 Interpretation of the result based on the data obtained from IPI2 win software, from
potential and feasibility point of view,
 Draft report preparation,
 Submission of the final report to the client of the project (Yotor Farmrs Charitable
Association (YFCA)).

1.5.2 Materials
The materials that we used during conducting this project are;
 ABEM Terra-meter LS Geo-electrical imaging system with all its components for
looking and recording of the aquifer response in the study area.
 Car for transportation
 Man power as labor
 GPS and laptop computer
 Camera
 VES paper format/sheet/ and pens as well as drawing pencils
 Various computer soft ware‘s namely ARC GIS 10, Global mapper12, IPI2win.

10
1.6 Existing Water Supply System

1.6.1 Existing water supply

The existing water supply sources for near the study area are; rivers & small streams, hand
dug wells, undeveloped and little developed springs, shallow wells /which are drilled from
nearby intermittent river bank/, and small streams. ANRS water, Irrigation and energy
resource development bureau water supply project, and Wegera woreda water and energy
resource development office in together drilled limited shallow wells and hand dug wells in
some parts of the study area in 2008 E.C and before. The drilled hand dug wells solve some
of series water shortage problem at this time and used as a data source for us. To use other
options, there are no strong springs and streams existed within and around these areas.
Because of these problems, the surrounding communities suffered by water shortage or
forced to travel long distance outside their village to fetch/drink water. The problem is not
only seen from degree of suffering point of view, but also it should be seen from poor water
quality and time management point of view since it is consuming their precious productive
time in the development activities and working time planned within the community
members ,especially for students and women‘s. Some constructed water schemes have also
their own problems; nonfunctional hand dug well water schemes in the study area are
mentioned as an example. When we have tried to see the current conditions of this water
schemes; due to pump and other installations, lack of water laboratory analysis reports and
due to other security affairs & lack of fences those water schemes are not steel functional,
simply they fiches water by using their own local and cultural methods from cultural and
unprotected springs and hand dug wells.

11
Figure1.6 Nonfunctional water schemes in and around the study area

12
1.6.2 Water Demand
The quantity of drinking water required for human survival will vary depending upon the
climate, the amount and type of food intake, and human activity. The climatically condition
of Gondar and its surrounding area (B/dar, Woreta, Metema, Quara, humera and other towns
increased the requirement of drinking water. The minimum drinking water requirements lie
in the range of 3-5l/person/day. Washing, cooking and other activity needs about 20-
25l/person/day. The daily water demand is expected to be 25 L/person/day considering GTP-
2 governmental water supply plane. The water demand analysis and population projection of
the next 20years is made for only motorized schemes need.
In addition to this Irrigation activity by itself needs large & enough amount of water for a
full production of the target area as we want as we like.
With this regard Geologist experts are sent by the water, irrigation and energy resource
development bureau of region and zone (in together) to the target area and the study has
conducted, where two potential deep well sites are selected, comparatively one is more
promising from Irrigation activity point of view.
Therefore, taking this in to consideration immediate action has to be taken and the wells have
to be drilled as fast as possible so as to conduct the construction of the remaining activities.

1.6.3 Identification of well site

The water well site is selected on relatively weak zone (along the structure) of the area which
follow the main river course and along the plain surface of the land and thick quaternary
sediment. The potential aquifer is the fractured, jointed, and weathered basalt and quaternary
deposit. The site is selected with Geophysical methods specifically of electrical resistivity
methods (ERM) and with the participation of community members by expressing of their
filling as the influence of water shortage and water borne diseases as well as the suitability of
the area from irrigation point of view. The selected sites, GPS location, distance from town,
type of scheme and site names are listed below in the table.

13
Table1. 1 Some notes about each site

S/ Kebele GPS Location in UTM Type of proposed Distance Road Existin Contact Remark
Woreda Specific Site ave. from wor
N Scheme condition g water person /Drilling
site name [Link] km eda town
o North East Alt &depth source system/
From road center in
(m) km
Wegera 1 Taga Gezewuye 1398717 361498 2746 BW_200 1 18 Accessible Shallow Getahun DTH/
well (0918623 MUD
893)
2 Taga Gichit 1397898 362950 2681 BW_200 1 20 Accessible Shallow >> DTH/
/promising/ well MUD

Where, Ave = average

Alt = elevation
BW = borehole depth
DTH = drilling down the hole (air rotary drilling system)
HDW = hand dug well
HHs = house holds
Km = kilo meter
MUD = drilling with mud system,
SCH = school
*** The road conditions of the above mentioned water well sites are almost all of better (accessible) according to the current
situation of the road that we have seen at the time of the study, but if there may need some maintenance during drilling, the
surrounding societies are responsible to maintain and correct the road conditions of each water well sites, but it is possible during
dry period only.

14
 CHAPTER TWO

GEOLOGICAL SETTING

2.1. Regional Geology

The regional geology of northern Ethiopia underlies by rock types range in age from
Precambrian to recent. These rocks are categorized in to the following geological
formations;

 Precambrian - Basement rocks

 Paleozoic sedimentary rocks
 Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
 Cenozoic volcanic rocks and associated sediments.

2.1.1 Basement rock

The Precambrian metamorphic and associated intrusive igneous rocks (volcanic plateau)
make up 25% of the country‘s landmass. They are exposed in many parts of the country
and have a fundamentally important tectonic position in that, they occupy the interface
between the Mozambique belt in the south and the Arabian-Nubian shield to the north
are consider by Kasmin (1971) and stern (1994). The Mozambique belt recognize
throughout east Africa and the Arabian Nubian shield Achaean rock are oldest
rock known so far on the earth, because rocks of the hadean age are not present
due to various reasons . This age is generally known as fire age. Rocks of Achaean
age in Ethiopia are recognized as the lower complex , comprising from the oldest
crystalline rocks e.g. granites , gneiss and migmatites , with that of slate and
phyllites , out cropping mainly in the south and south western part of Ethiopia ,
and can be traced in to typical Mozambique gneisses in Kenya having middle
proterozoic age , which is composed of metamorphic rocks of pelitic composition ,
have typically sandstone, like quartzite‘s , amphibolites etc .Occurring in the southern

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part of Ethiopia , specifically in Sidamo area . This unit is followed by the upper
complex in ascending order which, is represented by a successions of terrigenous
and carbonate sediments of upper proterozoic age only upper complex is exposed
in northern Ethiopia , particularly in Tigray region . These units are separated from
each other by unconformities representing huge time gaps during the formation .
The northern Ethiopia Precambrian rocks are characterized by the occurrence of low-
grade volcanic, volcano-sedimentary, mafic and ultramafic rocks of ophiolitic character
and plutonic rocks of typical Arabian-Nubian shield assemblage.

2.1.2 Paleozoic sedimentary rocks

The Paleozoic sedimentary succession of northern Ethiopia exhibits a variable
depositional environment . The Paleozoic sedimentary rock is sandwiched between
basement rock ( the oldest outcrop litho logy ) and red sandstone outcrop litho logy.
These sedimentary rock succession from the oldest to the youngest are as follows .
 Enticho sandstone formation
 Edaga Arbi Tillite formation

[Link] Enticho sandstone formation (ESF)

ESF is extensively exposed as remnants of conical hills un-conformably over lying
the upper complex . There is huge time gap between the formation of upper
complex and the depositions of ESF with angular unconformities . The Enticho
sandstone formation is wide spread in northern Ethiopia and takes its name from
town Enticho ( a town located on the Axum-Adigrat road ). It is well bedded ( with
large scale cross beddings ) and is found as hills or irregular slopes below the cliffs
of overlying Adigrat sandstone formation . EST was deposited by fluvial process
during Paleozoic age ( 570 - 250 myr). However their exact age is not established
so far due to absence of suitable tools . Paleozoic unit of northern Ethiopia are
arranged by using measurable units in descending order.

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[Link] Edaga Arbi Tillite Formation (EAF)
A town on Axum – Adigrat main road , is type locality for this litho – unit.
This unit was studied for the first time in Edaga Arbi area from where it derives its
name . This unit is also a thick succession of sedimentary rocks dominated by
muddy lithologies and big boulders of granite , mapable on 1:50, 000 scale and is
dominated by tillite. This litho – unit of Ethiopia should be Gandwana and
corredovana supper group , occurring in south Africa , south America , Madagascar ,
Antarctica , Australia and India .
The unit was deposited by glacier , so the unit was again given the name by its
thin layer formation.

2.1.3 Mesozoic sedimentary rocks

A thick succession of palaeo-mesozoic sediment covers 25% of country‘s landmass and
is represented by three distinct sedimentary basins, particularly mekelle, ogade and bllu-
nile (abay) basin. The Mesozoic sedimentary succession of Mekelle outlier , or
generally of northern Ethiopia, exhibits a multi history depositional environment . The
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks are sandwiched between basement rock and flood
basalts . These sedimentary rock succession from the oldest to the youngest are .
 Adigrat sandstone formation
 Transition bed
 Antalo limestone formation
 Agula shale / mudstone formation
 Umbaradom sandstone formation

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[Link] Adigrat sandstone formation (ASF)
This is the name given by Bland Ford (1869) to the basal clastics on which the
Adigrat locally over lies horizontal glacial rocks of Paleozoic age ( Dowet al ,
1971), Soxona asset , 1983).
The Adigrat sandtone (also known as lower sandstone) of mekelle basin has a
maximum thickness of about 800m in vicinity of Abiadi , thinning west ward over
a short distance to about 80m above the Tekeze rivers and disappearing
completely north of the Adigrat - Axum road and also 100-700m in abay river basin.
The sandstone have grey or red color , fine grained , well sorted and very mature (
particularly , quartz arenaite ) type and is probably the result of the reworking of
the under lying glacial sandstones cross bedding is quite common and bioturation
of the silt - shale occur frequently in the upper part of the section , where several
red , ferruginous laterals beds occur .
The formation is clearly of fluvial to marine origin , as shown by the occurrence
of point bar sequences , the abundant literaite beds and the presence of fossil
wood . The Adigrat sandstone of mekelle basin consists of at least three major
fluvial cycles , each capped by reddish mud units.

[Link] Transition bedes

The boundary between the Adigrat sandstone and the overlying Antlo carbonates is
transitional . There is around 20 - 25 m of shale with some calcarenite and
sandstone intercalations . The sandstone vary in quartz of probable metamorphic
provenance with rare feldspars and is scattered with small shale fragments, some
oolite lafeers and the common presence of brachiopods , cephalopods and echinoids
document the shallow marine depositional environment of these transition beds on
the other hand the occurrences of some laterite soils and ferruginous hard ground
spotted with vertical borings points to repeated local withdrawal of the sea during
the initial stage of Jurassic transgression .

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[Link] Antalo Limestone formation (ALF)
Antalo limestone is the next oldest Mesozoic sedimentary rock from Adigrat sandstone.
Antalo limestone is a product of a major transgression caused by the flooding of
the African continental margin and static sea level rise . The thickness of this
litho- unit may reach from 100 to 4000m. This study area is continuous limestone
– shale intercalated , the limestone variety is fossilifereous dominantly, because of
marine depositional environment. This hard limestone unit was formed in shallow
water, which is documented by the occurrence of oolitic bars coral offshore patches and
more protected inshore facies. Boundaries on both sides of this unit are transitional.

[Link] Agula shale / mudstone formation (ASF)

Agula shale is a rock which is sandwitched between Antalo limestone and
Ambaradom sandstone . It is composed finely laminated shale , marl and limestone
containing gypsum and dolomite . There is also shallow water and marine
organisms are present , fine sediments are easily eroded / entruded to the ocean and
mixed with carbonate .This unit has a thickness of about 100 - 300m

[Link] Umbaradom sandstone formation (USF)

This unit is the youngest of Mesozoic sedimentary rock ,which is also called upper
sandstone. This rock unit is formed during regression of Indian Ocean and consists of coarse
grained, mainly grey, brown and red sandstone commonly associated with conglomerate and clay
stone lenses. It is also immature with respect to the underlying Adigrat sandstone . It has
relatively 100 – 200m thickness, and is overlain by trap basalts. Main sedimentary structures
seen in the sandstone are large and small scale planar-tabular and asymmetrical trough cross-
beds, convolute beds, flat beds, scored and channel surface and massive beds. Quartz, k-feldspar
and cherts are the major components.
The upper Jurassic sedimentary succession of Tigray is abruptly over lain with angular
unconformity by silic clastic sediments the so called ― upper sand stone ― occurs in
central Ethiopia , Eritrea and in south east Ethiopia. Pebble conglomerates occur throughout the
formation.

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2.1.4 Cenozoic Rocks and Associated Sediment
Cenozoic volcanic and sediments cover 50% of the country‘s land mass, and range in age
from the late Eocene up to historical times. But the coverage of them in the present day is
reduced time to time due to; erosion and dissolution (decomposition) effects, in which we
are now living, began 66 million years ago. The Cenozoic is the final era of Geologic
time , in which the continents and their landscapes acquired their present form .
The era is separated in to a tertiary and quaternary period.
The Cenozoic is a time of considerable tectonic plate motion and sea floor
spreading , which is much more similar to basaltic flow , that is volcanic rocks . A
major unconformity representing a marine regression does indeed serve nicely as a
boundary between the paleogene and neogene systems. ― A wedge of sediments
that thickness sea ward ― is particularly suitable description for the Cenozoic
formation of the gulf coast , which is the best record of Cenozoic strata in north
America.
At the close of the Paleozoic era and Mesozoic era the seas were withdrawn
from the continental plate forms in to the ocean basins , the continents were
gathered in to a supper continental mass called Pangaea , the continental shelves
were marine invertebrates thrived were highly restricted .
The fossil record of all vertebrate groups are much more complete in the Cenozoic
than the other eras . The major reptilian groups that were present in the late
Mesozoic have persisted into the Cenozoic ( except for the dinosaurs and large
marine reptiles ). Geologists think of the Cenozoic as the age of mammals , for
they are certainly the most conspicuous terrestrial vertebrates. Like the reptiles of
the Mesozoic , mammals also radiated extensively in aquatic environments , and the
bates achieved flight .
It is apparent from fossil evidence and oxygen isotope studies that the earth‘s
climate was on somewhat fluctuating cooling trend during the Cenozoic (Levin –
Cenozoic climate) . The culmination of that trend was the beginning of extensive
glaciations about 1 million years ago.

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Cenozoic volcanic contains varies semi-precious stones and industrial minerals including
potash, bentonite, opal, diatomite and sulphure.
A wealth of gold , tin , copper , silver , and other metal is found in deposits or
associated with intrusion of Cenozoic rock , the greatest resource of the era has
been petroleum . This all are considered as a minerals resource of Cenozoic.
Generally, a compilation of the great historical events of the Cenozoic would
certainly include the formation of the Alpine Himalayan mountain systems , the
drift of continents to their present locations , the uplift of mountains around the
perimeter of the pacific , the development of an ice age , and the evolution of
Homosapiens . Levin (The earth through time, 4th edition)

The Project/study area, Gondar specifically Wegera and those environs is part of the
northwestern Ethiopian Highlands dominantly covered with Cenozoic volcanic covered
with patchy Quaternary alluvio-colluvial deposits. The volcanic is dominantly Tertiary
Trap Series basaltic lava flows with occasional acidic volcanic rocks. In the Lake Tana
basin, Quaternary volcanic rocks exist along with thick alluvial and lacustrine deposits.
In terms of geodynamic, setting the region is located on relatively stable plateau.
However, due to heterogeneity of the basement beneath the thick volcanic succession
there are large faults affecting the region, particularly in the Lake Tana basin. These
structures are very important from hydrogeological point of view. Major groundwater
reserves are localized along these regional structures. These large faults are clearly
observable on satellite images. These structures are younger than the Trap volcanism and
possibly related to the local Quaternary extensional tectonic activity around Lake Tana
(Chorowicz et al, 1998).
The Lake Tana basin is located at a triple junction of three aborted tectonic arms namely:
the DebreTabor, Dengel Ber and Gondar arms. Most of the selected sites are confined in
the Gondar tectonic belt, which is characterized by NNW-SSE and N-S striking faults.
There are few NE-SW and NW-SE structures, which are interpreted as conjugates of the
principal directions. The NNW- SSE faults are the most frequent structures, which have
modified the morphology of the region enhancing differential erosion on the fractured

21
rocks. The most striking structural feature in the region is the Lake Tana Depression and
the various faults associated to it.
The faults around the lake resemble a circular shaped tectonic subsidence (Chorowicz et
al., 1998). South and east of the lake, the surface expression of this geological process are
fresh lava flows, numerous scoria cones and plugs.
In the elevated plateau, the thick volcanic sequences are highly variable in terms of age
and composition. The Trap Series rocks are made up of several distinct volcanic centers
of different ages and magmatic affinities (Kieffer et al., 2004).

22
The following Figure shows the regional geological map established based on field
observations and interpretation of satellite images and SRTM data.

Figure2.1 Map of the Northern part of Ethiopian Plateau showing volcanic

province (Source: Kiffer et, al 2004)

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From the oldest to youngest, Cenozoic volcanic rocks of northern Ethiopia (EFBs) can be
classified in to the following four units as shown in the regional hydro geological map
(Fig-3.1);

 Ashanghe Basalt Formations

 Aiba Basalt Formations
 Alaji Basalt Formations
 Tarmaber Basalt Formations

[Link]. Ashanghe Basalts

The oldest fissure basalts on the Ethiopian plateau were described by Blanford (1869) as
the Ashange group, which is dominantly basaltic in composition. This group consists
predominately of alkaline basalts with interblended pyroclastics and rare rhyolites
erupted from fissures. Dolerite sills, acidic, gabro-diabase dykes, and other intrusions
intrude them. The flows range in total thickness from 200 to 1,200m. The thickest
exposed outcrop occurs close to the rift escarpment. However, the Trap Series attain their
maximum inferred thickness in the plateau.
The upper part of the Ashange group is more tuffaceous containing lacustrine deposits
including lignite seems and acid volcanic and locally over lays the older part of the group
with angular unconformity. Out crops of the Ashenge basalts are restricted to the north
central part of the Ethiopian plateau. The Ashangie Basalts have a Paleocene to Oligocene
age.

24
[Link]. Aiba Basalt
The Aiba basalts represent the second major volcanic cycle in the Ethiopian plateau. The
basalts of these formations, which were produced by fissure eruptions, attain a thickness
of 200 to 600 meters. They show a distinctive tholoitic nature with transitions to alkaline
varieties. The absolute age of the Aiba Basalts (P3a) ranges from 34to 28Ma. Placing them in
Oligocene (ZanettinetaI., 1980; Kazmin, 1979)

[Link]. Alaje Formation

The top part of Ethiopian flood basalt is characterized by Alaje series intercalated with
ignimbrites.
This formation is mainly represented by aphyritic stratoid basalts associated with
rhyolites and to a lesser extent with trachytes as well as it includes the lithologies, ranges
from mafic to felsic composition. The Alajae Formation contains basalts transitional to
tholeiitic in nature and an increase in alkalinity is observed in the younger members of the
formation.
According to Zonetime et al. (1974), northwest of the line joining Ambo and Richie, on
the Addis Ababa-Dessie road, the Alaji basalts are of Oligocene age.

[Link]. Tarmaber Basalts

On the Ethiopian highlands, the fissure eruptions of the Ashenge, Aiba, and Alaji basalts
were followed by central type volcanism which created the large shield volcanoes of the
Tarmaber group, Ras Dashin, Mengistu, Choke-Meghezez, Abune Joseph and other
mountains. The Tarmaber group is represented by various basalts from femic pyroxen-
olivin porphyritic basalts to leucocratic plagioclase porphyritic types and scoraceous
horizons are in many places seen at the bottom of flows.

25
 2.2 Local Geology

2.2.1 General description of the local geology of the study area.

In Ethiopia there are three types of rocks; those are metamorphic, sedimentary and
igneous (volcanic) rocks. But in the study area and in the region as a whole, igneous
(volcanic) rocks are the most dominant. Those volcanic rocks are also classified based
on their mode of occurrence, composition and texture. Based on their occurrence and
composition many of them are similar, but texturally there are many litho logical units
exposed in the study area, each of these lithology‘s has its own characteristics in
terms of degree of weathering, fracture, color and a little bit of composition. There are
also some structures and Geological processes in our study area, among those structures:-
Geological structure, sedimentary structure, subside structures and fractures are the
common ones. And mainly different types of lithology‘s like clay lithology‘s and
different types of basaltic rock lithology‘s are mostly observed in the study area . The
color, grain size, texture and other characteristics are important to describe each litho
logical units.

2.2.2 Detailed description of the local geology of the study area:-

Among the common lithological units that we have observed in and around the study
area, the following units can be mentioned as an example;
 Amygdaloidal Basalt
 Boulder unit
 Clay unit
 Dolerite rock unit
 Quaternary & alluvial sediment deposits
 Quartz mineral
 Tuff unit and
 Vesicular Basalt (scoria)

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[Link] Amygdaloidal Basalte
This is basalt; a dark colored volcanic rock formed from magma of basic composition
erupted on the Earth's surface. ... Filled cavities in lavas are called amygdales, and a rock
full of them can be called amygdaloidal. The amygdales are usually white in color. A
related texture is amygdaloidal in which the volcanic rock, usually basalt or andesite, has
cavities, or vesicles, that are filled with secondary minerals, such as zeolites, calcite,
quartz, or chalcedony. Individual cavity fillings are termed amygdules (American usage)
or amygdales (British usage).
This rock unit is the common one in the study area, and is correlated with the regional
Alaje series rock unit, based on its color, texture and grain size. This unit consists of
mainly whitish and grey color in its weathered part.

Figure2.2 Amygdaloidal rock units

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[Link] Boulder unit
Boulders are unusually large and spherical boulders lying along a stretch of river Beach.
They occur scattered either as isolated or clusters of boulders within a stretch of beach
where they have been protected in a scientific reserve. The erosion by wave action of
mudstone, comprising local bedrock and landslides, frequently exposes embedded
isolated boulders. These boulders are grey-colored septarian concretions, which have
been exhumed from the mudstone enclosing them and concentrated on the beach by
coastal erosion. After the concretions formed, cracks are common as septaria formed in
them. Brown calcite, yellow calcite, and small amounts of dolomite and quartz
progressively filled these cracks when a drop in sea level allowed fresh groundwater to
flow through the rock enclosing them.
In the study are, this unit is common especially near the site of Gichit and in some parts
of Wegera woreda.

Figure2.3 Boulder units

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[Link] Clay unit
Clay unit is an earthy material that is plastic when moist but, hard when fired (heated),
that is composed mainly of fine particles of hydrous aluminum silicates and other
minerals or it is simply a fine-grained soil or water-soaked earth.
It is produced by the chemical decomposition of rocks or the deposit of fine rock particles
in water.
Clay unit is found in & around some parts of the study area. Especially in the inter site
gravel road of Amba-Giorgis to Taga line parts, and in the local name called ―sub
marine‖ has a composition of clay.
This rock unit has various types of color, among them black, greenish and brownish color
is mentioned.

Clay

Figure2.4 Brownish color Clay unit

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[Link] Dolerait rock unit
Dolerite (diabase, microgabbro) is a dark-colored, medium-grained igneous rock which
contains plagioclase feldspar of labradorite composition and pyroxene of augite or
titanaugite composition as essential minerals, and magnetite, titano-magnetite, or ilmenite
as accessory minerals. Where olivine also occurs as an additional mineral, the rock is
termed an ‗olivine dolerite‘. Where quartz occurs as an additional mineral in the
groundmass, the rock is termed a ‗quartz dolerite‘. Dolerites are the medium-grained
equivalents of basalts and, like the basalts, can be divided into alkali and tholeiitic types
(see also ALKALI BASALT; and THOLEIITE). Dolerites are commonly found in
shallow level intrusions (dykes, sills, or plugs) of basaltic composition. This rock unit is
also characterized by spherical weathering (onion like weathering) and number of joint
with a few centimeter length openings which enhances the water infiltration until it
reaches the massive part of it, that is; with increasing depth, the dolerite rock becomes
massive. It is highly distributed in almost all of the study area, and which is also
correlated with the regional geology of Alaje series.

Figure2.5 Dolerite rock units

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[Link] Quaternary sédiment
The quaternary deposits are found in the gentle to flat topography of the study area and
they are deposited from the above and the surrounding hilly areas due to erosion and
gravitational force. However, erosion decreases currently due to different soil and water
conservation methods conducted especially in some areas of the upper catchment.
The quaternary deposits contain fine, medium to coarse grained size soils with variable
thickness. These quaternary deposits are either alluvial or colluvial. Alluvial deposits are
limited to areas closer to stream routs while colluvial deposits are found in areas far from
river courses around the study areas which are formed through weathering and
transportations of its surrounding parent materials. The main agents of its formation
could be water, gravity and little bit of wind. This unit is also correlated with the regional
geology of Tarmaber formation.

Figure2.6 Quaternary sediments

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[Link] Quartz Mineral
Quartz is the second most abundant mineral in Earth‘s crust after feldspar. It occurs in
nearly all acid igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. It is an essential mineral in
such silica-rich felsic rocks as granites, granodiorites, and rhyolites. It is highly resistant
to weathering and tends to concentrate in sandstones and other detrital rocks. Secondary
quartz serves as cement in sedimentary rocks of this kind, forming overgrowths on
detrital grains.
This litho unit is widely distributed mineral of many varieties that consist primarily of
silica, or silicon dioxide (SiO2). Minor impurities such as lithium, sodium, potassium,
and titanium may be present. Quartz has attracted attention from the earliest times; water-
clear crystals were known to the ancient Greeks as krystallos—hence the name crystal, or
more commonly rock crystal, applied to this variety. The name quartz is an old German
word of uncertain origin first used by Georgius Agricola in 1530.
In the study area quartz is moderately abundant and distributed, especially in the south
eastern, south western and in the central part of the study area.

Quartz

Figure2.7 Quartz mineral

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[Link] Tuff unit
A light, highly porous rock formed by consolidation of volcanic ash is known as tuff.
This unit exists in the form of unwelded (lapilli/ash) tuff, moderately welded or welded
tuff/lithic fragments. In the study area, this unit is the moderately abundant formation and
correlated with the regional geology of Aiba series.

Figure2.8 Tuff units

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[Link] Vesicular Basalt
This type of basalt is formed during the lava solidifies before the gas escapes. Due to this,
it includes numerous cavities or vesicles. Those gas bubbles gives a vesicular texture for
this types rock that is why it takes its name ―vesicular basalt‖ from this process. This rock
unit is common in the study area especially in the site of Gezewuye. It is also correlated
with the regional geology of Alaje series.

Figure2.9 Vesicular basalts

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Lastly, the geology of the study area is generalized by the following figure (fig 2.10), i.e. The
upper part of the area is basaltic unit and the underneath formation is pyroclastic rocks such as
unwedded tuff (in the study area there are tuff units with in different ranges).

Figure2.10 Geological Map of the study area

35
2.3 Geological structures of the study area
The study area is characterized by different primary and secondary geological structures
as well as with different geological intrusions. Primary geological structures are
structures which are formed during the depositions of sediments, while secondary
structures formed after depositions of the sediments. Among these structures, fracture
(fault and joints), mud cracks and subsidence structures can be mentioned. Ground water
direction and potential is determined by Geological structures.

2.3.1 Faults
Faults are a type of fractures in which a measurable displacement between two blocks has
occurred. In our study area a minor fault /weak zone) is present in between the borders of
Gezewuye and Gichit, near the site / sheds of the borehole. From geological point of view
major faults are ground water indicator structures.

Figure2.11 Minor fault lines

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2.3.2 Joints
Joints are other division of fractures which has no measurable displacement. The study
area joints are characterized by different set of joint orientations. Mostly in the area, those
structures are observed in river cut rock units.

Figure2.12 Joints

2.3.3 Mud cracks

Mud cracks are multi directional (polygonal) pattern of cracks formed in very fine
grained sediment as it dries (due to evaporation of water). Mud crack indicates that the
sediments were initially
deposited in the presence of
water and it becomes
subsequently dry by exposure
to air before.

Figure2. 13 Mud crack

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2.4 Geological processes
There are money Geological processes in the world, among them volcanic eruptions,
earth quake, land slide, tsunami, weathering and erosion are the most common one.
But, in our study area weathering and erosion are the most dominant recent and current
geological processes.

2.4.1 Weathering
When we say weathering; it is the physical break down and chemical alteration of rocks
and minerals at or the earth‘s surface in to products that are more in equilibrium with the
conditions found in the environment.
The rock units which are highly affected by weathering are easily penetrated by plant
roots, due to this they becomes important for percolation of rain and other water sources
into the sub surface of the earth.

Figure2.14 weathering and its effects

38
2.4.2 Erosion
This is one of the Geological processes, that the transportation of weathered materials
from one place to another, through a transporting agent of water, wind or gravity.
However, erosion decreases currently due to different soil and water conservation
methods conducted especially in some areas of the upper catchment.
This process is common in some sites of the study area. The following figure (Figure
2.10) Shows, part of the earth which is highly affected by gully erosions before, but at a
time it is a little bit conserved with small plants.

Figure2.15 Gully erosions

39
 CHAPTER THREE

HYDROGEOLOGICAL SETTING

3.1 Regional Hydrogeology

Four broad hydrogeological units can be recognized for the entire volcanic province of
Ethiopian Plateau. The recognition of the four hydro stratigraphic units is based on
geomorphic manifestations, aquifer properties and mode of groundwater occurrence,
groundwater flow and discharge. The contrast in geomorphic appearance of the various
stratigraphic sequences of the plateau flood basalt is the manifestation of differences in
erosion resistance which in turn is partly related to permeability structure of the
formations (S. Kebede, Groundwater in Ethiopia, Springer Hydrogeology).
The four hydro-stratigraphic units are:
1. Basal sequence: The gently undulating, rugged thinly bedded, brecciated, deeply
weathered and low permeability base of the flood basalts (traditionally called Ashangie
basalts)
2. Upper sequence: The flat topped, cliff forming, thickly bedded scoriacious, slightly
weathered, permeable and relatively higher productivity aquifers with some intercalations
of acid rocks, capping the entire Ethiopian volcanic plateau. Traditionally this
hydrostratigraphic unit is made of the Aiba, Termaber and Alaji formations.
3. Shields: The morphologically prominent, shield volcanics made up of composite
stratigraphy of volcanic materials (ashes, rhyolites, trachytes, basalts) occupying broad
area. Typical hydrogeologic features are emergence of springs at various locations of
shield volcanoes.
From hydrogeological point of view, volcanic rocks are not treated as hard rocks (rocks
without primary porosity and conductivity for feasible groundwater extraction).
Structures such as shrinkage cracks (cooling joints), vesicles, lava tubes, rubble beds, tree
molds, voids left between successive flow, buried soils, buried river channel, give
primary porosity and permeability for these rocks(Tamiru,2006). The presence and

40
abundance of these structures play a great role in the distribution and circulation of
groundwater. Other conditions being favorable weathered, fractured basalt with primary
volcanic structures is found to be a promising aquifer as confirmed by the productive
wells that tap this formation in different parts of the region. In the study area recharge to
groundwater is mostly from rainfall, and rivers.
Alluvial deposit in the study area is generally located primarily along water courses with
the coarser material confined to areas in the immediate surrounding streams. From the
hydrogeological point of view the alluvial deposits have shallow depths (10m on average)
except Fogera plain which thickness reaches about 100m that have significant
hydrogeological importance. Lineaments are large scale linear features which express
itself in terms of topography which is in it an expression of the underlying structural
features. From hydrogeological point of view, such features includes
 valleys controlled by faulting and jointing and ridge lines
 abrupt truncation of rocks
 straight segments of streams
 and right angled offsetting of streams
As these linear features are commonly associated with dislocation and deformation, they
provide the path ways for groundwater movements. Different lineaments predominates
the study area and efforts were made to locate the proposed wells at the proximity of
these lineaments.

41
3.2 Local Hydrogeology
The recharge to the aquifer systems of the study area is from surrounding highland,
rainfall and from some surface waters. Source of recharge in the area mainly includes
stream and precipitation. Cracks, fractures bedrock depression and weathered basalt are
the geologic subsurface structure in volcanic terrain that can favor groundwater
accumulation. Porosity, permeability and transmissivity are the parameters of an aquifer.
A good aquifer must have high porosity, high permeability and transmissivity.
Locally, the intensity of fracturing and faulting as well as the degree of weathering
determine the aquifer potential and direct infiltration of the rock (Tesfaye and
Gebretsadik, 1982).
The ground water potential of the study area depends on number of factors. These factors
include climate, geology, vegetation, physiography, etc. Among these physiography,
geology and climate play a great roll, (Children‘s home society, 2009)
The existing bed rocks, observed in the study area such as vesicular basalt, dolerite and
other rocks in the study locally, due to their intensive fracturing they contribute a good
amount of recharge to the aquifer systems of the area.
The study area is situated on the lowland and highland plateau of northern Ethiopia, with
dominant rock units of Dolerite, clay, quaternary sediment and pyroclastic materials like
tuff. These rock units are highly weathered and fractured with high permeability at
places, especially at the margin of river channel.
Rather than this the pre-existing shallow well and deep well data‘s of Wegera wereda
shows the ground water is not deeper than 150-200m. The following lithological units
have their own properties to be a potential aquifer in the study area.

42
3.2.1Dolerite rock unit
This rock unit is characterized by spherical weathering /Exfoliation process/ and number
of joint with a few centimeter length openings which enhances the water infiltration until
it reaches the massive part of it. The exposed part of this rock unit is highly weathered
and fractured. But with increasing depth the dolerite becomes massive. There for, from
hydro geological point of view, highly weathered and fractured dolerite is act as
groundwater bearing formation (potential aquifer) but massive dolerite does not serve as
media for groundwater movement.

3.2.2 Quaternary sediment

These sediments are formed due to erosion and depositional process. However, erosion
decrease currently due to different soil and water conservation methods conducted
especially in some areas of the upper catchment. Since these sediments consist,
proportions of different grain size that are transported from various parent materials.
They become very important for infiltration and storage of ground water. Their
transmissive capacity and productivity vary from place to place depending on their grain
size, sorting and thickness. As I have seen in the study area, this unit is suitable and very
important for transmissivity and storage of groundwater.

3.2.3 Tuff unit

Naturally this unit is very soft and it acts as pores media for transmissivity of ground
water. That, it is a potential aquifer in the site of it exists. Next to dolerite, this unit is
common and the best permeable formation in the study area.
Not only tuff unit but also all other pyroclastic materials are very important to be an
aquifer, due to their properties of high porosity and permeability nature.
Generally tuff and other related pyroclastic materials are important for transferring and
storing ground water and the water raised from those is fresh due to the presence of
plagioclase feldspar mineral.

43
3.2.4. Vesicular basalt
As we have recognized from its name, it has numerous cavities and vesicles, and those
vesicles are very important for transferring and storage of ground water. That is it has
good transmissivity and storage capacity and act as a potential aquifer.

44
 CHAPTER FOUR

METHODOLOGY

4.1 Geophysical signature

Searching for groundwater has become quite intense in human history. This is due to the
fact that supply is unable to meet the ever-increasing water demand with surface water
only; inhabitants have/ had to look for alternative sources such as surface streams,
shallow wells and boreholes. I.e. directly indicates searching different types of
Geophysical methods to meet the overburden depth, for extracting the buried fresh
underground water.

Geophysical evaluation with different Geophysical methods like seismic, magnetic,

resistivity and gravity methods are used for ground water exploration to identify different
types of strata, subsurface lithological units and geological structures within it.

Seismic method provides fairly accurate estimates to the depth of different layers and bed
rock units, while gravity methods used in determining broad and deep valleys and caves.
However, the current investigation is directed by direct current resistivity methods to
identify different lateral and vertical ground water bearing formations and structures.

4.1.1 Electrical Resistivity Method (ERM)

Surface electrical resistivity surveying is based on the principle of distribution of
electrical potential in the ground and measure the potential difference between two
potential electrodes, when the current is injected through the current electrode.
I.e. direct or low frequency alternating current is introduced in to the ground by means of
two electrodes connected to the terminals of portable sources. The resulting potential
distribution on the ground is the ability of gathering information about the distribution of
electrical resistivity below the surface. Frischknecht (1966).
The electrical resistivity method measures apparent resistivity of soils and rocks as a
function of depth to study the sub surface hydrogeological set up of the area.

45
The potential electrodes are in line between current electrodes, the current electrodes but
in principle they can be located anywhere. All analysis and interpretation are done in the
basis of direct current (DC) of low frequency. The distribution of potential can be related
theoretically to ground resistivity and their distribution for some sample cases, the case of
horizontally stratified and the case of homogeneous masses separated by vertical
structures. (AL-Garni, M.A. 1996.)
The resistivity of soil and rock is governed primarily by the amount of pore water, to the
extent that differences of lithology are accompanied by differences of resistivity. The
aims of this method are to map the sub surface change in earth resistivity and correlate
with the hidden lithology of the area or geological formation of the area.
Resistivity method is measuring variation of electrical resistance by causing an electrical
current to flow through the ground using wires connected to it. For most material, the
current through of the material, increasing in proportion to the potential difference,
doubling the potential double the current and the voltmeter measures the potential
difference at two potential electrode and the ammeter measures the current flowing
through it.
The electric current I(A) in a short thin, linear conductor of uniform cross section is given
by ohm‘s low as I
I = -dV/R
Where –dV is potential difference (volt, v) between the ends of the conductor.
 R(in Ohm) is the resistance of the conductor
 The mines sign expresses the fact that the current flow is from high to low
potential.
 R- length of the dl(m) of the conductor
 R-inversely proportional to the cross sections A(m2)
R= ρL / A
ρ is the resistivity of the material for the conductor.
The resistance is a characteristic of a particular path of an electric current whereas
resistivity is a physical property of the material. This expresses its ability to oppose a
flow of charged particles. The unit of resistivity is ohm-meter.
46
If R is substituted by V/L, then the equation become, V/L = ρI/A
V/L is the ratio of the electric field (assuming the potential gradient to be constant along
the length of the conductor)
I/A is the ratio of current per unit cross sectional area of the conductor. It is called as
current density and denoted by J.

Ohm‘s law gives

E = pJ
This formula is useful to calculating the formulas used in resistivity methods of electrical
surveying, the quantities that are measured as V and I.
In ERM there are two types of resistivity surveying methods; the first one is vertical
electrical sounding (VES), provides information about resistivity variation with depth.
The 2nd method is electrical profiling, which provides information about the lateral
variation of resistivity.

47
[Link] Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)
This method is also called depth sounding/ point sounding/, which is used to identify
horizontally stratified sub surface layers based on the resistivity variation. Within the
uniform layer the current path are smooth curves but they bend as they cross an interface
separating different resistivity. Apparent resistivity of the VES Survey is the ratio of
current to potential difference and is measured with increasing electrode separations. The
ratio changes for two reasons because of change of resistivity but also simply because the
electrodes are being moved apart. Van Nostrand and cook (1966)
The instrument used during the investigation was a portable integrated terameter
resistivity meter of mark ABEM Terrameter LS1, powered by 12v battery.

Figure4.1ABEM Terra meter LS geo-electrical imaging system

The measurements are taken with gradually increasing distances of the current electrodes
(the potential electrodes remain constant at some station) and the procedure is called
―electrical drilling‖ (Fig 4.2). As the distance between current probe is increased, there is
also an increased in the depth at which the current penetrates below the surface of the
distribution, below the center of the array is determined (Loke, 2001).

Figure4.2 Schematic Plans for Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) (After Loke,
2001)

48
[Link] Resistivity Profiling
Electrical resistivity profiling investigates lateral changes such as mineral vein, geologic
contactes, igneous intrusion, etc. The entire electrode moved laterally along the profile,
the procedure is also called lateral inhomogeniety hunting, and it is shown in Fig 4.3. The
procedures are especialy useful to locate and map vertical contactes like dykes, faultes,
fissures segregated mineralization zones (Loke, 2001).
In resistivity profiling the whole array is moved along the profile with constant geometry,
i.e. with constant depth of investigation. Lateral/horizontal resistivity changes are the
target.

Figure4.3 Schematic Plans for Electrical resistivity profiling (After Loke, 2001)

49
4.1.2 Electrode configuration
The two potential and two current electrodes can be placed over the ground in various
ways. This disposition of the four electrodes gives rise to what are known as the
Electrode Arrays, Configurations, Layouts or Arrangements.

In practice, the conventional array to measure subsurface resistivity is as shown below.

Figure4.4 conventional electrode configurations

Current is injected into the ground through the current electrodes, C1 and C2, and the
resulting potential difference (V) is measured between the two potential electrodes, P1
and P2.

There are many electrode configurations, such as wenner, schlumberger, dipole dipole,
pole dipole, pole pole, gradient, square electrode configurations (array). Among these
arrays wenner and schlumberger arrays are widely used.

50
[Link] Schlumberger électrode Array
In this system, the electrodes are symmetrically placed about a point at the center of the
array. The two current electrodes C1C2 moves outward symmetrically but the potential
electrodes are kept fixed to a certain distance.

Figure4.5 Schematic diagram of a four point schlumberger array

Where, A & B are current electrodes, M and N are potential electrodes (modified after
van nostrand and cook, 1966 [22], in stummer, 2003[23]).

[Link] Wenner électrode array

In this system, all the four electrodes are equally spaced.

Figure4.6 wenner electrode array configurations

But here, the schlumberger configuration is used since we are investigating the depth at a
point for potential water well. The maximum electrode separation AB/2 used was
between 750m.

51
4.1.3 Relation between Geology and Resistivity
Geophysical investigation involves the maesurement of the apparent resistivity of soil
and rocks as a function of depth to study subsurface hydrogeological set up of the area.
The objective of electrical resistivity survey is to map the subsurface change in earth
resistivity and correlate them with hidden geological formation and dgree of fracturing
filled with ground water. Rocks which usually are more porous and have a higher water
cotent normally have lower resistivity values. Wet soils and fresh ground water have
lower resistivity values. Clay soil normally has lower resistivity value than sandy soil of
the same composition. The resistivity of any formations mainly dependent on two factors,
the porosity of the formation and the salinity of the solution held in the pore. Electrical
resistivity survey can be used profitably for solving various ground water problems such
as:-
 To determine qualitatively the type of water bearing formation,
 To determine between saline and fresh water aquifers, provided the lithology of
the aquifer is uniform
Generally the resistivity method is used to determine depth of water table, extent of salt
water intrusion, type and thickness of lithological unit, type of geologic structures and
over burden depth.

52
4.1.4 Limitation of the Electrical Resistivity Method
The electric resistivity method has some limitations that affect the resolution and
accuracy that may be expected from it. Like other Geophysical methods using
measurments of potential field value of measurment obtained at any location represents a
weighted average of the effects produced over a large volume of material. With the near
portions contributing most heavily tends to produce smooth curves. Which donot lend
themselves to high resolution for interpretations. Another common to all potential field
geophysical method is that a particular distribution of potential at the ground suface does
not generally have a unique interpretation.
In addition, this method uses long cable to investigate greater depth, it consumes much
field time and its interpretation for complex geologic structures is difficult and
ambiguous. The presenece of metal pipes, cables, fences and electrical rgrounds can also
complicate interpretation, therefor accuracy of depth determination is lower than with
seismic techinqes. For these reason it is always advisable to use several complemntary
geophysical methods in an integrated exploration program rather than relying on a single
exploration method. (Flathe, H. 1970.)

4.2 Data Acquistion and Processing

Electrical resistivity method is a major Geophysical tool in ground water exploration
efforts. Principle of electrical resistivity method is by applying direct current in to the
ground by means of two metal electrodes and measures the resultant potential difference
between two potential electrodes. Because of resistance of earth materials to current
passage, some voltage loss will be occurring as the current flows between the current
electrodes. This voltage loss is measured at the other two electrodes placed between the
current electrodes. Generally, electrical resistivity surveys measure variation in the
electrical resistivity of the ground by applying small electric currents through two metal
electrodes in to the ground.
The survey data is processed to produce graphic depth sections of the thickness and resistivity of
the surface electrical layers. The resistivity sections are correlated with ground interface such as
soil, bed rock interface to reveal detailed information on subsurface ground conditions.

53
4.2.1 Field Procedure and Data Acquisition of ERM
Geophysical methods are important to save cost expenses and time of drilling. Before
conducting drilling operation, Geophysical methods are investigated to select appropriate
sites. Therefore, the first actual step after planning to carry out Geophysical survey is data
acquisition. A set of measurements made with a Geophysical instrument (Fig. 4.7)

Figure4.7 Field Procedures

Resistivity surveys are made to satisfy the needs of two different kinds of interpretation
problems.
 The variation of resistivity with depth reflecting more or less vertical stratification
of the earth material.
 The lateral variations in resistivity that may be indicate soil lenses and isolated
faults or cavities.
The 1st, kinds of problem measurement of apparent resistivity are made at a single
location (or around a single center point) with systematically varying electrode spaces.
This procedure is called vertical electrical sounding (VES). Surveys of lateral variation
may be made at spot or grid location or along definite lines of traverse, this procedure
sometimes called horizontal profiling.

54
The arrays of data acquisition from vertical electrical sounding (VES), point of are either
the schlumberger or less effectively the wenner array is used for sounding. Since all
commonly available interpretation methods and interpretation aids for sounding are based
on these two arrays. The resistivity raw data of the current research work were collected
by using the schlumberger array method. VES surveys with the schlumberger arrays are
made with fixed center point. An initial spacing (the distance from the center of the array
to either of the current electrodes) is chosen and the current electrodes are moved
outward with the potential electrodes fixed at a point.
Schlumberger array is a linear array with potential electrodes placed close together. AB
(spacing of current electrode from the center) is set equal to or five times greater than the
values of the MN (spacing of potential electrode from the center). The simplest target of
VES is a vertical boundary between two resistivity values such as; two lithologies offset
by a vertical fault or the contact of a large intrusion.
For either type of electrode array minimum and maximum spacing are governed by the
need to define the asymptotic phase of the apparent resistivity curve and the needed depth
of investigation. Apparent resistivity curve should be plotted as the survey progresses in
order to judge whether sufficient data have been obtained. Also the progressive plot can
be used to detect errors in reading or spurious resistivity values due to local effects.

55
4.2.2 Data Processing and Data Presentation ERM
At the end of a survey, the result should be presented in tabular and graphic forms. This
offers an opportunity to emphasize features, particularly for two dimensional grid
systems.
The interpretation needs to take account of all valuable information from Geological
context with in which the survey was carried out to interpret the current boreholes and
any other Geophysical survey. The interpretation is likely to use the curve of apparent
resistivity versus electrode spacing (with thickness of layers) by using measurements to
obtain the parameters of the geologic structures and the tendency of each layer.
Layer thickness can be determined from log – log VES curve. There is interplay between
thickness and resistivity. There may be anisotropy of resistivity in the same strata, large
difference Geo-electrical section. Particularly at depth produce small differences in
apparent resistivity and accuracy of field measurement is limited by the natural variability
of surface and subsurface rock and by instrument capabilities to deal with the problem of
ambiguity, the interpreter should check all interpretation by computing the theoretical
VES curve for the interpreted section and comparing it with the field curve. The test of
Geological reasonability should be applied.
Because of the accuracy limitation caused by instrumental and Geological factors,
adjustments to the interpreted values may be made on the basis of the computed VES
curves and checked by computing the new curves.
There are different types of data presentation methods, among these methods the
common one is computer software advanced data processing, specialist inversion
software removes distortions caused by the effect of electrode geometer. It is important to
produce a high resolution image variation in ground resistivity with depth.
The model is contoured using a color scale to produce a two dimensional cross section
model of ground resistivity.

56
4.3 Result and Discussion
This part includes the interpretation and discussion of different electrical resistivity data.
Before interpretation, two VES data were processed and gives model curves from which
layer resistivity and thickness revealed. Using the IPI2win software the subsurface
resistivity stratification was determined. Using this software the number of layers, their
thickness and resistivity values of the multiple layer earth are approximated.
The processed data gives VES model curves with minimum error, then the resistivity
value and thickness of each layers resulted from model VES curves.
The response of the aquifer is interpreted and generalized in the following way.

4.3.1 VES 1 (Gezewuye)

This is the first VES station. This VES point has been conducted NW-SE azimuth. The
electrical resistivity survey result shows Eight (8) geo electric layers. The first and second
layers having resistivity value of 14.5 Ω-m & 13.2 Ω-m respectively, and response of
clay soil accordingly. The third layer characterized by higher resistivity value of 1222Ωm
is the response of moderately weathered and fractured basalt. The forth layer, having
resistivity value of 9.64Ωm is attributed welded tuff and is water strike depth. The fifth
and sixth layer, having a resistivity value of 220 Ω-m and 270 Ω-m is possibly associated
with basaltic unite with different degree of weathering and fracturing conditions. The
seventh layer having resistivity value of 3.05Ωm and a thickness of 170m could be a
response of medium size gravel & it may the next water strike layer of depth. The 8th
layer with resistivity value of 0.703Ωm is correlated tuff.
The interpretation result of the sounding curve is presented in the figure below.

57
Figure4.8 VES 1 model curve, resistivity and thickness of each layer

4.3.2 VES 2 (Gichit)

This station also shows Eight (8) geo electric layers and conducted N-S azimuth. The first
and second layers having resistivity value of 14.4Ωm and 2.71Ωm responses clay soil.
The third layer characterized by resistivity value of 14.5Ωm responses moderately
weathered and fractured basalt. The forth layer, having higher resistivity value of 228Ωm
is relatively massive rock unit. The fifth and sixth layer, having a resistivity value of
13.1Ωm and 163Ωm respectively is possibly associated with basaltic unite with different
degree of weathering and fracturing conditions. The seventh layer having resistivity value
of 1.33Ωm and could be a response of unwelded tuff and is the layer of water strike
depth. The 8th layer with resistivity value of 1.02Ωm is correlated tuff. The potential
aquifer at this location is expected to lie at the depth below 95m (7th layer) with the
resistivity of 1.33Ωm. The interpreted result of the sounding curve is presented in the
figure below.

The maximum depth of the investigation generally shows up to 252m.

58
Figure4.9 VES 2 model curve, resistivity and thickness of each layer

Generally, based on the electrical resistivity survey conducted in the study area,
groundwater potential producing zone has been delineated. The study reveals that the 2nd
VES station of the study area has good groundwater potential. Weathered and fractured
horizons have been identified in the study area underlying VES stations and all of these
constitute the aquifer zones. A good prospect therefore exists for groundwater
development in the study area where the depth to basement is relatively thick and has
favorable low resistivity values.
As we have seen from the graph, the probable station and more suitable for making
borehole is VES station TWO (2) of the study area. Then VES station TWO (2) is
identified as productive groundwater potential zone of the study area.

59
 CHAPTER FIVE

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
We all use products consisting of rocks in our day to day life. Specifically Rocks and
minerals are used in almost in our everything activities, starting from food, medicines,
jewelry to pencil, makeup, roads, tools, floors, monuments, statues etc. Many types of
rocks are the building blocks of structures from ancient times and are still being used for
the same.
In the world, money scientists and geologists study volcanic rocks by considering their;
 Economic aspects
 Hydrological aspects and
 Engineering aspects
In the study area, there are different Types of rock units that I describe before in local
geology. These rock units have their own economic importance as described below.

5.1 Amygdaloidal basalt

It is mainly used for building material. Due to its high porosity, it acts as an aquifer for
ground water. It is also highly important for construction as being the best raw material.
It is also serving as a decorative stone: paving, building facades, capstone etc. It is also
serving as a structural element before steel in bridges, multi-story buildings and also as
blocks for walls, grindstone in flour mills and for sharpening metal tools.

5.2 Dolerite
The main application of this rock unit is for road construction as a raw material and based
on its degree of weathering (high degree of weathering) it act as groundwater bearing
formation (potential aquifer) but massive dolerite does not serve as media for
groundwater movement from hydro geological point of view.

60
5.3 Clay
From prehistoric times, clay has been indispensable in architecture, in industry, and in
agriculture. As a building material, it is used in the form of brick, either sun-dried (adobe)
or fired. Clays are also of great industrial importance, e.g., in the manufacture of tile for
wall and floor coverings, of porcelain, china, and earthenware, and of pipe for drainage
and sewage. Highly absorbent, bentonite is much used in foundry work for facing the
molds and preparing the molding sands for casting metals. The less absorbent bentonites
are used chiefly in the oil industry, e.g., as filtering and deodorizing agents in the refining
of petroleum and, mixed with other materials, as drilling muds to protect the cutting bit
while drilling. Other uses are in the making of fillers, sizing‘s, and dressings in
construction, in clarifying water and wine, in purifying sewage, and in the paper,
ceramics, plastics, and rubber industries.

5.5 Quartz
Quartz crystal is valued for its piezoelectric and pyro electric properties, by which it can
transform mechanical pressure or heat into electromagnetic energy, and vice versa. Its
ability to focus, amplify, store and transform energy is used throughout the technology
world in ultrasound devices, watches, microphones, radio transmitters and receivers,
memory chips in computers and other electronic circuitry. [Raphaell, 10-11][Simmons,
317][Melody, 503]
The same properties of energy amplification, programmability and memory also make
Clear Quartz the most versatile and multidimensional stone in the mineral kingdom for
healing, meditation, expansion of consciousness, communication with guides, past-life
recall, attracting love or prosperity, or virtually any purpose. However, with this power
comes responsibility. To benefit from Rock Crystal's blessings, one must feel in harmony
With it and deserve its gifts. Intent other than for good inevitably brings harm back on
oneself. [Simmons, 318][Megemont]

61
5.6 Tuff unit
This rock unit has its own applications. However the major one is its interior and exterior
applications.
Interior Uses;
Decorative aggregates, entryways, flooring, homes and interior decoration.
Exterior Uses; As Building Stone, As Facing Stone, Garden Decoration, Office
Buildings and Paving Stone.

62
 CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusions
Hydrogeological and Geophysical survey involving vertical electrical sounding
technique has been carried out to delineate the subsurface formation at Wegera woreda -
Taga kebelle within Gezewuye and Gichit gote. After detail observation of all sites and
their surroundings, from geological, and sanitation investigation result, it is possible to
generalize the study area within the conclusions below hydro geologically;
 According to the main Ethiopian physiographic classification system, the study
area is grouped under the North Western highland and lowland areas(Figure
1.2).The areas are classified under dega climatic zone of the country, according to
the traditional climatically zone presented by Ethiopian mapping agency
 The area has variety of thicknesses including the whole succession of volcanic
rocks resting unconformable on the sedimentary successions (Geological Map of
Ethiopia, 1996).
 The study area is found on the western margin of the rift valley forming the north
western water dived towards the Tana basin drained to the Abay River. Although
the rift faults are tensional faults and can contribute to an increase in the fracturing
of the volcanic rocks in the vicinity of the escarpment the influence of inter
volcanic and post volcanic fracture activities are also the most important.
 In the study area, presence of fractured, weathered, jointed, and also various big
natural trees and grasses are present around the selected site which allows water to
be easily percolate into the ground are good indicators for ground water potential
 From the field observation view of exposed structural area, it can be concluded
that the main geological unit of the area is highly fractured, jointed, foliated,
weathered volcanic rock, mainly Dolerite, tuff and quaternary deposit that serves
as an aquifer.

63
  The well site is selected on relatively weak zone (along the structure) of the area
which follow the main river course and along the plain surface of the land.
 Because of the absence of any spring that can be developed, it is possible to
conclude that bore well/shallow well/ is the only water source for the surrounding
communities and governmental organizations.
Geophysically;
 The result of the survey has revealed that the subsurface geologic material in the
study area is mainly fractured and weathered rock units. The top lithologies are
relatively dry with a downward increase in wetness cumulating in a semi-infinite
basalt unit of relatively low resistivity which is considered to correspond to the
aquiferous unit. The study reveals the absence of thick clay layers overlying the
aquifer units hence the aquifer systems is not protected from any likely
contaminants percolating from the surface. This study also reveals a better
understanding of the soil properties that control the geophysical responses in this
region and will thus aid in groundwater development within the study area. Based
on the electrical resistivity survey conducted in the study area, groundwater
potential producing zones have been delineated. The study reveals that more than
50% of the study area has good groundwater potential. Weathered and fractured
horizons have been identified in the study area underlying VES stations and all of
these constitute the aquifer zones. Good prospects therefore exist for groundwater
development in the study area where the depth to basement is relatively thick and
has favorable low resistivity values. The productive groundwater potential zones
are identified. Based on the results of the survey, the exploration and exploitation
of groundwater in Wegera woreda – Taga kebelle, VES station #2 is encouraging
and promising.

64
6.2. Recommendations
The Geological, Hydro geological and Geophysical investigation results revel that, the
area is promising in ground water potential. Accordingly, the following recommendations
are forwarded.
 Based on the results of the survey, the exploration and exploitation of groundwater
in Taga kebelle – Gichit gote i.e. VES station #2 is more recommended. It is
therefore recommended that boreholes for sustainable water supply within the
study area be drilled in excess of 250m.
 Using the surface geological and hydro geological observation results deep well
sites is selected. The drilling and construction time should be during dry period
because; there are few roads accessible only in dry season, especially around the
selected site. Surface casing needs during well drilling time because well collapse
may happen in some loose/clay soil deposits. The drilling systems of this well are
DTH as well as MUD rotary, according to the tendency of the well.
 The drilling time should be in dry season and the well depth may be increase or
decrease during in actual drilling time.
 Drilling should be carried out under the supervision of the client‫׳‬s Hydro
geologist.
 The actual well drilling depth decided on site by the client‫׳‬s Hydro geologist based
on the hydrogeological conditions and the cutting samples during drilling.
 Cutting should be labeled and sampled as per the order of the client‫׳‬s Hydro
geologist.
 The casing arrangement should be as per the order of the client‫׳‬s Hydro geologist
 The casing installation, gravel packing and well development should be carried out
under the supervision of the Hydro geologist.
 Drilling should be conducted with 14‖ or 16‖ drilling bit diameter with installation
of 12‘‘ internal diameter Steel/PVC productive casing.

65
 References
 Bland ford (1869), (Dowet et. Al, 1971),(soxona asset, 1983). Sedimentary rocks
in Ethiopia.
 Bowden, J. (2008) writing a report: how to prepare, write and present really.
 Briggs and crowtehr, palaeo biology a synthesis.
 Children‘s home society,(2009).Water supply source study in Ethiopia.
 Jonathan cowie, climate change: Biological and Human Aspects.
 Kasmin (1971), stern (1994) Geological map of Ethiopian rift. Addis Abeba,
Ethiopia.
 Kiffer et, al 2004 map of northern part of Ethiopia plateau showing volcanic
province.
 Levin (the earth‘s through time, 4th edition).
 Mazae, 0; Kelly, W. E. and Landa, I. (1985): A hydrogeophysical Model for
Relations between Electrical and Hydraulic properties of Aquifers: 1. Hydrology,
 Mciheal Benton and David Harper, Basic Palaontology.
 Telford, W.M., L.P. Geldart, R.E. Sheriff, and D.A. Keys, 1990, Applied
Geophysics (Second Edition: Cambridge University Press, p. 344-536.
 Tesfaye and Gebretsadik, (1982), hydro geological setting of rocks.
 Tucker M, (2003) sedimentary rock in the field, 3rd edition, Jon Wiley and Sons.
ltd, England.
 Zohdy, A.A.R; Eaton, G.P. and Mabey, DR (1974): Application of surface
geophysics to groundwater investigations. Collection of Environmental data
published by the Department of the Interior Geological Survey. Book 2, page 9.

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 Annex one
Table1.2 Bill of quantity for one deep well DTH/MUD drilling systems in Wegera
wereda, Taga kebelle

Item. Description Unit Qty Rate Amount

No.
1 General Item
1.1 Mobilization of man power, drilling rig, tools & L.S 1
construction materials.
1.2 Inter site mobilization L.S Unit rate
1.3 Demobilization L.S 1
1.4 Site clearing and rigging up L.S 1
1.5 Excavation of mud pit M3 8
2 Bore Hole Drilling
2.1 Drilling in soft formation
2.1.1 DTH and Mud Rotary drilling with 18/20 inch for m 15
surface casing
2.1.3 DTH and Mud Rotary drilling with 14 inch bit 55
diameter
2.2 Drilling in medium formation
2.2.2 DTH and Mud Rotary drilling with 14 inch bit m 80
diameter
2.3 Drilling in hard formation
2.3.2 DTH and Mud Rotary drilling with 14 inch bit m 50
diameter
3 Well Logging
3.1 Drilling rate & Lithological logging well 1
3.2 Geophysical well logging well Unit rate
4 Supply and installation of Materials
4.5 Supply and Install steel Blind casing 12 inch ID m 135
4.6 Supply and Install Steel Screen Casing 12 inch ID m 65
4.10 Supply and Install Steel Surface Casing 16 inch m 15
ID
4.11 Installation of 3"/4 GIS observation pipe m 170
5 Gravel packing and Well Development
5.1 Supply and Pack Selected well rounded river m3 10
gravel (5 to 8 mm diameter grain size)
5.2 Well Cleaning and development Hr. 10

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6 Pumping Test
6.1 Mobilization of Crew, materials and pump L.S 1
testing equipment
6.2 Inter site mobilization L.S Unit rate
6.3 Site clearing and rigging up L.S 1
6.4 Provisional or preliminary test Hr. 3
6.5 Step draw down test (Four step, 1:30 hour for Hr. 6
each test)
6.6 Constant yield pumping Hr. 24
6.7 Recovery test Hr 12
6.8 Demobilization L.S 1
7 Sanitary & Protection works
7.1 Grout with mass concrete to a depth not L.S 1
exceeding 5m (1:3:6 mix)
7.2 Construction of well head with mass concrete L.S 1
(0.60m x0.60m base and 0.70 m height
Trapezoidal shape)
7.3 Supply and weld iron cover on the top of the L.S 1
borehole
7.4 Collection of water samples during test L.S 1
pumping in sealable plastic bottles and
conduct water quality analysis( complete
physico chemical &bacteriological)
8 Prepare end report of the wells that is well L.S 1
drilling and pumping test which includes
geological column, well profile, drilling
diameter, casing installation, well yield,
pumping test data, curve analysis etc, with
hard copies and soft copy
9 Prepare end report of abandoned wells that is L.S Unit
well drilling which includes geological rate
column, well profile, drilling diameter, etc
including reason for the abandonment of each
well with hard copies and soft copy
Total
VAT (15%)
Grand Total

*** Note: The proposed average anticipated depth of the well is 200m, considering the
mandatory of the contractor i.e. + 20% of the initial agreement.

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