NUCLEAR

PHYSICS
The branch of physics dealing with the study of atomic
nucleus is called Nuclear Physics.
 Constituents of Nucleus

The species of nucleus known as nuclide is represented

schematically by ZXA
where,
Z = atomic number ( indicates number of proton)
A = mass number ( indicates total number of nucleons )
A – Z = number of neutrons
X is the chemical symbol of the species
EXAMPLE:

1. 92 U238

Z = 92 ( number of protons )
A = 238 ( mass number )
N = A – Z = 238 – 92 = 146 ( number of neutrons ) and
U represents uranium.
 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF
NUCLEUS
1. Size:
The mean radius of atomic nucleus is of the order of
10−14 m to 10−15 m while that of atom is about 10−10 m .
The empirical formula for the nuclear radius is given as
R = R0A1/3
Where, A is the mass number and R 0 = 1.2 × 10−15 m = 1.2 fm

2. Charge:
3. Mass:
The mass of nucleus is the sum of masses of
nucleons ( protons and neutrons).
Nuclear mass = Zmp + ( A – Z )mn
where,
Z = atomic number,
A - Z = neutron number ,
mp is mass of proton and
mn is mass of neutron.
4. Nuclear Density:
The mass per unit volume of a nucleus is called nuclear
density.
Nuclear mass Zmp + ( A – Z )mn
Nuclear density ( ρ ) = Nuclear volume = 4 3
πR
3
Since, R = R0A1/3 and mp ≈ mn
A mn 3 mN
ρ=4 =
πR3 4πR03
3

By substituting, mN = 1.6 × 10−27 kg and R 0 = 1.2 × 10−15 m ,

we get,
Nuclear density ( ρ ) = 2.3 × 1017 kgm−3
 ATOMIC MASS and ATOMIC MASS UNIT
(amu):
The mass of neutral atom is atomic mass.

Since the masses of atoms, nucleus and fundamental

particles are too small, they are expressed in unit called
atomic mass unit ( amu or u ).
One amu:
1
It is defined as ( ) of mass the mass of one 6C12 atom.
12

12 g of 6C12 contains 6.023 × 1023 atoms of 6C12.

i.e.
Mass of 6.023 × 1023 atoms of 6C12 = 12 g
12
Mass of 1 atom of 6C = 6.023×1023 g
12

1 12
By definition, 1 amu = g
12 6.023×1023

= 1.66 × 10−24 g

1 amu = 1.66 × 10−27 kg

On atomic scale, mass of protons, neutrons and electrons
are

Mass (kg) Mass (amu) Charge (relative)

Proton 1.67262 × 10−27 1.00727 +1

Neutron 1.67493 × 10−27 1.00866 0

Electron 0.00091 × 10−27 0.00055 -1

 Types of Nuclei:
1. Isotopes:
Same Z but different A

Examples : Hydrogen : 11H , 21H , 31H

Carbon: 126C , 146C

2. Isobars:
Same A but different Z

14
Examples : 6C and 147N

40
18Ar and 40
20Ca
3. Isotones :
Same neutron number but different Z and A

14
Example : 6𝐶 , 157𝑁 and 16
8𝑂

4. Isomers:
Same Z and A but differ in their radioactive
character
5. Isodiapheres:
Same excess number of neutrons over the protons

Difference of no. neutrons and protons = ( A – Z ) – Z

= A – 2Z

Example: 37
17𝐶𝑙 and 39
18𝐴𝑟

6. Mirror Nuclie:
Same A but proton and neutron number interchanged

Example : 74𝐵𝑒 ( Z = 4, N = 3 ) and 73𝐿𝑖 ( Z = 3, N = 4 )

Mass Defect ( Δm )

The difference in the sum of the masses of its

constituent nucleons and rest mass of the nucleus is
called Mass Defect .

Mass defect ( Δm ) = sum of masses of nucleons of the

nucleus - rest mass of the nucleus

Δm = [ Zmp + Nmn ] - M
Packing Fraction ( f )
The mass defect per nucleon is called Packing Fraction.
It is the measure of comparative stability of the atom.

Δm
Packing Fraction =
A

Packing Fraction may be positive, negative or zero.

Negative Packing Fraction means the nucleus is more stable
and positive Packing Fraction means the nucleus is not
stable.
The Packing Fraction for 126C isotope is Zero because
the atomic masses are measured relative to 126C isotope.
 EINSTEIN’S MASS ENERGY
RELATION
According to Einstein's mass energy relation mass and
energy are interchangeable. Mass can be converted into
energy and vice versa.
The energy equivalent of a mass Δm is
E = Δmc2

where, c = 3 × 108 m/s is the speed of light.

 Atomic mass unit in terms of energy
According to Einstein's mass energy relation, the energy
equivalent to 1 amu is given by:
E = mc2

= 1.66 x 10-27 x ( 3 x 108 )2

= 1.494 x 10-10 J

1.494 X 10−10
= eV
1.6 X 10−19

= 931 MeV
Thus,
Energy equivalent of 1 amu = 931 MeV
Binding Energy
The minimum energy required to bind the nucleus to
form a stable nucleus is called binding energy.

It is also defined as the minimum energy required to

separate the nucleons from the nucleus.

Binding energy ( B.E ) = Mass Defect ( Δm ) x c2

or
Binding energy ( B.E ) = Mass Defect ( Δm ) x 931 MeV
 (i) B.E. > 0 means the nucleus is stable and the external
energy must be supplied to disrupt it into its constituents.
(ii) B.E. < 0 means the nucleus is unstable and it will
disintegrate itself.

Binding Energy Per Nucleon

The total binding energy of a nucleus per nucleon is
called binding energy per nucleon.
Total B.E.
B.E per nucleon =
Mass Number
The binding energy per nucleon explains the stability of the
nucleus.
Higher the B.E. per nucleon, more stable is the nucleus and
vice versa.
 Binding Energy Curve

It is the graphical plot of B.E. per nucleon vs mass

number of various nuclei.

The variation of binding energy of different elements

with atomic mass number is studied in terms of binding
energy per nucleon as shown in fig
 62
28Ni
(8.7945 MeV)
 Pair Production

The phenomenon of conversion of electromagnetic

radiation ( photon ) into mass is known as Pair Production.

Photon electron + positron

i.e. h ɣ -1 e0+
+1 e0

This process can not take place in free space and

usually takes place near an atomic nucleus. Both energy
and momentum are conserved during Pair Production.
According to Einstein’s Mass Energy Relation, a body in rest
also has some energy, which is called Rest mass energy ( m0 ).
E0 = m0c2
The rest mass of an electron and positron is 9.1 X 10-31 Kg.
So, the rest mass energy of each of them will be:

E0 = m0c2 = 0.51 MeV

The total rest mass energy of produced particles in a pair

production = 2 X 0.51 = 1.02 MeV
Minimum energy required for electron-positron pair
production is 1.02 MeV. If the energy is greater than 1.02 MeV,
the remaining energy will be distributed in the produced
particles in the form of Kinetic energy.
 Annihilation
The phenomenon of conversion of mass ( particle-anti
particle pair ) into energy is called Annihilation or Pair
Annihilation.

Electron + positron 2 photons

i.e. -1e + +1e
0 0 hɣ+ hɣ

The pair annihilation also follows conservation laws.

 Nuclear Forces and Nuclear
Reaction
An attractive strong and short range force to hold the
nucleons in the nucleus is the nuclear force.
• Nuclear forces are the strongest force known to
physics.
• They are short range forces.
• They are non conservative forces.
• They are charge independent.
• They depend on the spins of the nucleons. ( force
is strongest when spins are parallel and weakest
when spins are anti parallel )
 Nuclear Reactions
The process of change in the nuclear structure is
called Nuclear Reaction.
Types:
1. Nuclear Decay Reaction
2. Nuclear Transmutation Reaction

During Nuclear Reaction,

• Total charge of the system remains conserved.
• Total number of nucleons remains conserved.
• Total mass and energy of the system remains
conserved.
 NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION

There is always difference in mass, called mass

defect, in a nuclear reaction.

According to Einstein’s mass energy relation, the

difference in mass ( ∆m ) is converted into energy as
∆E = ∆mc 2 , which is released during the reaction.

The energy released is called nuclear energy.

 Nuclear fission
The process of splitting up of a heavy nucleus into two
nuclei of nearly comparable masses with liberation of
energy is called nuclear fission.

The fission nuclear reaction may be represented by the

equation
92U
235 + 0n1  [92U236]  56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 30n1 + Q
 Energy released in fission

92U 235 + n1 →
0 92U 236 →
56 Ba 141 +
36 Kr 92 + 3 n1 + Q
0
Here,
Mass of neutron 0n1 = 1.008665 u
Mass of Uranium 92U 235 = 235.045733 u
Mass of Barium 56 Ba 141 = 140.917704 u
Mass of Krypton 36 Kr 92 = 91.8854 u
So,
Mass of the reactants = 235.045733 u + 1.008665 u = 236.054398 u
Mass of the products = 140.917704 u + 91.8854 u + 3 X 1.008665 u
= 235.829095 u
Since,
Mass Defect ( Δm ) = Mass of reactant - Mass of product
Or, Δm = 236.054398 u - 235.829095 u
Δm = 0.225303 u
Thus, Energy released in a fission E = Δm x 931MeV

= 0.225303 x 931 MeV

= 209.76 MeV

~ 200 MeV
Again,
Total B.E.
B.E. per nucleon =
Mass Number

200
=
235

~ 0.8 MeV
 Chain Reaction
Chain Reaction is a self propagating process in which
number of neutrons goes on multiplying rapidly, almost
in geometrical progression during fission till all the
fissionable material is disintegrated.

The number of neutrons produced in n such generation

is 3n.

A chain reaction is fission reactions which continues

until all fissionable materials is disintegrated.
 Types of Chain Reaction

1. Controlled Chain Reaction

In this reaction, the number of neutrons and
hence the energy can be controlled to a desired level.
This principle is used in Nuclear Reactors.

2. Uncontrolled Chain Reaction

In this reaction, the number of neutrons are
allowed to multiply indefinitely and the energy is
released all at a time. This principle is used in Atom
Bomb.
 Multiplication Factor
Ratio of secondary neutrons produced to the initial
number of neutrons is called Multiplication Factor. It is
denoted by k.

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

K=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• If k > 1, the reaction is increasing or super critical.

• If k = 1, the reaction is steady or critical.

• If k < 1, the reaction is dying off or sub critical.

 Critical Size for maintenance of
Chain Reaction
The critical size of a system containing fissile material
is defined as the minimum size for which the number of
neutrons produced in the fission process just balance those
lost by leakage and non fission capture. Corresponding mass
of fissionable material is called Critical Mass.

If the size is less than the Critical Size, a chain

reaction is not possible.
 Nuclear Fusion
It is the process of combining two or more lighter nuclei
to form a heavy and stable nucleus with the release of huge
amount of energy.

When two deuterons combine to form a stable helium

nucleus 2He4 , a large amount of energy is released.

1H
2+
1H 2He + Q
2 4
 Energy Released in Fusion
1 H 2 + H2
1 2 He4+ Q

Here,
Mass of deuteron = 2.014102 u
Mass of helium = 4.002604 u
Now,
Mass Defect ( ∆m ) = Mass of Reactant – Mass of Product
= ( 2 X 2.014102 u ) - 4.002604 u
= 0.0256 u
Thus,
Energy Released in fusion ( E ) = ∆m X 931 MeV
= 23.8336 MeV
≈ 24 MeV
 Total B.E.
B.E. per nucleon =
Mass Number

23.8336
=
4

~ 6 MeV

Fusion Reaction is more energetic than Fission Reaction.

 Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

92U
235 +
0n → 56 Ba 141 + Kr 92 + 30n1 + Q
1
1H
2+
1H 2He
2 4+ Q
36

Energy released per fusion is around 200 Energy released per fusion is around
MeV 24 MeV

Energy released per nucleon is around Energy released per nucleon is

0.8 MeV/Nucleon around 6 MeV/Nucleon

No restriction in temperature Around 107 K temperature is needed

to start fusion
This principle is used in atom bomb This principle is used in hydrogen
bomb
 Formula
1. Mass Defect Δm = [ Zmp + ( A – Z )mn ] – M
( when mp and mn values are given )

2. Mass Defect Δm = Mass of Reactant – Mass of Product

( when equation is given )
3. Binding energy = Δm x 931MeV
( use when Δm is in amu or u )

4. Binding energy = Δm x c2
( use when Δm is in kg )
B.E.
5. B.E. per nucleon = A
1. The mass of 17Cl35 is 34.9800 amu. Calculate its
binding energy and binding energy per nucleon if mass
of one proton is 1.007825 amu, and mass of one
neutron = 1.008665 amu.
Here,
Z = 17, A = 35
Δm = [ Zmp + ( A – Z ) mn ] – M = 0.309 amu

Binding energy = Δm x 931MeV = 0.309 x 931 MeV

= 287.7MeV
Also B.E. per nucleon = B.E/A = ( 287.7 )/3

= 8.22 MeV/nucleon
2. What will the amount of energy released in the fusion of
three alpha particles into a C12 nucleus if the mass of He4
and C12 nuclei are respectively 4.00263 amu and 12 amu.
Given:
2 He4 + He4 + He4
2 2 6 C 12 + Q

Now,
Mass of Reactant = 3 X 4.00263 amu = 12.00789 amu
Mass of Product = 12 amu
Thus,
Mass Defect Δm = Mass of Reactant – Mass of Product
Or, Δm = 0.00789 amu
Again,
Energy Released = Δm X 931 MeV = 7.34 MeV
3. Calculate the Q value of the reaction and mention
the type of reaction.( endothermic or exothermic ).
2He = 4.00377 amu, 8O
17 = 17.00450 amu,
7N1 =
4 4

14.00783 amu, 1H1 = 1.00814 amu

Given:
The reaction can be written as:

7N1 + 2He 8O + 1H + Q
4 4 17 1

Q = - 0.96824 MeV
4. The energy liberated in the fission of a single atom of U-235
is 3.2x10-11J. Calculate (i)energy liberated by 1 gm of uranium
(ii) Power production if 1 gm goes fission in one day
Given:
235gm of U-235 contains 6.0x1023 number of atoms
6.023 𝑋 1023
1gm of U-235 contains = number of atoms
235
= 2.56 x 1021 atoms
Energy liberated per fission ( E1 ) = 200 MeV = 3.2 X 10-11 J
Total Energy liberated by 1 gram of U-235 = E1 X N
= 8.20 X 1010 J
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Again, Power = = 9.49 X 105 Watt
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
5. It is estimated that the energy released in the atomic
bomb explosion at Hiroshima, Japan in second world war
was 7.6X1013 J. If on average 200MeV energy was
released on fission of U-235 atom, calculate the mass of
Uranium used for the bomb.
Ans: 926.65 grams
6. A city requires 107 watts of electrical power on average.
If this is to be supplied by a nuclear reactor of efficiency
20% using 92U235 as the fuel source, calculate the amount of
fuel required per day. ( Energy released per fission of 92U235
= 200 MeV ) Ans: 52.37 grams
7. A nucleus of 92U238 disintegrates according to following
equation: 92 U 238 ⟶ 90 Th234 + He4
2
Calculate:
1. The total energy released in the disintegration process.
2. The K.E. of the alpha particle, the nucleus at rest
before disintegration.
Given that:
Mass of 92U238 = 3.859 X 10-25 Kg
Mass of 90Th234 = 3.787 X 10-25 Kg
Mass of α particle ( 2He4 ) = 6.648 X 10-27 Kg