ENG 512 FINAL-TERM SHORT NOTES

IMPORTANT SUBJECTIVE / OBJECTIVE

Final-Term PREPERATION
Chpt wise
Lesson 21 – 44
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Paper pattern
 The Final-Term exam will cover lectures 21-44
 The duration of the final term exam will be 90 min (1.5hours) and there will
be following two sections in your paper:
 Section A: Objective questions
 Section B: Subjective questions

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 In the subjective section, there will be a total of 10 questions:

 six questions of 3 marks, out of which the students will attempt 4 questions
at max,
 and four questions of 5 marks, out of which the students will attempt 3
questions.

Objective Part
 It is generally believed that ceremonial languages connect body and spirit.
 in 1953, UNESCO, responding to the educational failure of children in
colonial situation
 language minorities claimed their language rights and developed their own
forms of bilingual schooling
 A nation state is a mental construct made up of affinities such as language
with imagined people
 Languages are socially constructed
 “glocalization” has been coined to note the presence of the local in the
global and vice versa
 Roland Robertson defined glocalization as “the simultaneity, the co-
presence of both universalizing and particularizing tendencies.”
 language practices or languaging also act as a symbol system (Fishman,
1996);
 languaging practices are codified into languages
 regional dialects, associated with a place,
 “a language is a dialect with an army and a navy”

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 Languages codes are not fixed.

 Creoles are lexically and structurally complex in nature
 after World War I and II, people were forced to learn national languages
 the dominance of English language is due to hegemony
 the role of language policy is to legitimize a language
 teaching learning and assessment of students at school is done in standard
language.
 The variety of language that does not enjoy the equal prestige that a
language does is known as, dialect
 Linguicism is similar to Racism.
 Standardization is not an inherent characteristic of language, but the result
of a deliberate process.
 . The ability to use the standard language is a developmental goal of
education,
 Students in school need to be able to use language without any
extralinguistic support,
 Cummins (1981b) calls them Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
(CALP)
 African American Vernacular English (AAVE)
 Bilingual children tend to have more metalinguistic skills and divergent
thinking than monolingual children
 Bloomfield (1933), only considered native-like control of two languages as a
sign of bilingualism but later scholars,
 Schools legitimize Ideologies.
 The dominance of English language is due to hegemony.
 The role of language policy is to legitimize a language.
 After World War I and II people were forced to learn national languages.
 Schools legitimize Ideologies.

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 First dictionary was developed in 1968

 Translanguaging is thus the only discursive practice that can include all
family members’
 Technology-enabled communication facilitates complex languaging
practices that question monolingual realities.
 the concept of translanguaging makes obvious that there are no clear-cut
boundaries between the languages of bilinguals
 Cenoz and Genesee (1998: 27) conclude that “multilinguals may not need
the same levels of proficiency in all of their languages in all of the same
discourse domains as monolinguals.”
 Bilingualism is not about 1 + 1 = 2, but about a plural
 Code switching is the process of going back and forth from one language
to the other.
 Productive bilingual abilities mean that bilinguals are capable of speaking,
writing and producing signs in more than one language.
 Receptive bilingual abilities mean that they may understand, read or attend
to, or interpret, signs in more than one language, although they cannot speak,
write, or produce signs in more than one language
 As a result of industrial and urban development in the nineteenth century,
languages became Modern.
 Bilingualism was initially seen as Problem under the modern's theory of
20th century.
 According to three principles presented by UNESCO Bilingual education.
Is necessary for equality people.
 Which of the following is not the categorization of school on the basis of
language. Traditional.
 After the process of globalization there was a movement toward accepting
Bilingualism.
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 The role of language Policy is to legitimize a language.

 BICS stand for Basic interpersonal communication skills.
 We are living in an global community.
 The European Commission introduced Erasmus,
 Reversing Language Shift (RLS)
 Insecurity, as when states or groups are wary of others and their languages.
 Skutnabb-Kangas (2000, 2006) then proposes that there are two kinds of
LHRs:
 Skutnabb-Kangas (2006) also proposes human rights can be negative or
positive
 Bilingual education is a transdisciplinary endeavor that requires an
ecological and sociocultural perspective.
 Bilingual allocation refers to the time allotments given to one language or
the other in bilingual education
 Immersion bilingual education also uses a sliding bilingual allocation
 Bilingualism for the twenty-first century must be more than the knowledge
of two languages.
 Duverger (2005) makes a useful distinction between micro-alternation and
macro-alternation in bilingual education.
 Micro-alternation occurs when a course, which is predominantly handled
in one language, makes use of elements of the other language
 “CS [code-switching] is a useful resource for mitigating the difficulties of
learning through a foreign language.
 Cen Williams sees four advantages to translanguaging which are deeper
understanding of the subject matter
 Co-languaging means using both languages simultaneously
 language use in two-way bilingual classrooms has been referred to as
transdiglossic
 Transmission pedagogy is built on a western empirical tradition
 Pidgin’s is always learnt as a second language.
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 The boundaries between a language and a Dialects are like fluid.

 The imposition of certain languages in schools is a political and Ideological
decision.
 The grammatical approach emphasizes the rules and structure of the
language that is being acquired.
 The cognitive approach emerged in the1980s
 Cummins (1986) has named the pedagogy that derives from the inter
section of these two principles reciprocal interactional-oriented pedagogy

 IRE stand for initiation response evaluation.
 The concept of Languaging was introduced by Pennycook.
 Para linguistic cues. Facilitate the communication.
 Language codes are not fixed
 Language codes are not fixed
 There are very few countries in the world that can be considered
linguistically Homogeneous.
 It is generally believed that Ceremonial languages connect body and spirit.
 How old is the concept of Bilingual education4000-5000.
 A language that is spoken by ethnic communities is called the heritage
language.
 Concentric circles model has been proposed by Kachru
 Additive bilingualism means two monolinguals and linguistic repertoire
 Oracy abilities include the ability to listen and speak.
 The skill of using language refers to the competence in language
 If language development is not a choice it is obligatory
 A person for whom competence in one language is superior to that in the
other can be called as dominant bilingual.
 Multilingualism is not the name of model of bilingualism.
 The dynamic bilingualism deals with a learner's mind as a tool kit.

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 Children’s can acquire an additional language unconsciously without even

thinking about it.
 School is the example of formal learning context.
 Signacy includes attending and producing.
 Bilingual skills depend upon language functions.
 Early vs late immersion programs in Canada have given mixed results.
 Semilingualism refers to the Unequal
 Performance of bilingual children in two languages.
 At which age, bilingual children can choose to speak one language or the
other. 2 years.
 When the. Mother tongue is standardized. It is announced as an official
language.
 Language revitalization is a gradual process.
 Mother tongue has been equalized with vernacular by UN.
 Adult bilingualism support to learn later in life.
 Those who are learning a second language should be considered emergent
Bilinguals.
 Learning of another language by unlearning of first language is the
characteristic of subtractive bilingualism.
 Urdu is the symbol for national identity in Pakistan.
 Language policies are dictated from top down.
 GIDS stand for graded intergenerational disrupted scale.
 Higher expectations are not true for a child bilingual development.
 According to Kaplan and Baldauf 1997. If we are using any language in
education, we should know their Role In curriculum
 Language policies are interpreted from bottom up
 More prestige to English is the status of language ideology in Pakistan.
 Which of the following is not one of the actors in language planning. Local
institutions.

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 Which concerns should be encouraged to access multiple linguistic and

cultural resource. Pragmatic.
 Language shift ultimately cause language death
 Charter for regional and minority languages was in the spirit for. inequality.

Subjective Part
Lesson 21

What role did UNESCO play in addressing educational failure in colonial

situations?

In 1953, UNESCO issued an important resolution declaring that it was axiomatic

that a child be taught to read in their home language, leading to efforts to use the
children’s language in education, especially in the early grades.

How did the modernist conceptualization of language difference impact the

potential of bilingual education?

The potential of bilingual education for all children did not fully materialize
because language difference, in this modernist conceptualization, was seen as a
problem, despite its recognition for the masses.

What are UNESCO’s three basic guiding principles for bilingual education?

UNESCO proposes mother tongue instruction as a means of improving educational

quality, bilingual and/or multilingual education at all levels to promote social and
gender equality, and language as an essential component of inter-cultural education
to encourage understanding between different population groups.

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Lesson 22

Why is there no consensus on the number of languages in the world?

- Answer: There is no consensus because languages are socially constructed,

leading to varied classificatory procedures. Attempts to count distinct languages
are thus artifacts of these procedures, reflecting different purposes in identifying
languages.

What is the relationship between states and language

- Answer: States commonly associate themselves with a single language,

although multilingualism challenges this norm. Despite the rarity of linguistically
homogenous countries, monolingualism is often idealized for political cohesion,
influencing policies that standardize languages and mask their differences.

How has globalization impacted language use in the twenty-first century?

- Answer: Globalization has integrated national economies, making money and

workers more mobile and accelerating technological change. This has necessitated
awareness of languages' positions in a dynamic global system, promoting
multilingual strategies on websites beyond the dominance of English.

What characterizes the immigration-related population shifts

- Answer: Immigration now often involves transnationalism, allowing

individuals to move between countries aided by improved transportation and
technology. This movement alters language use patterns, enhancing bilingualism
and elevating the importance of languages beyond the native tongue.

What distinguishes contemporary language practices from those of the

nineteenth and twentieth centuries?
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- Answer: Unlike earlier eras, today's communication technologies enable

simultaneous engagement in diverse language practices, such as electronic instant
messaging and chatting. This phenomenon, termed "glocalization," reflects both
universalizing and particularizing tendencies amid fragmented national identities.

Lesson 23
What are the symbolic roles of Languaging practices?

- Answer: Languaging practices, as discussed by Ager (2001) and Fishman

(1996), serve as symbol systems that represent not only expression and interaction
but also identity and sacredness within speech communities. Examples such as
Urdu and Arabic illustrate how languages can become crucial identity markers and
symbols of sanctity post-independence and within religious contexts, respectively.

How does Hopper (1998) challenge the notion of language as a fixed code?

- Answer: Hopper argues that languages are not naturally fixed but rather fluid
codes shaped by social practices. He suggests that what appears as systematicity in
language is an illusion created by the temporary settling of frequently used forms.
This perspective shifts the focus from static structures to dynamic discourses and
situational contexts where language evolves and adapts.

Discuss the social and political implications of dialects versus languages.

- Answer: The distinction between dialects and languages, often socially

constructed rather than linguistically based, reflects power dynamics. Max
Weinreich's famous quote, "a language is a dialect with an army and navy,"
underscores this point, emphasizing that designation as a language often correlates
with political power. This distinction influences how certain languaging practices
are perceived—oppressed dialects versus recognized languages—based on socio-
political contexts.

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What structural characteristics define pidgins and creoles, and how do they
evolve from contact situations?

- Answer: Pidgins are simplified languages with limited morphology and syntax,
arising in contact situations where speakers with different language backgrounds
need to communicate, such as in trade or plantations. When pidgins become
nativized and adopted as first languages, they develop into creoles, which are
lexically and structurally complex despite their origins in simplified
communication needs.

Explain the concept of “creole exceptionalism” and its implications in

understanding creole languages.

- Answer: Creole exceptionalism posits that creole languages, due to their rapid
development and borrowing of linguistic elements, are distinct from other
languages. However, scholars like Michel De Graff argue against this
exceptionalism, suggesting that creoles are comparable to other languages in their
evolutionary processes and structures. This challenges misconceptions about creole
languages and emphasizes their integration within broader linguistic frameworks.

Dialects?
“dialect” is a neutral term used for variants of a specific language. Romaine (1994)
defines dialect as “a subordinate variety of a language,” and refers to

 regional dialects, associated with a place,

 social dialects, associated with social class, and
 historical dialects referring to ancestors of present language varieties. There
are also ethnic dialects spoken by ethnolinguistic groups

Lesson 24

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What is the process of standardization in language?

- Answer: Standardization involves fixing and regulating language features such

as spelling and grammar through dictionaries and grammar books. This
standardized form serves as a prestigious reference for language teaching and
media, enforced through institutional practices to maintain linguistic norms.

How does the exclusive use of standard language in education impact

students,?

- Answer: While teaching the standard language is crucial for literacy and
educational equity, exclusive focus on it may restrict students' intellectual and
communicative potential. This approach can overlook the richness of students'
linguistic diversity and hinder their full participation in educational processes.

Discuss the distinction between contextualized and decontextualized language

in academic settings, according to Cummins (1981b).

- Answer: Cummins distinguishes between BICS (Basic Interpersonal

Communication Skills) and CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency).
BICS relies on contextualized language supported by interpersonal cues, whereas
CALP involves decontextualized language necessary for academic tasks like essay
writing and test taking, requiring higher-order thinking skills.

What role does social interaction play in developing academic language

proficiency, as per Cummins (2000)?

- Answer: Cummins argues that while academic language skills are essential for
higher-order thinking, their development is intertwined with social interactions.
Contextual support from both external factors (like educational input) and internal
factors (such as personal experiences and motivations) helps students comprehend
and use academic language effectively.

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Explain the implications of literacy acquisition and standardization for

language minority children.

- Answer: Literacy acquisition depends heavily on mastering the standardized

form of language taught in schools. However, for language minority children, the
gap between home language practices and school expectations can exacerbate
linguistic insecurities and affect educational outcomes negatively if not addressed
sensitively.

How does Coulmas (2005) define the term "standard language," and what
role does it play in educational contexts?

- Answer: Coulmas defines the standard language as a prestigious variety used

for educational purposes and media. It serves as a normative reference,
institutionalized through educational systems to maintain linguistic uniformity and
facilitate effective communication across diverse contexts.

Discuss the relationship between language standardization and literacy,

according to Romaine (1994).

- Answer: Romaine emphasizes that literacy acquisition relies on a codified

written standard of language. Standardization ensures consistency in teaching and
learning practices, enabling individuals to access educational resources and
opportunities equitably.

Lesson 25
What is linguicism?

Linguicism refers to prejudice and discrimination based on language practices. It

involves the imposition of dominant languages over less powerful ones, often
restricting educational and occupational opportunities.

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How does standardization in education impact linguistic diversity?

Standardization in education, particularly the exclusive use of a standard

language, can marginalize minority language speakers. It imposes linguistic norms
that may not align with students' home languages, exacerbating linguistic
insecurity.

What role does language play in creating social disparities in education?

Language practices in education can perpetuate social differences by determining

access to resources and opportunities. Standardized language use in assessments
can act as a gate-keeping mechanism, influencing educational outcomes.

Explain the concept of governmentality in relation to language practices.

Governmentality, as proposed by Foucault, explores how language practices

regulate societal norms and hierarchies. It involves the control and regulation of
language use in institutions such as education, shaping power dynamics.

Why is the distinction between BICS and CALP important in educational

contexts?

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic

Language Proficiency (CALP) represent different language competencies. CALP,
which involves decontextualized language use for academic tasks, is crucial for
higher-order thinking skills like hypothesizing and evaluating.

Lesson 26
1. What does translanguaging refer to in bilingual communities?

Answer: Translanguaging refers to engaging in bilingual or multilingual

discourse practices where bilinguals use multiple languages interchangeably to
communicate and construct meaning.
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2. How did early scholars like Bloomfield define bilingualism?

Answer: Early scholars like Bloomfield defined bilingualism as requiring native-

like control of two languages, emphasizing proficiency in both languages.

3. What is balanced bilingualism and how is it perceived today?

Answer: Balanced bilingualism is the idea that individuals are equally competent
in two languages across all contexts. However, it's now recognized that such
balanced proficiency is rare, and bilinguals often "language" differently based on
context and experience.

4. How does translanguaging differ from code-switching?

Answer: Translanguaging goes beyond code-switching by encompassing a

broader range of bilingual practices. It involves systematic and strategic use of
languages to construct meaning and bridge communication gaps.

5. What role does translanguaging play in bilingual education contexts?

Answer: Translanguaging in bilingual education allows students to read in one

language and write in another, facilitating deeper understanding and engagement
with academic content across languages.

Lesson 27
1. What is translanguaging?

- Answer: Translanguaging refers to an approach to bilingualism centered on the

observable practices of bilinguals using multiple languages.

2. How does Myers-Scotton's Markedness Model explain code-switching?

- Answer: Myers-Scotton's Markedness Model explains that bilinguals select

languages based on social meaning and linguistic system properties.

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3. What does the complementarity principle describe?

- Answer: The complementarity principle describes how bilinguals are not like
two monolinguals in one person, but use languages differently as needed.

4. What are domains in bilingualism?

- Answer: Domains are spheres of activity combining times, settings, and role
relationships where bilinguals use languages distinctively.

5. How does code-mixing differ from code-switching?

- Answer: Code-mixing combines elements from languages due to an inability to

differentiate, while code-switching involves switching languages based on social
and linguistic factors.

Lesson 28

1. What does Grosjean (1997) refer to regarding bilingual language use?

- Grosjean refers to the complementarity principle, where bilinguals use each

language differently.

2. How does Lüdi (2003) describe translanguaging?

- Lüdi describes translanguaging as involving grammatical mixing of elements

from different languages.

3. According to Myers-Scotton's Markedness Model, what influences code-

switching?

- Code-switching is influenced by whether a particular code is marked socially or

not.
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4. What is the concept of plurilingualism aimed at promoting?

- Plurilingualism aims to promote linguistic tolerance and diversity among

speakers.

Recursive Bilingualism?

The concept is used in cases when bilingualism is developed after the language
practices of a community have been suppressed. When a community engages in
efforts to revitalize their language practices, this is called recursive bilingualism

Dynamic Bilingualism?

Dynamic bilingualism draws attention to the fact that bilingualism is not simply
linear but dynamic, drawing from the different contexts in which it develops and
functions

5. What role does schooling play in developing plurilingual competence?

- Schooling plays a primary role in developing plurilingual competence through

formal education and public participation.

Lesson 29

1. What is Semilingualism?

- Semilingualism refers to the unequal language performance in bilingual

children compared to monolinguals, often due to societal and educational pressures
to conform to a monolingual standard. This concept has been critiqued in
contemporary sociolinguistics for oversimplifying bilingual language use and
competence.

2. How is Language Dominance defined in bilingual contexts?

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- Language dominance in bilingual contexts refers to the relative proficiency or

strength in one language over another for specific tasks or contexts. It challenges
the notion of bilinguals being two monolinguals in one person and highlights the
variability and contextuality of language use among bilinguals.

3. What critiques does the lesson offer regarding the term "Mother Tongue"?

- The lesson critiques the term "mother tongue" for its limited scope in defining
language proficiency and usage in diverse, multilingual environments. It questions
how this term applies in contexts where multiple languages are spoken
simultaneously and where language practices are fluid and dynamic.

4. Why should Second-Language Learners be considered as Emergent

Bilinguals?

- Second-language learners should be viewed as emergent bilinguals to recognize

the integration of their home language practices in their learning of an additional
language. This perspective acknowledges that bilingualism involves complex
language interactions and fluidity between languages.

5. How is Heritage Language?

- Heritage language in the lesson refers to languages spoken by ethnic

communities that are passed down through generations. It highlights the cultural
and linguistic significance of maintaining ancestral languages despite varying
levels of proficiency among descendants.

Lesson 30
1. Bilingual Abilities?

Bilinguals can exhibit varied abilities such as oracy or literacy in different

combinations. For instance, some may excel in speaking and understanding
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multiple languages but lack proficiency in reading and writing them due to societal
influences or educational practices that may discourage the use of home languages.

2. Receptive Bilingual Abilities?

These abilities enable individuals to understand or interpret signs in multiple

languages, even if they cannot produce them actively. This is common among
children of immigrant backgrounds who comprehend their native language but
may not speak it fluently due to limited exposure or societal pressures.

3. Language Dominance?

Language dominance varies task-specifically among bilinguals, where competence

in one language may exceed that in another depending on context. For instance,
bilinguals may demonstrate higher proficiency in their dominant language when
performing certain tasks, reflecting the dynamic nature of bilingual language use.

4. Second-Language Learners/Speakers?

The term "second-language learner" often inadequately categorizes bilingual

individuals who are fluent in multiple languages. Understanding bilingualism as a
continuum rather than a binary classification helps in acknowledging the complex
language abilities individuals develop through various contexts, whether through
formal education or everyday interactions.

5. Children’s Bilingual Development?

Children may develop bilingualism either simultaneously, acquiring two languages

from birth, or sequentially, learning a second language later, such as in school
settings. This developmental process is influenced by societal attitudes towards
language, with some children growing up in bilingual environments demonstrating
early proficiency in translanguage and mixed utterances.

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Lesson 31

1. Adult Bilingual Development

- Answer: Adults can develop bilingual fluency and biliteracy through

participation with their peers and through schooling, reaching high levels of
competence in a second language.

2. Child vs. Adult Bilingualism Differences

- Answer: Children and adults differ in their approaches to bilingualism, with

children often benefiting from more contextualized language practices and adults
leveraging metalinguistic skills for quicker learning in formal settings.

3. Advantages of Early Introduction of a Second Language

- Answer: Early introduction of a second language in school is believed to offer

advantages, although starting in childhood alone isn't sufficient for full
bilingualism development.

4. Critical Period for Second-Language Learning

- Answer: Empirical evidence regarding a critical period for second-language

acquisition remains equivocal, suggesting that adults can still achieve high
proficiency in bilingualism.

5. Factors Influencing Bilingual Development in School

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- Answer: The development of bilingualism in school is influenced more by

pedagogical and student factors than biological predispositions, with varied
outcomes seen between early and late immersion programs.

Lesson 32

1. What societal conditions are necessary for language shift or maintenance?

- Answer: Co-existence of more than one language, differences in power, value,

and status conferred on each language, and pressure from one language group.

2. What does Fishman's Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS)

assess?

- Answer: It assesses the threatened state of languages among ethnolinguistic

groups based on stages of language use across generations.

3. How does language influence identity formation?

- Answer: Language use influences how groups form their identities, and group
identity in turn shapes attitudes and patterns of language use.

4. What are hybrid identities, and what factors influence them?

- Answer: Hybrid identities involve plural language practices and are influenced
by factors such as race, social class, age, generation, and institutional affiliation.

5. What are language ideologies, and how do they relate to social systems?

- Answer: Language ideologies are cultural ideas about social and linguistic
relationships, embedded in social systems of domination and subordination related
to ethnicity, class, and gender.

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Lesson 33

1. Components of Language Policy

- Three components of language policy according to Spolsky (2004) are

 language management,
 language practices,
 and language beliefs or ideology.

2. Dimensions of Language Policy

- The three dimensions of the language policy enterprise include

 corpus planning,
 status planning,
 and acquisition planning.

3. Goals of Language Policy

- Ager (2001) discusses seven goals of language policy, such as identity,

ideology, image creation, insecurity, inequality, integration with a group, and
instrumental motives.

4. Linguistic Human Rights

- Skutnabb-Kangas (2000) identifies two broad categories of Linguistic Human

Rights: individual rights and community rights, emphasizing both expressive and
instrumental rights.

5. Language Management

- Language management, also known as language planning, involves direct

efforts to manipulate the language situation, influencing its use and development.

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Lesson 34

1. What is bilingual education's approach in relation to sociopolitical

interests?

Answer: Bilingual education responds to sociopolitical interests because schools

are often influenced by the state, highlighting issues of language power dynamics.

2. What makes bilingual education a complex endeavor?

Answer: Bilingual education is complex because it requires considerations not

only of pedagogy, approaches, and methodology but also of how to allocate,
arrange, and use multiple languages in instruction.

3. Define 'bilingual allocation' in the context of education.

Answer: Bilingual allocation refers to the distribution of time given to each

language in bilingual education programs, determining the percentage of
instruction in each language.

4. How do transitional bilingual education programs typically adjust language

allocation as proficiency develops?

Answer: Transitional bilingual education programs often start with a 90:10

allocation favoring the minority language, gradually shifting to predominantly use
the second language as proficiency increases.

5. What factors influence the variability of bilingual allocation in educational

programs?

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Answer: The variability of bilingual allocation is influenced by available

resources such as teachers and materials, as well as societal goals and educational
policies.

Lesson 35
1. What is bilingual education's approach to language allocation?

- Answer: Bilingual education programs decide on language separation by time,

teacher, place, or subject.

2. What are the types of flexible language arrangements in bilingual

education?

- Answer: Flexible language arrangements can lead to convergence or

multiplicity of languages.

3. How does time-determined separation work in bilingual education?

- Answer: Time-determined separation involves allocating languages for half- or

part-day instruction or on alternate days.

4. What does teacher-determined separation entail in bilingual education?

- Answer: Teacher-determined separation means one teacher uses one language

while another teacher uses the other.

5. What is the significance of place-determined separation in bilingual

education?

- Answer: Place-determined separation uses different classrooms for instruction

in separate languages.

6. How does subject-determined separation operate in bilingual education?

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- Answer: Subject-determined separation involves teaching academic subjects in

different languages in bilingual programs.

Place-determined

This refers to situations where one particular classroom is used for instruction in
one language, and a different classroom for instruction in the other.

For example, in the United States it is quite common, as we have said, for teachers
to write in blue for English and red for Spanish. of multilingualism in general

Time-determined ?

In this case, the school makes a decision as to when one language or the other is
used. There are different alternatives as to how the languages are divided:

• half- or part-day

• alternate-day

• alternate-week

What happened in a teacher determined separation classroom of bilingual

education program?

Here one teacher speaks only one language, and the second teacher solely speaks
the other language. There are different manifestations of teacher-determined
language-structuring:

 Two Teachers, Two Classrooms This is the strictest of this teacher-

determined separation. It combines teacher-determined with time determined
separation. Here one teacher teaches in one language at some time of day,
while at the same time another teacher teaches in the other language
 Two Teachers, One Classroom Another arrangement is to have two
teachers within one classroom who speak only one language to the students
but are able to facilitate their learning in the other language because they
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themselves are bilingual. This is the usual arrangement when there are
enough resources, especially in early childhood

Lesson 36

How do bilingual communities utilize random code-switching?

- Answer: Bilingual communities use random code-switching to achieve their full

range of expression, often signaling multiple identities or cultural memberships.

What is Concurrent Translation in educational contexts?

- Answer: Concurrent Translation involves teachers shifting frequently between

two languages within a lesson without thoughtful consideration, often mimicking
the language used by the child or for emotional engagement.

According to Cummins and Swain, what approach to language mixing

yields weaker academic outcomes?

- Answer: Cummins and Swain argue that a "mixing" approach produces weaker
academic results compared to a "separation" approach in education.

How does CLIL/EMILE research view code-switching in non-language

subjects?

- Answer: CLIL/EMILE research suggests that properly applied code-switching

can enhance cognitive skills in content-matter subjects such as mathematics or
history.

What is the bilingual arrangement adopted in Mali?

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- Answer: In Mali, monoliterate bilingualism involves using local vernaculars for

dialogue and storytelling until fifth grade, after which French becomes the medium
of instruction.

Lesson 37

What abilities are increasingly important for bilingualism in the twenty-

first century?

- Answer: Abilities such as translation, language switching, and designing

information bilingually will be increasingly important, abilities that are supported
by the community’s translanguaging.

How does flexible multiplicity challenge traditional concepts of

bilingualism?

- Answer: The conception of bilingualism as linear and solely as 1 + 1 = 2 rejects

any bilingual Languaging which violates traditional concepts of language as an
autonomous system.

What is the role of micro-alternation in bilingual education according to

Duverger?

- Answer: Micro-alternation occurs when a course, which is predominantly

handled in one language, makes use of elements of the other language. This type of
code-switching is a reflection of what occurs naturally in bilingual communities.

What leads to language shift or maintenance in flexible bilingual

arrangements?

- Answer: It is not a flexible bilingual arrangement itself that leads to language

shift or language maintenance or addition, but the uses to which these practices are
put.
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How do translanguaging practices affect bilingual education programs?

- Answer: Bilingual education programs which build on translanguaging

practices ensure the functional interrelationship of the languages used in school.

Lesson 38
What is the role of responsible code-switching according to Van der Walt,
Mabule, and De Beer (2001)?

- Answer: Van der Walt, Mabule, and De Beer (2001) argue that code-switching
is a way of strengthening the connection to the students’ home language and of
providing meaningful input.

How does hybrid language use function in the bilingual classroom?

- Answer: Hybrid language use in the bilingual classroom builds on the use and
study of languages cross-linguistically to expand students’ oral and written
expression.

What are some ways code-switching can be used as a pedagogical technique

according to O’Neill and Velasco (2007)?

- Answer: O’Neill and Velasco (2007) give three ways in which code-switching
to the child’s home language could be a useful and responsible pedagogical
technique: when providing the definition of a word; when providing a linguistic
summary; when providing a summary of a lesson.

How has bilingual education been implemented in an autonomous region of

Italy?

- Answer: In an autonomous region of Italy, bilingual education for all was

introduced at kindergarten in 1983, at primary school in 1988, and in the middle
school (ages 10 to 13) in 1994, backed up by extensive research from Italian,
French, and Swiss specialists.
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- What did Manyak find about the impact of hybrid literacy pedagogy in a
primary classroom of Latino Spanish speakers in California?

- Answer: Manyak (2001, 2002) found that, although useful, hybrid literacy
pedagogy did not benefit all students equally.

Lesson 39
How is the preview, view, and review process utilized in convergent
multiple arrangements?

- Answer: The instructor gives the gist, the preview, most often in the home
language of the students, then teaches the lesson in a second language, and then
reviews in a language understood by the students.

What are the four advantages of translanguaging according to Cen

Williams?

- Answer: Cen Williams sees four advantages to translanguaging which are

deeper understanding of the subject matter, development of competence in the
weaker language, home–school cooperation, and integration of fluent speakers
with early-level learners.

How does Baker (2001) distinguish translanguaging from code-switching?

- Answer: Baker (2001) clarifies that translanguaging is not about code-

switching, but rather about an arrangement that normalizes bilingualism without
functional separation.

How is translanguaging implemented in an advanced biology class?

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- Answer: In an advanced biology class given to secondary school, the students

use that text alongside one written in Spanish that offers complementary material
on the same topic.

How is translanguaging applied in a fifth-grade dual-language classroom in

the United States?

- Answer: In a fifth-grade dual-language classroom in the United States, the

children learn social studies in Spanish and although the New York State test is
offered in both English and Spanish, all, except for one of the students in this class,
choose to answer the exam in English.

Lesson 40

1. What is co-languaging in the context of bilingual education?

Co-languaging means using both languages simultaneously. It is becoming a

familiar curricular language arrangement, especially at the secondary and tertiary
levels, when the content has to be delivered to different language groups
simultaneously.

2. How does technology impact co-languaging in classrooms?

Use of technology affects the ways in which curriculum is structured and

instruction is delivered. For example, a university in Africa delivers the curriculum
in a bilingual mode in PowerPoint, with Afrikaans and English co-present.

3. What are the benefits of having both languages present on the screen in
different colors?

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Having both languages present on the screen, each in a different color, enables the
inclusion of all students while reserving room for Afrikaans, the language
traditionally used in the university.

4. How is cross-linguistic work incorporated in bilingual education

programs?

Many bilingual education programs blend language-separation arrangements with

flexible convergence types, reserving part of the curriculum for bringing two or
more languages together for contrastive analysis.

5. What is the importance of cross-linguistic work and space in bilingual

education?

The importance of this cross-linguistic work and space is that it makes it possible
to build linguistic tolerance towards all varieties of languages and ways of
languaging, acknowledging its valuable use beyond the classroom.

Lesson 41

1. What is translanguaging in bilingual education classrooms?

Translanguaging is the most prevalent bilingual practice in bilingual education

classrooms, where students use their entire linguistic repertoires flexibly to co-
construct meaning, include others, and mediate understandings.

2. How do children use their linguistic repertoires in group work?

When children with different linguistic profiles are involved in group work, they
violate the language use norms of the classroom, using languages flexibly to
support their understandings and build conceptual and linguistic knowledge.

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3. Why is translanguaging considered important in bilingual acquisition?

Translanguaging is perhaps more responsible for children’s bilingual acquisition

than any other language arrangement, allowing them to co-construct meaning and
mediate understandings across language groups.

4. What challenges do bilingual students face due to monoglossic ideologies?

Bilingual students who translanguage often suffer linguistic shame because they
have been burdened with monoglossic ideologies that value only monolingualism,
leading them to shift towards the dominant language and monolingualism, robbing
them of the possibility to develop their bilingualism.

5. How do bilingual teachers handle their natural translanguaging practices?

Bilingual teachers often hide their natural translanguaging practices from

administrators because they have been taught to believe that only monolingual
ways of speaking are “good” and valuable, even though they know that to teach
effectively in bilingual classrooms, they must translanguage.

Lesson 42

1. What characterizes convergent bilingual teaching?

Convergent bilingual teaching is characterized by the use of the two languages

concurrently in ways that subordinate one language to the other following a
flexible convergent arrangement, with the intent to develop a language of power or
make content in the majority language understood.

2. What is the main intent of convergent bilingual teaching?

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The main intent of convergent bilingual teaching is to develop a language of power

or make content in the majority language understood, using the minority language
only to support instruction in the majority language.

3. How is immersion bilingual teaching characterized?

Immersion bilingual teaching is characterized by the explicit carving out of a space

for both languages so that each functions with the privilege of a majority language,
with a clear and explicit language policy of teaching monolingually for
bilingualism.

4. When is immersion bilingual teaching often used?

Immersion bilingual teaching is often used when the minority language has to be
protected because of the encroachment of the majority language or in cases where
one of the languages is being revitalized.

5. What is the focus of multiple bilingual teaching?

The focus of multiple bilingual teaching is the development of bilingual

proficiency, translanguaging practices, and plurilingual values of multilingual
awareness and linguistic tolerance, using the two or more languages in
combination in a blending of the two practices.

Lesson 43
What is the key belief of transmission pedagogy regarding knowledge and
learning?

Transmission pedagogy views knowledge as separate from the knower and as a

collection of facts and concepts, with learning perceived as the consumption,
storage, memorization, and reproduction of information.

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How does constructivist pedagogy view the role of teachers in the learning
process?

In constructivist pedagogy, teachers serve primarily as facilitators of learning,

involving social negotiation and interaction with others in authentic contexts
relevant to the learner.

What are the three methodologies included in the grammatical approach?

The grammatical approach relies on three distinct methodologies: the grammar-

translation method, the direct method, and the audio-lingual method.

What are the two most important language learning methods under the
communicative approach?

The two most important language learning methods under the communicative
approach are immersion instruction and integrated content-based instruction (ICB).

How does the cognitive approach define the types of knowledge involved in
learning?

The cognitive approach distinguishes between three types of knowledge:

declarative knowledge (what we know), procedural knowledge (what we know
how to do), and conditional knowledge (the knowledge of when, why, or where to
use information and skills).

What does immersion methodology promote in terms of language use?

Immersion methodology promotes the use of language that is slow and simplified,
with guarded vocabulary and short sentences, while using the grade level
curriculum, although modified.

Lesson 44

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What are the two basic principles of bilingual pedagogy?

The two basic principles of bilingual pedagogy are social justice and social
practice.

What does Cummins (1986) refer to the pedagogy derived from the
intersection of social justice and social practice principles?

Cummins (1986) refers to it as reciprocal interactional-oriented pedagogy, and

later (2000) as transformative pedagogy.

Why is social justice considered the most important principle of bilingual

education pedagogy?

Social justice is considered the most important principle because bilingual teaching
combines two or more languages and cultures, requiring equity between the
languages and recognition of students from all linguistic and cultural backgrounds
as knowers.

How does the social practice principle of bilingual pedagogy view learning?

The social practice principle views learning as occurring through collaborative

social practices where students try out ideas and actions, thus socially constructing
their learning.

What is task-based pedagogy and how is it related to the social practice

principle?

Task-based pedagogy is a form of action-based pedagogy in the field of language

education, emphasizing learning through doing and falling within the social
practice principle of bilingual pedagogy.

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