Computer Networks

Computer Networks

Telecommunication
The exchange of information between two or many individuals is called
Communication. The word tele is a Greek word which means distance. Hence,
Telecommunication means the exchange of information between two distant
places.

Computer Network
A computer network can be defined as a set of computers connected
together for the purpose of sharing resources. The most common resource shared
today is connection to the Internet.
In Computer network, Computing devices exchange data with each other
using connections (data link) between nodes.

Why is a Network needed?

 Computer Networks
The goals of a computer network include:
• Sharing: programs (O.S., applications), data, equipment (printers, disks).
• High reliability: users are more immune from hardware/software failure.
• Less cost: It is easy to increase the capacity by adding new machines.
• Communications medium: Users have access to email and the Internet
services.

Application of Computer Network

 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Video conferences, Parallel computing and Instant messaging
 Types of Computer Networks

1. Personal Area Network

2. Local Area Network

3. Metropolitan Area Network

4. Wide Area Network

• Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span. A

network can be as small as distance between your mobile phone and its
Bluetooth headphone and as large as the internet itself, covering the whole
geographical world.
 Categories of Computer Network
Personal Area Network (PAN) Local Area Network (LAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Personal Area Network

 A Personal Area Network (PAN) is

smallest network which is very Personal Area Network (PAN)
personal to a user.
 This may include Bluetooth enabled
devices.
 PAN has connectivity range up to
10 meters.
 PAN may include wireless computer
keyboard, mouse, headphones
printers and TV remotes.
Local Area Network
 Usually LAN covers an organization‘
offices, schools, colleges or universities. Local Area Network (LAN)
 The smallest LAN can consist of 2
computers.
 LAN provides a useful way of sharing
the resources between end users.
 The resources such as printers, file
servers, scanners, and internet are
easily sharable among computers.
 LANs are composed of inexpensive
networking.
 LAN works under its own local domain
and controlled centrally.
Metropolitan Area Network
 The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
generally expands throughout a city Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
such as cable TV network.

 It can be in the form of Ethernet, ATM,

or Fiber Distributed Data Interface.

 MAN can help an organization to

connect all of its offices in a city.

 Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and

high-speed fiber optics.

 MAN works in between Local Area

Network and Wide Area Network.
Wide Area Network
 As the name suggests, the Wide Area
Network (WAN) covers a wide area
which may span across provinces and
even a whole country.

 Generally, telecommunication networks

are Wide Area Network.

 These networks provide connectivity to

MANs and LANs.

 They are equipped with very high

speed backbone.

 WANs use very expensive network

equipment.
Difference between LAN, WAN, and MAN
Internetworks
• A collection of interconnected networks is called an
internetwork or internet.
• Connecting a LAN and a WAN or connecting two LANs is the
usual way to form an internetwork.
• People on one n/w can communicate with people on different
n/w.
• It is widely used to connect universities, government offices,
companies and also private individuals.
• Applications: Email, News, Remote login, file transfer, etc…
Computer Network Topologies
 Computer Network Topologies

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems

or network devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define
both physical and logical aspect of the network.

• Point-to-Point (Device A directly connect with Device B)

• Bus Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Ring Topology
• Star Topology
• Tree Topology
• Hybrid Topology
 Point-to-Point Topology

• Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches

or routers, servers connected back to back using a single piece of cable.
• The receiving end of one host is connected to sending end of the other and vice-
versa.
• If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple
intermediate devices.
• The end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see each other as if they
are connected directly.
 BUS Topology

• In Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable.

• All devices are linked through a backbone cable.
• Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time.
• It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not
affect the other devices.
• But failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop
functioning.
• Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator.
• The data is sent in only one direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the
terminator removes the data from the line.
 RING Topology
• In ring topology, each host machine connects to
exactly two other machines, creating a circular
network structure.

• When one host tries to communicate or send

message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the
data travels through all intermediate hosts.

• To connect one more host in the existing

structure, the administrator may need only one
more extra cable.

• Failure of any host results in failure of the whole

ring.

• Every connection in the ring is a point of failure.

• There are methods which employ one more

backup ring.
 STAR Topology
• All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central
device, known as hub device, using a point-to-point
connection.

• That is, there exists a point to point connection

between hosts and hub.

• As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of

failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all hosts to all
other hosts fails.

• Star topology is not expensive as to connect one

more host, only one cable is required and
configuration is simple.
 Tree Topology
• Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this
is the most common form of network
topology in use presently.
• This topology imitates as extended Star
topology and inherits properties of bus
topology.
• This topology divides the network in to
multiple layers of network.
• The highest layer is known as core layer,
and is central point of the network, i.e. root
of the tree from which all nodes fork.
• All neighboring hosts have point-to-point
connection between them.
• If the root goes down, then the entire
network suffers even though it is not the
single point of failure.
 MESH Topology
• In this type of topology, a host is connected
to one or multiple hosts.

• This topology has hosts in point-to-point

connection with every other host or may also
have hosts which are in point-to-point
connection to few hosts only.

• All hosts have a point-to-point connection to

every other host in the network.
 Hybird Topology
• A network structure whose design
contains more than one topology is said
to be hybrid topology.

• Hybrid topology inherits merits and

demerits of all the incorporating
topologies.

• The combining topologies may contain

attributes of Star, Ring and Bus topology.

• Internet is the best example of largest

Hybrid topology.
 Parts of a Network
Clients
• Computers that request or order information from a server
• Usually desktop computers with their own local storage and
processing power
• Thin client – network computer with no local storage.
Servers
• Computers that work behind the scenes to provide (serve) the
resources requested by the clients.
• Two types
• Non-dedicated – provides many different services to its client
computers such as file retrieval, printing, and emailing
• Dedicated – provides only one type of resource to its clients, such as
printing
Types of Computer network architecture

• Computer networks can be classified based on architecture into two primary

types:
• Peer-to-Peer Architecture
• Client/Server Architecture
Types of Computer network architecture

P2P Network Client/Server Network

 Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture
• A P2P network is a type of network where all the computers are
directly connected to each other and share equal roles and
responsibilities in processing and managing data
• There is no central server for coordination.
• Each device in the computer network can act as either client or
server. Each peer may share some of its resources, like memory
and processing power, with the entire computer network.
• Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up
to 10 computers.
• For example, some companies use P2P architecture to host
memory-consuming applications, such as 3-D graphic rendering,
across multiple digital devices.
 Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture
• Advantages : It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated
server.
• It is very easy and simple to set up
• P2P is very simple and not complex. This is because all computers
that are connected in network communication in an efficient and
well-mannered with each other.
• Disadvantages: Security is one of major issues in this type of
network.
• If computer working with some of resources is down and sharing
of resources might become major problem.
• Performance, security, and access can also become major problem
with an increase in number of computers on this network.
• As the network expands in size, it may become inefficient.
 Client/Server Architecture
• Client/Server Network (CSN) is type of computer network in which
one of centralized computers (commonly called as server) is hub to
which many of personal computers or workstations (commonly
known as clients) are connected.
• The central controller is known as a server while all other computers
in the network are called clients.
• A server performs all the major operations such as security and
network management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files,
directories, printer, etc.
• All the clients communicate with each other through a server.
• Examples of computer applications that use the client–server model
are email, network printing, and the World Wide Web.
 Client/Server Architecture
• Advantages : A CSN contains the centralized system. Therefore we
can back up the data easily.
• A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the
overall performance of the whole system.
• Security is better in CSN as a single server administers the shared
resources.
• Disadvantages : CNS is expensive as it requires the server with large
memory.
• A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the
resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
• It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the
resources.
• If the server goes down or crashes, the entire system or network will
be impacted, potentially disrupting all operations dependent on it
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)

• NIC Card (48bits)

• Repeater (Re-amplify the signals)
• Hub
• Switch
• Router (Routing)
• Bridge
• Gateway
• Firewall
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)

Network Interface Card (NIC)

• NIC provides the physical interface between computer and cabling.
• It prepares data, sends data, and controls the flow of data. It can
also receive and translate data into bytes for the CPU to
understand.
• The following factors should be taken into consideration when
choosing a NIC:
- Preparing data - Drivers
- Sending and controlling data - Compatibility
- Configuration - Performance
The Networking Devices(Nodes)
An Ethernet NIC
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)
Connectivity Devices
• Each topology and network architecture has its limits.
• Beyond a point networks can not be expanded by simple adding
more servers or cabling
• Connectivity devices are the basic building blocks of network
expansion
• Are used to connect separate segments of the network or inter-
network
• A segment is a portion of the network transmission media that is
assigned a network address
• Examples: Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges & Switches
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)

 Repeaters
• Repeaters are very simple devices. They allow a cabling system to
extend beyond its maximum allowed length by amplifying the
network voltages so they travel farther.
• Repeaters are nothing more than amplifiers and, as such, are very
inexpensive. Repeaters can only be used to regenerate signals
between similar network segments.
• The main disadvantage to repeaters is that they just amplify
signals. These signals not only include the network signals, but any
noise on the wire as well.
• Operates at the physical layer of the OSI model
The Networking Devices(Nodes)
Repeaters
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)
 Hubs
• A hub is a basic network hardware device used to connect multiple
devices within a local area network.
• Hubs are devices used to link several computers together. They
repeat any signal that comes in on one port and copy it to the other
ports (a process that is also called broadcasting).
• There are two types of hubs: active and passive.
• Passive hubs simply connect all ports together electrically and are
usually not powered.
• Active hubs use electronics to amplify and clean up the signal
before it is broadcast to the other ports.
The Networking Devices(Nodes)
Hubs
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)
 Bridges
• They join similar topologies and are used to divide network
segments.
• For example, with 200 people on one Ethernet segment, the
performance will be mediocre, because of the design of Ethernet
and the number of workstations that are fighting to transmit. If you
divide the segment into two segments of 100 workstations each,
the traffic will be much lower on either side and performance will
increase.
• If it is aware of the destination address, it is able to forward
packets; otherwise a bridge will forward the packets to all
segments. They are more intelligent than repeaters but are unable
to move data across multiple networks simultaneously.
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)
• Unlike repeaters, bridges can filter out noise.
• The main disadvantage to bridges is that they can’t connect
dissimilar network types or perform intelligent path selection. For
that function, you would need a router

A bridge is a Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) device.

 The Networking Devices(Nodes)
 Routers
• Routers are highly intelligent devices that connect multiple
network types and determine the best path for sending data.
• The advantage of using a router over a bridge is that routers can
determine the best path that data can take to get to its destination.
• Like bridges, they can segment large networks and can filter out
noise.
• However, they are slower than bridges because they are more
intelligent devices; as such, they analyze every packet, causing
packet-forwarding delays. Because of this intelligence, they are
also more expensive.
• Internetwork connectivity device
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)
• Routers are normally used to connect one LAN to another.
Typically, when a WAN is set up, there will be at least two routers
used.
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)
 Switch
• A switch is a network hardware device used to connect multiple
devices within a LAN and manage data traffic efficiently.
• Network switches are capable of inspecting data packets as they
are received, determining the source and destination device of that
packet, and forwarding it appropriately.
• By delivering each message only to the connected device it was
intended for, a network switch conserves network bandwidth and
offers generally better performance than a hub.
• A vital difference between a hub and a switch is that all the nodes
connected to a hub share the bandwidth among themselves, while a
device connected to a switch port has the full bandwidth all to
itself.
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)
• For example, if 10 nodes are communicating using a hub on a 10-
Mbps network, then each node may only get a portion of the 10
Mbps if other nodes on the hub want to communicate as well. But
with a switch, each node could possibly communicate at the full 10
Mbps.
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)
 Gateways.
• A gateway in software networking refers to a device or application
that serves as an entry or exit point between different networks or
systems, often translating data between different protocols or
formats.
• Host nodes are computer of network users and the computers that
serve contents (such as Web pages).
• Gateway nodes are computers that control traffic within your
company’s network or at your local internet service provider (ISP)
• Internetwork connectivity device
The Networking Devices(Nodes)
Gateway
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)
 Firewall
• It is a network security device, either hardware or software-based,
which monitors all incoming and outgoing traffic and based on a
defined set of security rules accepts, rejects, or drops that specific
traffic.
• A firewall is essentially the wall that separates a private internal
network from the open Internet at its very basic level.
• Ifthe data packets are safely routed via the firewall, all of the
important data remains intact.
•A firewall helps keep your digital world safe from unwanted
visitors and potential threats, making it an essential part of today’s
connected environment.
 Protocols

• Network protocols are a set of rules that are responsible for the
communication of data between various devices in the network.
• These protocols define guidelines and conventions for transmitting
and receiving data, ensuring efficient and reliable data
communication.
• Network protocols are typically created according to industry
standard by various networking or information technology
organizations.
• It permits connected devices to communicate with each other,
irrespective of internal and structural differences.
 Types of Network Protocols
• In most cases, communication across a network like the Internet
uses the OSI model. The OSI model has a total of seven layers.
• Secured connections, network management, and network
communication are the three main tasks that the network protocol
performs. The purpose of protocols is to link different devices.
The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories:
• Network Communication
• Network Management
• Network Security
 Types of Network Protocols
Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)
• It is a layer 7 protocol that is designed for transferring a hypertext
between two or more systems.
• HTTP works on a client-server model, most of the data sharing
over the web is done through using HTTP.
Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)
• TCP layouts a reliable stream delivery by using sequenced
acknowledgment.
• It is a connection-oriented protocol i.e., it establishes a connection
between applications before sending any data.
• It is used for communicating over a network. It has many
applications such as emails, FTP, streaming media, etc.
 Types of Network Protocols
User Datagram Protocol(UDP)
• It is a connectionless protocol that lay-out a basic but unreliable
message service.
• Itadds no flow control, reliability, or error-recovery functions.
UPD is functional in cases where reliability is not required.
• It is used when we want faster transmission, for multicasting and
broadcasting connections, etc.
Border Gateway Protocol(BGP)
• BGP is a routing protocol that controls how packets pass through
the router in an independent system one or more networks run by a
single organization and connect to different networks.
• It connects the endpoints of a LAN with other LANs and it also
connects endpoints in different LANs to one another.
 Types of Network Protocols
Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)
• ARP is a protocol that helps in mapping logical addresses to the
physical addresses acknowledged in a local network.
• For mapping and maintaining a correlation between these logical
and physical addresses a table known as ARP cache is used.
Internet Protocol (IP)
• It is a protocol through which data is sent from one host to another
over the internet.
• It is used for addressing and routing data packets so that they can
reach their destination.
 Types of Network Protocols
Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)
• It is a layer 3 protocol that is used by network devices to forward
operational information and error messages.
• ICMP is used for reporting congestions, network errors, diagnostic
purposes, and timeouts.
File Transfer Protocol(FTP)
• FTP is a Client/server protocol that is used for moving files to or
from a host computer.
• It allows users to download files, programs, web pages, and other
things that are available on other services.
 Types of Network Protocols
Telnet
• It is a protocol that allows the user to connect to a remote computer
program and to use it i.e., it is designed for remote
connectivity. Telnet creates a connection between a host machine
and a remote endpoint to enable a remote session.
Secure Socket Layer(SSL)
• It is a network security protocol mainly used for protecting
sensitive data and securing internet connections.
• SSL allows both server-to-server and client-to-server
communication. All the data transferred through SSL is encrypted
thus stopping any unauthorized person from accessing it
 Types of Network Protocols
Transport Layer Security(TLS)
• It is a security protocol designed for data security and privacy over
the internet, its functionality is encryption, checking the integrity
of data i.e., whether it has been tampered with or not, and
authentication.
• It is generally used for encrypted communication between servers
and web apps, like a web browser loading a website, it can also be
used for encryption of messages, emails, and VoIP..
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
• ICMP protocol is used to retrieve message from the mail server. By
using ICMP mail user can view and manage mails on his system.
 Types of Network Protocols
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
• SIP is used in video, voice, and messaging application. This
protocol is used to initiating, Managing, Terminating the session
between two users while they are communicating.
Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP)
• This protocol is used to forward audio, video over IP network. This
protocol is used with SIP protocol to send audio, video at real-
time.
Rout Access Protocol (RAP)
• RAP is used in network management. It helps to user for accessing
the nearest router for communication.
 Types of Network Protocols
The following groups have defined and published different network
protocols:
 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 The International Telecommunications Union (ITU-T)
 The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
While network protocol models generally work in similar ways, each
protocol is unique and operates in the specific way detailed by the
organization that created it.
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ISO-OSI model