K. Artkhonghan, Ph.

D
[Link]

538417
Underground Mining and Mine Design
Suranaree University of Technology, Mar. 2018
Underground instability mechanism

low in-situ stress (1/ c < 0.15)

Structurally controlled
• Stable (linear elastic response)
• Falling or sliding of blocks and wedge
• Unravelling of block from the excavation surface
intermediate in-situ stress (0.15< 1/ c < 0.4)
• Brittle fracture adjacent to excavation boundary
• Localized failure of intact rock and movement of blocks
• Localized failure of intact rock and unravelling along
discontinuities
high in-situ stress (1/ c > 0.4)
Stress controlled
• Brittle failure around the excavation
• Brittle failure of intact rock around the excavation and
movement of blocks
• Squeezing and swelling rock

modified from Hoek et al. (1995).

Underground instability mechanism
The two significant modes of underground instability anticipated at a Repository (Martin, 2005 )
Structurally controlled instability
Wedge falling and sliding
• In tunnels excavated in jointed rock masses at
relatively shallow depth, low in-situ stress
• the most common types of failure are those
involving wedges falling from the roof or sliding
out of the sidewalls of the openings.
• These wedges are formed by intersecting structural
features, such as bedding planes and joints,
• When a free face is created by the excavation of the
opening, the restraint from the surrounding rock is
removed.
• One or more of these wedges can fall or slide from
the surface if the bounding planes are continuous
or rock bridges along the discontinuities are
broken.
Underground wedge analysis
The steps which are required to deal with this problem are:
1. Determination of average dip and dip direction of significant discontinuity sets.
2. Identification of potential wedges which can slide or fall from the back or walls.
3. Calculation of the factor of safety of these wedges, depending upon the mode of failure.
4. Calculation of the amount of reinforcement required to bring the factor of safety of individual wedges
up to an acceptable level.
1. Determination of orientation of significant discontinuity sets
1) Discontinuities Identification 3) Evaluate of significant discontinuity sets
N

Set 1
256/59

3
Set 3
W 008/73 E

Set 2
091/65

2) Field investigation data

2. Identification of potential wedges

There are three kinematic

1. the block falls from the roof
2. the block slides (either along the line of maximum
dip of a discontinuity or along the line of
intersection of two discontinuities);
3. the block is stable

Condition of stable blocks

2. Identification of potential wedges
Wedge falling Condition for roof wedge falling

• Roof wedge falling occurs when a block detaches from

the roof of an excavation without sliding on any of the
bounding discontinuity planes.
• In the case of gravitational loading, the direction of
movement is vertically downwards.
• This is represented on the projection as a line with a
dip of 90°, i.e. at the centre of the projection.
• Thus, if this point falls within the spherical triangle
formed by the bounding discontinuities, falling is
kinematically feasible, as illustrated the figure
2. Identification of potential wedges
Wedge sliding
wedge sliding can be formed either;
1. on one discontinuity plane (as plane failure) or,
2. on a line of intersection (as wedge failure), as illustrated in the figure
by consideration of the spherical triangle and whether any part of it has a dip greater than the angle of friction

Not all lines of maximum dip can be Sliding on plane Sliding on line of intersection
candidates for the sliding direction.
Figure (a): Sliding on plane 2
Figure (b): Sliding along the
intersection line of plane 1 and plane 3
3. Calculation of the factor of safety of these wedges
Geometrical analysis of maximum wedge volume
Maximum wedge volume
• The minimum requirement to define a discrete block is four
non-parallel planes, which give rise to a tetrahedral block.
• Three discontinuity planes + one excavation plane
• Determine the maximum volume (or weight) of the wedge
that may form
• The maximum volumes independently relate to joint spacing
Large joint spacing Small joint spacing
Two common cases

Case I: Roof wedge Case II: Sidewall wedge

Geometrical analysis of maximum wedge volume
Example
Calculating the maximum wedge volume and it’s weight
condition:
• Three discontinuity sets orientation (dip directions, dip
angles);
set 1: 138/51
set 2: 355/40
set 3: 219/67
• The opening is rectangular in shape, is 6x6 m wide, and
has it’s long axis orientated at an azimuth of 025
Geometrical analysis of maximum wedge volume
Case I: Roof wedge (Horizontal surface)
Wedge volume (V)
ℎ
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑓
3
2 Where
𝐴𝑓 is the area of face triangle
ℎ is the height of wedge

1
3
Geometrical analysis of maximum wedge volume
Case I: Roof wedge

l2

l1
Geometrical analysis of maximum wedge volume
Case I: Roof wedge

l2

l1
Geometrical analysis of maximum wedge volume
1) Area of face triangle (Af) 3) Wedge volume (V)

𝐴𝑓 = 0.5𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃12 = 0.5𝑙2 𝑙3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃23 = 0.5𝑙1 𝑙3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃13 ℎ

𝑉 = 𝐴𝑓
3
2) Wedge height (h)
ℎ = 𝑙12 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽12 = 𝑙23 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽23 = 𝑙13 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽13

l2

l1
Geometrical analysis of maximum wedge volume
Case I: Roof wedge

Af
Geometrical analysis of maximum wedge volume
Wedge geometries calculation 1) Area of face triangle (Af)
𝐴𝑓 = 0.5𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃12 = 0.5𝑙2 𝑙3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃23 = 0.5𝑙1 𝑙3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃13
2) Wedge height (h)
ℎ = 𝑙12 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽12 = 𝑙23 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽23 = 𝑙13 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽13
3) Wedge volume (V)
ℎ
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑓
3
4) Area of wedge face
Geometrical analysis of maximum wedge volume
Case II: Sidewall wedge (Vertical surface)
Step 1: Project all joint sets and tunnel axis on
horizontal plane similar to roof wedge analysis.

Noted! Step 1, 5, 6 and 7 are the methods for roof wedge analysis
 Noted! Step 1, 5, 6 and 7 are the methods for roof wedge analysis
Case II: Sidewall wedge (cont.)
Step 2: Rotate the tunnel axis coincides with the N-S direction Step 4: Find the grate circle which to pairs of
Step 3: Rotate each of three intersection (ab, bc, ac) onto a intersection points ab’-ac’ , ab’-bc’ and bc’-ac’
vertical plane by counting off 90o along small circles
and mark the rotated intersection ab’, bc’ and ac’
 Noted! Step 1, 5, 6 and 7 are the methods for roof wedge analysis
Case II: Sidewall wedge (cont.)
Step 4: Find the grate circle which to pairs of Step 4: Find the grate circle which to pairs of
intersection points ab’-ac’ , ab’-bc’ and bc’-ac’ intersection points ab’-ac’ , ab’-bc’ and bc’-ac’
 Noted! Step 1, 5, 6 and 7 are the methods for roof wedge analysis
Case II: Sidewall wedge (cont.)
Step 5: Find plunge () of intersect points and
direction of each of three plane (P1, P2, P3) Step 6: Transfer the spherical triangle on to the scaled
plan view, where the width of the window represents the
width of the tunnel.
 Noted! Step 1, 5, 6 and 7 are the methods for roof wedge analysis
Case II: Sidewall wedge (cont.)
Step 7: Calculate the wedge geometries and it’s volume 1) Area of face triangle (Af)
𝐴𝑓 = 0.5𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃12 = 0.5𝑙2 𝑙3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃23 = 0.5𝑙1 𝑙3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃13

2) Wedge height (h)

ℎ = 𝑙12 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽12 = 𝑙23 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽23 = 𝑙13 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽13

3) Wedge volume (V)

ℎ
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑓
3

Calculation results
Maximum volume of tetrahedral block;
Roof wedge volume = 4.92 m3
Sidewall wedge volume = 15.1 m3
Geometrical analysis of maximum wedge volume
Graphical method to find wedge height

Af
Stability analysis of block sliding

Sliding on plane Sliding on line of intersection

Stability analysis of block sliding

Sliding on plane
Resisting force
FS =
Driving force

Dried condition

𝑐𝐴 + 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜓p 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙
FS =
𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜓p
Stability analysis of block sliding
Dip/Dip direction Opening span = 15x15 m
Plane 1: 50/135 A
Plane 2: 70/180
Plane 3: 50/255
V = 170.9 m3
 = 0.0265 MN/m3 W = 4.53 MN
c = 0.1 MPa A = 72.76 m2
 = 25o
p = 70o

𝑐𝐴 + 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜓p 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙
p FS =
𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜓p

W = 4.53 MN FS = 1.879
Stability analysis of wedge sliding
Dip/Dip direction
Plane 1: 70/135
Plane 2: 50/180
Plane 3: 70/255

V = 433.5 m3
W = 11.489 MN
 = 0.0265 MN/m3 Wedge face area
c = 0.1 MPa A1 = 130.5 m2
A2 = 226.4 m2
 = 25o
A3 = 130.5 m2
Resisting force = 29.38 MN
Driving force = 10.21 MN

FS = 2.88
4. Calculation of the amount of reinforcement required

Install mechanically rock bolt

Roof wedge, 36 tonnes
Length 3 m
FS= 0, fail
Bolt capacity 10 tonnes

Roof wedge
FS= 1.350

Shotcrete supported
Thickness 10 cm
Floor wedge, 112 tonnes Shear strength 0.2 Mpa
FS=stable Unit weight 2.0 t/m3

Roof wedge
FS= 12.3
4. Calculation of the amount of reinforcement required

The most efficient angle (ψT(opt)) for a tensioned rock is