information on properties of Hamiltonian graphs can be found in papers by Tutte

[2-8], Ore [2-6], Smith and Tutte [2-7], and Dirac [2-3]. Chapters 4 and 5 of
Tutte’s book [2-9] are also devoted to paths and Euler paths. On the traveling-
salesman problem there are many papers. In an excellent survey Bellmore and
Nemhauser [2-1] summarize and list most of these papers. Deo and Hakimi [2-2]
generalized the Hamiltonian-path problem and applied it to a wiring problem in
computers.

2-1. BELLMORE, M., and G. L. NEMHAUSER, “The Traveling Salesman

Problem: A Survey,” Operations Res., Vol. 16, 1968, 538–558.
2-2. DEO, N., and S. L. HAKIMI, “The Shortest Generalized Hamiltonian
Tree,” Proc. Third Annual Allerton Conf., University of Illinois, 1965,
879-888.
2-3. DIRAC, G. A., “Connectivity Theorems for Graphs,” Quart J. Math.
Oxford, Ser. (2), Vol. 3, 1952, 171–174.
2-4. LIN, S., “Computer Solution of the Traveling Salesman Problem,” BSTJ,
Vol. 44, 965, 2245–2269.
2-5. ORE, O., “A Problem Regarding the Tracing of Graphs,” Rev.
Elementary Math., .6, 1961,49–53.
2-6. ORE, O., “Note on Hamilton Circuits,” Am. Math. Monthly, Vol. 67,
1960, 55.
2-7. SMITH, C. A. B., and W. T. TUTTE, “On Unicursal Paths in a Network of
Degree Four,” Am. Math. Monthly, Vol. 48, 1941, 233–237.
2-8. TUTTE, W. T., “On Hamiltonian Circuits,” J. London Math. Soc., Vol. 21,
1946, 98–101.
2-9. TUTTE, W. T., Connectivity in Graphs, University of Toronto Press,
Toronto, 1966.
2-10. HARARY, F., and G. W. WILCOX, “Boolean Operations on Graphs,” Math.
Scand., Vol.20, 1967,41–51.

PROBLEMS
2-1. Verify that the two graphs in Fig. 2-2 are isomorphic. Label the
corresponding vertices and edges.
2-2. Show by redrawing, step by step, that graphs (b) and (c) in Fig. 2-3. are
isomorphic to (a).
2-3. Show that the two graphs in Figs. 2-26(a) and (b) are isomorphic.

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 Fig. 2-26

2-4. Construct three more examples to show that conditions 1, 2, and 3 in

Section 2-1 are not sufficient for isomorphism between graphs.
2-5. Prove that any two simple connected graphs with n vertices, all of degree
two, are isomorphic.
2-6. Are the two graphs in Fig. 2-27 isomorphic? Why?

Fig. 2-27
2-7. Given the set of cubes represented by the graph in Fig. 2-6, is it possible
to stack all four cubes into a column such that each side shows only one
color? Explain.
2-8. Prove that a simple graph with n vertices must be connected if it has
more than [(n − 1)(n − 2)]/2 edges. (Hint: Use Theorem 2-3.)
2-9. Prove that if a connected graph G is decomposed into two subgraphs g1
and g2, there must be at least one vertex common between g1 and g2.
2-10. Prove that a connected graph G remains connected after removing an
edge ei from G, if and only if ei is in some circuit in G.
2-11. Draw a connected graph that becomes disconnected when any edge is
removed from it.
2-12. Prove that a graph with n vertices satisfying the condition of Problem 2-
11 is (a) simple, and (b) has exactly n − 1 edges.
2-13. What is the length of the path from the entrance to the center of the maze
in Problem 1-7?

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2-14. List all the different paths between vertices 5 and 6 in Fig. 2-5(a). Give
the length of each of these paths.
2-15. Group the paths listed in Problem 2-14 into sets of edge-disjoint paths.
Demonstrate that the union of two edge-disjoint paths between a pair of
vertices forms a circuit.
2-16. In a graph G let p1 and p2 be two different paths between two given
vertices. Prove that p1 ⊕ p2 is a circuit or a set of circuits in G.
2-17. Let a, b, and c be three distinct vertices in a graph. There is a path
between a and b and also there is a path between b and c. Prove that there
is a path between a and c.
2-18. If the intersection of two paths is a disconnected graph, show that the
union of the two paths has at least one circuit.
2-19. You are given a 10-piece domino set whose titles have the following set
of dots: (1, 2); (1, 3); (1, 4); (1, 5); (2, 3); (2, 4); (2, 5); (3, 4); (3, 5); (4,
5). Discuss the possibility of arranging the tiles in a connected series
such that one number on a title always touches the same number on its
neighbor. (Hint: Use a five-vertex complete graph and see if it is an Euler
graph.)
2-20. Is it possible to move a knight on a chessboard such that it completes
every permissible move exactly once? A move between two squares is
counted as one regardless of the direction in which it is made. (Hint: Is
the graph of Problem 1-6 unicursal?)
2-21. A round-robin tournament (when every player plays against every other)
among n players (n being an even number) can be represented by a
complete graph of n vertices. Discuss how you would schedule the
tournaments to finish in the shortest possible time.
2-22. Observe that there can be no path longer than a Hamiltonian path (if it
exists) in a graph.
2-23. Draw a graph that has a Hamiltonian path but does not have a
Hamiltonian circuit.
2-24. Show that neither of the graphs in Fig. 2-22 has a Hamiltonian path (and
therefore no Hamiltonian circuit). [Hint: For Fig. 2-22(a), of all the edges
incident at a vertex only two can be included in a Hamiltonian circuit.
Count the number of edges that have to be excluded. You will find that
13 edges must be excluded from Fig. 2-22(a). The number of remaining
edges is insufficient to form a Hamiltonian circuit. For Fig. 2-22(b), first
consider all vertices of degree two.]
2-25. Show that the graph of a rhombic dodecahedron (with eight vertices of

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 degree three and six vertices of degree four) has no Hamiltonian path
(and therefore no Hamiltonian circuit).
2-26. Draw a graph in which an Euler line is also a Hamiltonian circuit. What
can you say about such graphs in general?
2-27. Is it possible, starting from any of the 64 squares of the chessboard, to
move a knight such that it occupies every square exactly once and returns
to the initial position? If so, give one such tour. (Hint: Look for a
Hamiltonian circuit in the graph of Problem 1-6.)
2-28. Prove that a graph G with n vertices always has a Hamiltonian path if the
sum of the degrees of every pair of vertices vi, vj in G satisfies the
condition
d(vi) + d(vj) ≥ n − 1.

(Hint: First show that G is connected. Then use induction on path length in G.)
2-29. Using the result of Problem 2-28, show that in a dancing ring of n
children it is always possible to arrange the children so that everyone has
a friend at each side if every child enjoys friendship with at least half the
children.

†For brevity, a vertex with odd degree is called an odd vertex, and a vertex with even degree an even vertex.
† Proof: . Squaring both sides,

or nonnegative cross terms = n2 + k2 − 2nk because (ni − 1) ≥ 0, for all i. Therefore,

.
†lf an edge ei is in two graphs G1 and G2, its end vertices in G1 must have the same labels as in G2.

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3 TREES AND FUNDAMENTAL CIRCUITS

The concept of a tree is probably the most important in graph theory,

especially for those interested in applications of graphs. In the first half of this
chapter we shall define a tree and study its properties. As usual, we shall point
out some of its applications to simple situations and puzzles and games,
deferring the applications to more complex scientific problems till Chapter 12.
Other graph-theoretic terms related to trees will also be introduced and
discussed.
The second part of the chapter introduces the spanning tree—another
important notion in the theory of graphs. The relationships among circuits, trees,
and so on, in a graph are explored. Unavoidably, as with Chapters 1 and 2, this
chapter also has a large number of definitions. In studying any new branch of
mathematics, there is no way to avoid new terms and definitions.

3-1. TREES
A tree is a connected graph without any circuits. The graph in Fig. 3-1, for
instance, is a tree. Trees with one, two, three, and four vertices are shown in Fig.
3-2. As pointed out in Chapter 1, a graph must have at least one vertex, and
therefore so must a tree. Some authors allow the null tree, a tree without any
vertices. We have excluded such an entity from being a tree. Similarly, as we are
considering only finite graphs, our trees are also finite.
It follows immediately from the definition that a tree has to be a simple graph,
that is, having neither a self-loop nor parallel edges (because they both form
circuits).
Trees appear in numerous instances. The genealogy of a family is often
represented by means of a tree (in fact the term tree comes from family tree). A
river with its tributaries and subtributaries can be represented by a tree. The
sorting of mail according to zip code and the sorting of punched cards are done

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