Topic 2: Water Chemistry

Water cycle

Water use in developed and developing countries

Per capacity water requirement

1
Comment form Chemtech
• On comparing an average Indian industry with the best global industry, it is seen that the Indian
industry is far more water intensive than its global counterpart. Higher water consumption in Indian
industries is due to the sheer(Purna) scale of inefficiency and waste in the industrial system, lack of
proper information, dearth(Duskal) of price sensitive and predictive water management information
and the lack of a proactive approach.

Specific water consumption for various industries in india

Why to know water?

• India is already an almost water stressed country. Water scarcity (Tanchaie) problem can be
mitigated (kami) using an integrated approach, aimed at reducing wastewater generation and
recycling the wastewater. Water conservation, rainwater harvesting and water recycling play an
important role. These measures can be adopted at the municipality, community as well as at
industrial levels. Water is the limiting factor for sustainable development and industrialisation. Water
conservation and recycled water is cheaper than fresh water. Hence, water recycling is not a
bottleneck but is a good business decision in the long run

Introduction:
• 1Natures most wonderful gift of God to man Because
• Without food, we can survive up to 20 day’s But without water, not more than one week
• [Link] is blue planet. 4/5 of earth surface is covered by water.
• Out of total water 97.0% present in the sea Out of 3%, 2.7% present in form of glacier &
Underground water Only 0.3% water is available for drinking, washing, irrigation, Agriculture &
industrialization.

2
 • [Link] shown by water is unique one
• On dissociation it gives H+ & OH- ions According to Arrhenius, it is acid & base. But it is neutral in
nature. When we add water, in acid it becomes acidic & in base it become basic.
• 4. Water is called universal solvent. Because due to polar nature and good dielectric constant most of
element in periodic tables are soluble in water.
• 5. On solidification density of water decreases. Therefore ice floats on water.
• The unusual properties of water in the condensed phase (liquid and solid states) are due to the
presence of extensive hydrogen bonding between water molecules. This leads to high freezing point,
high boiling point, high heat of vaporization and high heat of fusion in comparison to H2S and H2Se.
In comparison to other liquids, water has a higher specific heat, thermal conductivity, surface
tension, dipole moment and dielectric constant, etc. These properties allow water to play a key role
in the biosphere.

Chemistry of Water

• Name: Water , Chemical formula: H2O, Atomic Weight: 18, Geometry: Tetragonal,
Electro negativity: H: 2.1, O:3.5, Hybridization: SP3

• At. No. Of Oxygen: 8, Electronic configuration: 1S2 2S2 2Px2 2Py1 2Pz1

3
Sources of water: main source of water is rain water & it is classified in to two types A) Surface water &
B) underground water
• Rain water: It is purest form of natural water.(It is formed due to condensation of water vapor i.e
process similar to distillation ) It is called primary source because when it approaches earth’s surface
it converts/ provides water to other sources called secondary sources like rivers, streams,
underground water , seas & oceans.( Water for these sources coming from rain water)
• Presence of impurity in atmosphere it becomes impure (dust particle, dissolved gases O2,CO2,
lighting of sky result N2 into NO2 which is turn into HNO3. It is acidic in nature. But surface water
never acidic because acid consume by oxides, carbonates in earth crust converts it into alkaline or
neutral in nature.
A) Surface water: Types of surface water is Steady and Flowing water. E.g stream, river, lake & sea
• Water for this sources coming from rain (primary source)
• [Link] water: e.g. Stream, River (Secondary Source)
In this type water flow over rocks & minerals. During their journey it comes in contact with number
of impurities like dissolved, suspended, colloidal & bacterial impurities. This type of water is used for
domestic & industrial purpose after sedimentation/ coagulation and sedimentation & purification
only. It is applicable to all kind of applications.
2. Steady water: e.g. Lake, pond
In this type water collect specific area over earth surface. Distance traveled by water is less
compare with flowing water. Therefore amount of dissolved, suspended & colloidal impurities are
less, but due to stagnancy of water without any moment, amount of bacterial impurities, organic
matters impurities are quit higher than flowing water. When organic matters are more than dissolved
oxygen some time un aerobic bacterial decomposition produce foul smell. It is useful for domestic
and agricultural applications.
• 3. Sea water: It is most impure water present on earth surface. All rivers terminates at sea, river
water carries large amount of salts. Sea water continuously evaporated leaving salt behind thus
salinity of sea water continuously increases. It contains on an average 3.5% salts out of that 2.6%
NaCl while others are sodium sulphate, bicarbonates of Ca,Mg,K, bromides of K,Mg and other salts.
• It is useful only for water cycle.
• B) Underground water: A part of the rain water, reaches the surface of earth, percolates(natural
filtration) into earth, coming out in the form of springs or well water
• Springs or Wells: As compare to flowing water it consist of more amount of dissolved salts, but it is
more clear in appearance due to less amount of colloidal & suspended impurities. It is useful for
domestic application if pumping is economical then for agricultural purpose.
Comparative chart to source, purity, impurity and significance

Source Purity Impurities Significance

Rain Water Most pure form of natural Dust, Clay dissolved CO2, O2 Primary source cannot be
water used directly
Sea/Ocean Most impure form >% of dissolved Salts Cannot be used directly
And minerals Important in water cycle
River/Spring, Moderately Pure Floating matter, Clay, Sand, Used for all purposes
Streams etc. Vegetative waste, Dissolved
Lakes, Ponds Moderately Pure salts, Mineral
Underground Moderately Pure Only Dissolved salts

4
 Effect of water on Rocks & Minerals
• Dissolution: Mineral like NaCl, Gypsum they are easily dissolved in water
• Hydration: Un hydrous substances like Calcium sulphate easily hydrated with water converted into
Gypsum
• CaSO4 + 2H2O → CaSO4 2H2O
• Calcium sulphate Gypsum
• Action of dissolved Oxygen: D.O. in water causes oxidation of minerals
• 2Fe3O4 → 3Fe2O3 → Fe2O32H2O
• Magnetite Hematite Limonite
• Action of dissolved Carbon dioxide : Dissolved Carbon dioxide react with carbonates of Calcium &
Magnesium to form Bicarbonates of Calcium & Magnesium
• CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O → Ca(HCO3)2
• MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O → Mg(HCO3)2
•
Impurities in water: Dissolved , Suspended, Colloidal ,Bacterial
• Water from these sources is impure & consist several impurities. These impurities come from soil,
vegetation, atmosphere, man made activities etc. The important impurities in natural water are
divided as under
• 1. Floating impurities: They include all types of matter ( organic with bigger size & less denser) which
floats on surface, such as dried leaves, wood pieces, plastic oil & greases etc. can be separated by
simple methods of separation
• 2. Suspended impurities: These are insoluble impurities held by water. Steady water & underground
water is free from such impurities. Suspended matter is of three types
• a) Heavy suspended matter: Silt, Sand, Clay etc.
• b) Fine suspended matter: Fine clay & dust
• c) Colloidal matter: Fine silica & silica gel.
• Besides this harmful pathogens are also considered as biological impurities. e.g ecoli
• These impurities can be removed by keeping water stand still, sedimentation, coagulation, filtration
etc
• 3. Dissolved impurities: It includes all water soluble substances which come to natural water from
soil and man made activities. These are classified as
• i) Acidic & Alkaline substances: Bicarbonates, Mineral acids. Providing acidity ,alkalinity to water
sample
• ii) Colour salts & Minerals: Transition metal compounds. Providing colour to the water
• iii) Toxic substances: Salts of As,Pb,Hg makes water poisonous
• iv) Dissolved gases: CO2 &O2 increases acidity, palatability test, oxygen to aquatic life, increases
freshness of water, causes corrosion of material (org, inorganic) if less sufficient cause foul smell to
water
• v) Ca & Mg Salts: Causes hardness to the water
• vi) Neutral salts: like NaCl, KCl increases salinity test as well as conductivity of water to increase rate
of corrosion.
•
Effect of impurity on quality of water
• Colour: Colour of natural water varying from pale straw to yellow to reddish brown.
• Colour of water detected by Tinto meter & unit is silica scale

5
 • Odor & Test: Natural water is odor & test less, Odor & Test due to reaction of chlorine with organic
matter, coming as effluent of industry like food, paper & textiles etc. It is removed by passing water
on activated charcoal
• Turbidity & sediment: Cause due to presence of suspended impurities in water. It is detected by
Turbidimeter
Dissolved impurities in water
• Dissolved impurities in water causes different types of effects on quality of waters
• 1. Hardness: This type of effect cause due to presence of dissolved salt of Ca & Mg.
e.g. CaSO4, MgSO4, CaCl2, MgCl2, Fe2O32H2O, Ca(HCO3)2 Mg(HCO3)2, & CaCO3 ,MgCO3, Mg(NO3)2 etc
What is hardness of water ?
• Intoduction: Pure water is free from dissolved impurities. When this water allow reacting with soap,
it form foam with ease i.e. Direct forming foaming agent / without formation of scum or precipitate.
•
• C17H35COONa +H2O → C17H35COOH + NaOH → Foam
• Soap (Foaming agent)
• Soft water containing lower extent of dissolved salts of Ca & Mg. Interferences of these salts in soap
& water reaction is negligible
• (Soap) +CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca ↓+2NaCl +C17H35COONa+H2O→C17H35COOH + NaOH → Foam
• (Form soft water) ppt or scum small amt (Foaming agent)
• Hard water containing large extent of dissolved salts of Ca & Mg. Interferences of these salt in soap
& water reaction is high. Produces curdy ppt (scum) when most of Ca & Mg converts into scum soap
will form lather i.e difficultly
• Thus water contain dissolve salts of Ca & Mg (have tendency to consume soap) is called as Hard
water.
• Definition: Hard water is kind of water which difficultly forms foam or lather with soap
• Definition: Soft water is kind of water which easily forms foam or lather with soap.
• Definition Hardness: Hardness of water is tendency of water to resist formation of foam or lather on
treatment with soap.
• Definition Degree of hardness: Degree of hardness is extent of resistance offered by water towards
the formation of foam or lather.
• Causes of Hardness: Water becomes hard due to dissolved salt of Calcium & Magnesium from soil.
Ca &Mg ions from water interfere during reaction of water with soap as under
• C17H35COONa +H2O → C17H35COOH + NaOH → Foam
• Soap (Foaming agent)
• (Sodium Stearate) +CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca ↓ + 2NaCl
• (Form hard water) ppt or scum
• Thus hard water produces foam or lather when all Ca &Mg is converted into scum

Types of Hardness & Hard water

• Hardness of water is classified on the basis of boiling. If hardness is due to bicarbonate of Ca & Mg
then it vanished after boiling because bicarbonate of Ca & Mg decomposes into insoluble salts on
mere boiling of water, while hardness due to salts other than bicarbonate is retained i.e. retain in
ionic form and remain soluble even after boiling. Thus two type of hardness are
• Temporary hardness: Kind of hardness removed/eliminated due to mere boiling of water is
temporary hardness. Cause due to bi carbonates of Ca & Mg salts. This type of hardness removed by
mere boiling. Kind of water whose hardness removed by mere boiling is called temporary hard water
• Ca(HCO3)2 →CaCO3 ↓+ CO2 + H2O

6
 • Mg(HCO3)2→Mg(OH)2 ↓ + 2H2O
• Permanent hardness: Kind of hardness retain even after mere boiling of water is permanent
hardness Causes due to Chlorides, Sulphate, Nitrides of Ca, Mg & Heavy metal ions. They are not
removed by mere boiling of water.
• e.g. CaSO4, MgSO4, CaCl2, MgCl2, Fe2O32H2O,, CaCO3 ,MgCO3, Mg(NO3)2 etc
• Kind of water whose hardness retained even after mere boiling is called permanent hard water
Expressing hardness
• Hardness of water is due to different substances having different molecular weights. Simple addition
of it to calculate hardness is not considered. Thus universally it decided to convert all soluble
impurities amount in to equivalence of CaCO3 . In order to express it in single substance it is
expressed in terms of equivalence of CaCO3
• Hardness of water is expressed as equivalents of CaCO3
• Amount of hardness causing substance in mg/L X 100
• CaCO3 equivalent =---------------------------------------------------------------------
• Molecular weight of hardness causing substance
Units of hardness
• [Link] Per Millions (ppm): The number of parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness causing impurities
present per million (10 6) parts of water
• 2. Milligrams per liter (mg/l):- It is number of milligram of CaCO3 equivalent hardness causing
impurities present in one liter of water.
• 3. Degree Clarks: It is number of parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness causing impurities present in
70000 parts of water.
• 4. Degree French: It is number of parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness causing impurities present in
100000 parts of water.
• 1ppm = 1mg/l = 0.07 0Cl = 0.1 0Fr

Calculations of CaCO3 equivalents

Dissolved Molecular Multiple factor for Dissolved Molecular Multiple factor for
salts weight converting into salts weight converting into
equivalence of equivalence of CaCO3
CaCO3

Ca(HCO ) 162 100/162 MgCl 95 100/95

3 2 2

Mg(HCO ) 146 100/146 CaCO 100 100/100

3 2 3

CaSO 136 100/136 MgCO 84 100/84

4 3

MgSO 120 100/120 CO 44 100/44

4 2

CaCl 111 100/111 Mg(NO ) 148 100/74

2 3 2
Ch. Eq. 74

Determination of hardness: By soap method.

• First standardize soap solution with standard hard water.
• Known volume of (50ml) of unknown sample is allow to react with standard soap solution till
permanent foam is formed for at least 5 sec.
• EDTA method: First standardize EDTA solution with standard hard water.

7
 • Known volume of (50ml) of unknown sample is allow to react with standard EDTA solution in basic
buffer & EBT indicator till colour changes from wine red to sky blue
Examples on hardness
• [Link] out Temporary, Permanent, Total hardness of water containing following impurities.
Ca(HCO3)2 :16.2 mg/l Mg(HCO3)2:14.6 mg/l, CaSO4:13.6 mg/l, MgSO4:12 mg/l, CaCl2:11.1 mg/l,
MgCl2:9.5 mg/l, ,MgCO3:8.4 mg/l, Mg(NO3)2:7.4 mg/l, NaCl 5.85mg/L ,KCl 7.455 mg/L, Na2CO3 10.6
•
• Calculations of equivalence of CaCO3
• Ca(HCO3)2 :16.2 mg/l = 16.2 X 100/ 162 = 10 mg/l
• Mg(HCO3)2:14.6 mg/l = 14.6 X 100/146 = 10 mg/l
• CaSO4:13.6 mg/l = 13.6X 100/ 136 = 10 mg/l
• MgSO4:12 mg/l = 12X 100/120 = 10 mg/l
• CaCl2:11.1 mg/l = 11.1 X 100/ 111 = 10 mg/l
• MgCl2:9.5 mg/l,= 9.5 X 100/ 95 = 10 mg/l
• MgCO3:8.4 mg/l = 8.4 X 100 / 84 = 10 mg/l
• Temporary Hardness= Sum of Ca(HCO3)2 &Mg(HCO3)2 = 10+10 = 20 ppm
• Permanent Hardness= Sum of CaSO4, MgSO4 ,MgCl2 & MgCO3 = 10+10+10+10 = 40ppm
• Total Hardness = Temp + Permanent = 20 + 40 = 60 ppm

Name of Amount of CaCO3 equivalents Temporary Permanent Total

impurity impurity mg/L Hardness in Hardness in Hardness in
mg/L ppm ppm ppm
Ca(HCO3)2 16.2 (16.2 X 100)/162 = 10 -- Temporary +
10 Permanent
Mg(HCO3)2 14.6 (14.6 X 100)/146 = 10 --- 20 +40 = 60
10 ppm
CaSO4 13.6 (13.6 X 100)/136 = -- 10
10
MgSO4 12 (12 X 100)/120 = 10 -- 10
CaCl2 11.1 (11.1 X 100)/111 = --- 10
10
MgCl2 9.5 (9.5 X 100)/95 = 10 -- 10
NaCl 5.85 Not hardness -- --
KCl 7.455 causing salt -- ---
Na2CO3 10.6 --- --
Sum 20 ppm 40 ppm 60 ppm

• [Link] sample was prepared by dissolving exactly 1.5 gm CaCO3 in minimum quantity of
con.HNO3 and diluted to 5 lit Calculate hardness of water before and after boiling of water.
• 1.5gm means 1500mg in 5Lit
• Hence 1L=300ppm
• CaCO3 converted into Ca(NO3)2 hence before and after boiling hardness = 300ppm

• 3. Excess of Na2CO3 was added to 200cc solution of gypsum. The dried ppt of CaCO3 was weighted
0.072gm. Determine molar conc. Of gypsum solution. If same amount of gypsum is present in
400cc solution. What will be its hardness in ppm( Mole wt Na2CO3 106, Gypsum 136, CaCO3: 100)
• Na2CO3+ CaSO4 Na2SO4 + CaCO3
• Moles of Na2CO3 in 200cc = 0.072/100=0.00072
• M= 0.00072/.2 = 0.0036M
8
 • 400cc solution gives 0.072gm CaCO3
• The. 1000cc solution gives 0.072X2.5=0.18gm = 180ppm
•
• 4.A two lit. of temporary hard water on boiling gives 0.45gm of CaCO3 as ppt Determine its
hardness.
• 0.45gm in 2 lit
• 0.225gm in 1 lit = 225ppm
• 5.15.2 gm of CaCl2 was dissolved in 150 cc distilled water and then solution was diluted to 775 cc.
Calculate Normality and hardness of solution. ( Molecular Weight of CaCl2: 111)
• N= (15.2/55.5)/.775 = 0.35338
• Hardness= 15.2 gm in 775 ml solution
• Hence 19.6129 gm in 1 Lit = 19.6129 X 10 3 mg in 1 Lit. CaCO3 equivalence of 19.6129 X 10 3 mg is
17.83 X 10 3 Hardness of water Hence Hardness = 17830 ppm
•
• Ill effects of hard water Domestic & Industrial
• Hard water when used in domestic and industrial applications, then it produces several ill effects. The
disadvantages of hard water For domestic use are as given
• Wastage of large quantity of soap. It produces curdy white ppt. the scum. Scum damages texture of
fabric and also produce skin disorders when chokes skin pores.
• It causes digestive disorders and kindly disorders when regularly consumed as drinking water.
• Damages kitchenware like cookers by scaling and waste more fuel.
• Damages water heating appliances like geysers.
• Causes water line corrosion to metallic store tanks.
The disadvantages in industrial use are as under.
• Scale and Sludge formation in boilers- steam generation is common in many industries. Steam is
generated by means of water boiler. Boiler is filled with water and the same is taken out as steam.
Thus all salt present in water are left in boiler vessel. Some of these salts adhere to boiler walls called
as scale and some deposits at bottom called as sludge. Scale and sludge is disadvantageous because
• i ) It reduces water carrying capacity of boiler, thus less extent of steam is produced .
• ii) It reduces efficiency of boiler.
• iii) Scale layer is insulating and thus it account for wastage of fuel.
• iv) Water entering through cracks in scale layer causes corrosion and reduces life of boiler.
• v) Sludge may choke various pipes fitting of boiler and increases chance of an accident or explosion.
• vi) Alkaline water causes caustic embrittlement
• Use of hard water causes corrosion of metallic parts, spares, components, equipment, machinery etc.
• Produce disorders in working of heat exchangers using water as coolant.
• Textile industry- Hard water causes wastage of soap, damages texture of fabric and dose not give
expected shade or colour
• to fabric.
• Sugar Industry- Hard water is used cause opacity to crystals, reduces, crystal size. Sugar becomes
deliquescent.
• Food Industry- Hard water spoils taste of food product.
• Paper Industry- Hard water affects paper quality like texture and finish.
• Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industry- Hard water when used in such industries then it tends to
reduce purity of final product. Also reactors are affected by scale formation, corrosion etc

Alkalinity, Chloride , Dissolved oxygen, BOD & COD its significance

9
 Alkalinity:
Alkalinity of water can be defined as tendency of water to neutralize acid. It is caused by increase in extent
of OH-, CO3- - or HCO3- ions by hydrolysis, dissociation etc. Based on this alkalinity of water is classified in
three types.
1. Hydroxil or Hydrate alkalinity: due to OH- denoted by AH
2. Carbonate alkalinity: due to CO3- - denoted by AC
3. Bicarbonate alkalinity: due to HCO3- denoted by AB
The alkalinity of all three types will not exist at same time as existence of OH - & HCO3- with each other is
ruled out. The total alkalinity A is sum of Hydroxyl, carbonate & bicarbonate alkalinity.
Alkaline water is not suitable for domestic & industrial use. The important disadvantages of alkalinit are
1. Carbonate & bicarbonate alkalinity causes temporary hardness ( Ca & Mg bicarbonate)
2. Alkaline water causes digestive disorders when used for drinking.
3. OH- alkalinity causes caustic embrittlement of metallic components, spares, machines, equipments etc.
4. Alkalinity of water causes damage to constructions made on source of water e.g. Bridges
5. Alkaline water helps scale & sludge formation in boilers.
6. Continuous use of alkaline water for agriculture spoil the soil by change pH.

Chloride content: Chlorides are ionic compounds of chlorine with other elements. Soil consist large extent of
solid minerals &salts as chlorides. When rain water comes in direct contact with soil then chlorides from soil
dissolve in water. The chlorides present in greater extent are NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, AlCl3, FeCl 3 etc.
Chloride extent when exceeds 200 ppm, then it produces several ill effects when used in domestic or
industrial applications. Important of them are
1. High % of chlorides imparts saline taste to water i.e. it increases salinity. Such water cannot be used for
any direct application e.g. sea water.
2. Ca & Mg Chlorides makes water hard.
3. High chlorides produce large extent of sludge in boiler, while CaCl 2 forms scales.
4. Saline water also damages kitchen ware & water heating appliances when used for domestic application.
5. Saline water permanently spoils soil when used in agricultural applications.
Chloride content is not main quality parameter, but we can estimate total dissolved solids (TDS) by knowing
extent of chlorine. As 80% of dissolved salts are chlorides
i) BOD and COD – a) BOD- BOD is used to designate the term Biological oxygen demand. BOD is very
important parameter to determine extent of water pollution. It is defined as ‘amount of oxygen consumed by
bacteria toward decomposition/ oxidation of organic matter present in known quantity of water at 25 oC within
120 hours’. It is expressed in ppm.
Determination – 250 cc water is taken in BOD bottle. Some of sample is analyzed for initial DO content. The
bottle is than kept in an incubator at 25oC for 120 hours. Then the final DO level is measured. The difference
in initial and final DO level is BOD of water.
BOD is important as 1) High BOD indicates presence of large extent of organic matter and bacteria in water
2) Such water is unsuitable for domestic use is it consist harmful microorganisms and possess offensive odor.
3) Nil BOD indicates absence of organic matter as well as bacteria feeding on it. BOD of natural water
increases due to introduction of high amounts of decomposable waste through disposal of domestic and
industrial waste water. This organic matter is not completely decomposed due to deficiency of oxygen and
this shoots up BOD.

b) COD :- (Chemical oxygen demand) – It is defined as amount of oxygen consumed towards oxidation of
ox disable waste present in known quantity of water by adding known excess of strong oxidizing agent. COD
is parameter generally associated with effluent. (industrial waste water). COD of water is high if contains non
decomposable oxidisable substance. Such constituents can be only oxidezed by providing oxygen.

10
Determination :- Known volume of water is taken in reflux flask. To this known excess of K2Cr2O7 is added
as oxidizing agent. The mixture is strongly refluxed for one half hours. The un utilized K2Cr2O7 is determined
by titrating known volume of refluxed solution with std. solution of ferrous ammonium sulphate. COD is
important polluting parameter as 1) High COD indicates presence of high amounts of non decomposable
waste which is harmful. 2) High COD reduces DO level 3) If an effluent with high COD is disposed directly
to natural source then it affects aquatic life.
BOD COD
1. It is amount oxygen required for oxidation [Link] is amount oxygen required for oxidation
of decomposable organic matter. Non decomposable impurities
2. It is of O2 consumed toward bio- 2. It is of O2 consumed toward direct
chemical reaction chemical reaction
3. High BOD indicates presence of large 3. High COD indicates presence of large
Extent organic matter and bacteria in water. ox disable waste in water.
4. Determination requires period of 120 hours. 4. Determined within 2 hours.
[Link] is high for domestic waste water 5. High for industrial waste water
(Sewage) (Effluent)
6. BOD is reduced by aerobic/anaerobic methods 6. Reduced by aeration.
c) Dissolved Oxygen (DO) – It is amount of dissolved oxygen present in water. Oxygen is sparingly soluble
in water and is present up to 14 ppm under normal conditions. This little amount of oxygen is very useful in
preserving quality of natural water. Now a days disposal of domestic and industrial waste in nature water
sources the DO level is rapidly decreasing. The less DO is harmful as it indicates.

1. Presence of oily and greasy impurities which avoid air water contact

2. Presence of large extent of organic matter. (DO consumed for decomposition) This matter is not completely
decomposed and water produce offensive odor. Partially decomposed matter accelerate bacterial growth. Such
water is non hygienic. This increases BOD of water.

3. Water may contain ox disable waste in high amounts.

4. If DO of water is maximum i. e. up to 13-14 ppm then water is fresh, free from offence odor, organic
matter, pathogens, oil and gresse etc. and also suitable for aquatic life. Bear low BOD values.

DO (Dissolved Oxygen)
Dissolved Oxygen in water (DO) play very important role in deciding water quality for domestic & industrial
use. Water when comes in direct contact with air then it dissolves oxygen from air. Oxygen is sparingly
soluble & water can dissolves maximum 10-15 ppm of oxygen.
Maximum extent of DO in natural water ensure freshness. If DO is very less than this water is not
fresh & not safe for drinking & other uses. Decreases in DO is due to any or all following reasons.
1. Direct contact of air & water is not possible: This is due to presence of great extent of floating matter or
presence of oil & greasy impurities which spreads on surface of water.
2. Contamination of water by Organic matter: If water consist large extent of organic matter then it
consumes DO towards its decomposition. The residual DO level will then leave organic matter partially
decomposed, which produces foul odor & accelerates growth of pathogens.
3. Presence of oxidisable matter: If water contain greater extent of oxidisable waste then it consume DO &
reduces DO level in water.
Thus, water with less DO is not suitable for domestic use & DO level must be maximum.
In industrial use water is used after deoxigenation when it is used for boiler & in contact with metals at high
temperature. This is because if DO is maximum, at high temperature it is removed & causes corrosion.

11
Softening of water by Ion exchange method
• Principle: Ion exchange method removes hardness by exchanging impurity cations & anions for H + &
OH- ions from exchange resins.
• Definition of resin: Ion exchange resins are organic polymers with ability to exchange ions.
• The resin with functional group like SO3H will exchange H+ with Ca & Mg from water & are called as
cation exchange resin.
• The resins with Me2(OH) functional group will exchange anions for OH- and are called Anion
exchange resin.
• Diagram:

• Construction: It consist of two tubular columns, every column have lower and upper support in
between them resins are filled. First column was filled with cation exchange resin called cation
exchanger, while second was filled with anion exchange resin called anion exchanger. At the top of
cation exchanger, there is entry for hard water which is free from suspended impurities and this
exchanger connected to anion exchanger from bottom to top. Every exchanger have their own
regeneration inlet and outlets.
• Procedure: The water to be softened is simply passed through cation exchange containing cation
exchange resin and then through anion exchange containing anion exchange resin as shown in diagram
• Reactions are as follows
• 2RH + Ca++→ R2Ca + 2H+
• Cation Ex Resin. Exhausted Resin
• 2ROH + 2Cl → 2RCl+2OH-
-

• Anion ExResin
Regeneration:
When all H+ and OH- from resin are exchanged .Then these are regenerated with dilute acid and base
solution and washing are rejected.
Regeneration: R2Ca + 2HCl→ 2RH+CaCl2
(Washing)
2RCl + 2NaOH→ 2ROH + 2NaCl
Advantages--- 1) Very low residual hardness O-2 ppm 2) Compact and portable equipment 3) No sludge
formation 4) No need of skilled labor 5) Resin are used for longer time 6) Relatively speedy method. 7) No
need of special training as such.
Disadvantage---- 1) Resin are costly 2) Water must be free from suspended matter.

12