Technical Terms in research

1. Introduction:
- Explanation: The introduction acts as the "front door" to your research paper. It sets the stage
for your entire work, guiding the reader towards understanding the topic, its significance, and
the purpose of your study.
- Key Components:
- Background Information: This section introduces the topic, providing general context and
explaining why it is important. It often discusses existing knowledge and previous research
related to the topic.
- Scope: This clarifies the specific boundaries of your research. It outlines the specific aspects of
the broader topic that your study will focus on.
- Focus: This states the central question, hypothesis, or objective that your research aims to
address.
- Example:
"Social media's impact on mental health has become a growing concern. Studies have shown a
correlation between excessive social media use and symptoms of depression and anxiety. This
paper aims to explore the relationship between social media use and self-esteem in
adolescents, specifically focusing on the role of comparison and cyberbullying."
2. Literature Review:
- Explanation: The literature review critically analyzes existing research on your topic. It helps
you understand what is already known, identify gaps in knowledge, and justify your research.
- Key Components:
- Synthesizing Existing Research: You'll summarize, compare, and contrast the findings of
previous studies related to your topic.
- Identifying Gaps: Highlight areas where research is limited or needs further exploration.
- Providing Justification: Explain how your research fills those gaps and contributes new
insights.
- Example:
"Previous studies on social media and self-esteem have focused on its relationship with body
image and social comparison. However, less attention has been paid to the role of
cyberbullying. This review suggests a need for further investigation into how cyberbullying, a
pervasive element of online social interaction, impacts self-esteem in adolescents."
3. Methodology:
- Explanation: The methodology section outlines the specific procedures and techniques you
used to conduct your research. It explains how you collected data, analyzed it, and ensures the
reliability and validity of your findings.
- Key Components:
- Research Design: This describes the overall plan or strategy you used to collect and analyze
data (e.g., experimental, survey, case study).
- Participants/Subjects: If your research involves human or animal subjects, describe them in
detail.
- Data Collection Methods: Explain the tools and techniques used to gather data (e.g.,
questionnaires, interviews, observations).
- Data Analysis: Outline the statistical or qualitative methods used to analyze the data you
collected.
- Example:
"This study employed a quantitative survey design. A sample of 200 adolescents aged 13-18
was recruited from a local high school. Participants completed a questionnaire that measured
social media use, self-esteem, and experiences with cyberbullying. Data analysis involved
descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and regression analysis."
4. Instrument:
- Explanation: An instrument is a measurement device used to collect data in research. It can be
a tool like a survey, questionnaire, test, interview guide, or even an observation checklist.
- Example:
- Survey: A questionnaire designed to collect data from a group of individuals about their
opinions, attitudes, or behaviors.
- Test: A standardized instrument designed to measure knowledge, skills, or abilities.
5. Results:
- Explanation: The results section presents the findings of your research in a clear and objective
manner. It summarizes the data collected and analyzed.
- Key Components:
- Presenting Data: Use tables, figures, charts, or other visual aids to display the collected data.
- Interpreting Findings: Briefly explain what the data shows, but avoid drawing conclusions.
- Example:
"The results of the survey revealed a significant negative correlation between social media use
and self-esteem (r = -0.45, p < 0.01). The findings suggest that participants who reported higher
social media use tended to have lower self-esteem scores. Furthermore, the analysis indicated
that cyberbullying significantly predicted self-esteem, even after controlling for social media
use."
6. Discussion:
- Explanation: The discussion section analyzes the results, interpreting their meaning and
drawing conclusions based on the evidence. It connects your findings to existing research,
addresses limitations, and suggests future research directions.
- Key Components:
- Interpretation: Explain the significance of your findings, linking them to the research question
and the literature review.
- Supporting Evidence: Provide specific examples and evidence from your data to support your
interpretations.
- Addressing Limitations: Acknowledge any limitations in your study that may have influenced
the results.
- Future Research: Suggest areas for future research that could build upon your findings or
address remaining questions.
- Example:
"The findings of this study support the growing body of literature suggesting a link between
social media use and self-esteem. The negative correlation and the significant impact of
cyberbullying suggest that excessive social media use, particularly in the context of
cyberbullying, may contribute to lower self-esteem in adolescents. However, the study's cross-
sectional design limits the ability to establish causal relationships. Future research could
explore longitudinal effects of social media use and cyberbullying on self-esteem, as well as
examine potential interventions to mitigate negative impacts."
7. Conclusion:
- Explanation: The conclusion provides a concise summary of your research and its key findings.
It restates the main points of your argument and emphasizes the importance of your work.
- Key Components:
- Restating Main Points: Briefly summarize the key findings of your study.
- Significance: Emphasize the significance of your research and its implications for the field or
for real-world applications.
- Future Research: You may briefly mention potential directions for future research.
- Example:
"This study has highlighted the complex relationship between social media use, cyberbullying,
and self-esteem among adolescents. The findings suggest that social media can contribute to
negative self-esteem, particularly in the context of cyberbullying. These findings underscore the
need for greater awareness and interventions to promote healthy social media use and address
the prevalence of cyberbullying."
8. References:
- Explanation: The references section provides a comprehensive list of all the sources you cited
in your research paper.
- Key Components:
- Complete Bibliographic Information: Each entry includes the author's name, the year of
publication, the title of the source, and the publication details (e.g., journal, book, website).
- Consistent Format: Follow a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago) to maintain
consistency throughout your references list.
- Example (APA Format):
Smith, J. (2023). The impact of social media on self-esteem. Journal of Adolescent Psychology,
45(2), 123-140.
9. Appendix:
- Explanation: The appendix contains supplemental information that supports your research but
is not essential to include in the main body of your paper.
- Key Components:
- Supplementary Data: This could include raw data, tables, graphs, charts, questionnaires,
interview transcripts, or other materials.
- Supporting Documents: You might include copies of relevant documents, permission letters,
or other relevant materials.
- Example:
- Appendix A: Survey Questionnaire
- Appendix B: Raw Data Tables
- Appendix C: Interview Transcripts
10. Abstract:
- Explanation: The abstract is a concise summary of your research paper. It is typically around
150-250 words and provides a brief overview of the entire study, including the purpose,
methods, key findings, and conclusions.
- Key Components:
- Problem/Research Question: Briefly state the research question or problem being addressed.
- Methods: Briefly describe the research design and data collection methods.
- Findings: Summarize the most important findings or results.
- Conclusions: State the main conclusions or implications of your research.
- Example:
"This study examined the relationship between social media use and self-esteem in
adolescents, focusing on the role of cyberbullying. A survey of 200 adolescents revealed a
significant negative correlation between social media use and self-esteem, with cyberbullying
as a significant predictor of self-esteem. The findings underscore the need for interventions to
promote healthy social media use and combat cyberbullying to protect adolescent mental well-
being."
11. Paraphrase:
- Explanation: Paraphrasing means restating information from a source in your own words
while maintaining the original meaning.
- Example:
Original Source: "Social media can be a powerful tool for connecting with others, but it can also
have negative effects on mental health."
Paraphrase: "While social media offers opportunities for social connection, it can also
negatively impact mental well-being."
12. Periodical:
- Explanation: A periodical is a publication that is published at regular intervals, such as daily,
weekly, monthly, or yearly.
- Examples:
- Newspapers
- Magazines
- Academic journals
13. Plagiarism:
- Explanation: Plagiarism is the act of using someone else's words or ideas without giving them
proper credit. It a serious academic offense.
- Example:
- Copying and pasting text from a website without citing the source.
- Using someone else's ideas without proper attribution.
14. Bibliography:
- Explanation: A bibliography is a list of all the sources used in your research paper, whether
you cited them directly or not. It is often included at the end of a paper.
- Note: It is important to distinguish between a bibliography and a references list. A references
list only includes sources that you cited directly in your paper.
15. Outline:
- Explanation: An outline is a hierarchical structure that shows the main ideas of your research
paper and their relationship to each other. It helps you organize your thoughts and ensure a
logical flow for your writing.
- Key Components:
- Main Topics: Each major section of your paper is represented as a heading.
- Subtopics: Each main topic can be further broken down into subtopics.
- Supporting Details: You can include bullet points or brief descriptions of the supporting
evidence or examples you will use.
16. Summary:
- Explanation: A summary is a condensed version of the original text that highlights the main
points and key information.
- Example:
Original Text: "Social media has become a ubiquitous part of modern life, with both positive
and negative implications for mental health. Studies have shown that excessive social media
use can contribute to depression, anxiety, and body image issues. However, social media also
offers opportunities for connection, communication, and support."
Summary: "Social media has a complex impact on mental health. While it can facilitate
connection, excessive use has been linked to negative mental health outcomes, including
depression and anxiety."
17. Research Resources:
- Explanation: Research resources are materials that provide information for your research
paper. They can include books, articles, journals, websites, encyclopedias, and more.
- Example:
- Books: "Psychology of Social Media" by Dr. Smith.
- Journal Articles: "The Relationship Between Social Media Use and Self-Esteem" published in
the "Journal of Adolescent Psychology."
- Websites: The American Psychological Association (APA) website.
18. In-Text Citation:
- Explanation: In-text citations are brief references to the sources that you used in your paper.
They are placed within the body of your text.
- Key Components:
- Author's Last Name and Year of Publication: (Smith, 2023)
- Page Number (if necessary): (Smith, 2023, p. 125)
- Example:
"Research suggests that excessive social media use can have a negative impact on self-esteem
(Smith, 2023). "
19. Quote:
- Explanation: A quote is a direct reproduction of text from a source, enclosed in quotation
marks.
- Example:
"Smith (2023) states that 'Social media can be a powerful tool for connecting with others, but it
can also have negative effects on mental health.'"
20. Cite:
- Explanation: To cite a source means to acknowledge the original author of the information
you are using. This can be done through in-text citations or in a references list.
- Example:
"In her research, Smith (2023) found a significant negative correlation between social media
use and self-esteem."
A.D.
- Meaning: Anno Domini, meaning "in the year of the Lord." It indicates a date in the Christian
calendar system.
- Usage: Used for dates after the year 1.
- Example: "The Roman Empire reached its peak in the 2nd century A.D."
cf.
- Meaning: Confere, meaning "compare." It's a signal for the reader to look at another source or
material for comparison.
- Usage: Often used in footnotes or endnotes to direct the reader to related information.
- Example: "The author's argument is similar to that of Plato (cf. Republic, Book IV)."
c.
- Meaning: circa, meaning "around, about, roughly, and approximately." It indicates an
approximate date or time.
- Usage: Often used when a precise date is unknown or not necessary.
- Example: "The ancient city of Troy was destroyed c. 1200 BCE.
etc.
- Meaning: et cetera, meaning "and so on." It suggests a continuation of a list or series.
- Usage: Often used to avoid listing every item in a series, especially when the pattern is clear.
- Example: "The ancient Greeks excelled in many fields, including philosophy, mathematics, art,
etc."
e.g.
- Meaning: exempli gratia, meaning "for example." It introduces an illustrative example.
- Usage: Used to clarify a point or provide a concrete illustration.
- Example: "Many ancient civilizations had complex writing systems, e.g., hieroglyphics in Egypt
and cuneiform in Mesopotamia."
et pass.
- Meaning: et passim, meaning "and in the following passages." It suggests that related
information can be found throughout a text.
- Usage: Often used in footnotes or endnotes to direct the reader to a more extensive
discussion within a source.
- Example: "The author discusses the concept of democracy in detail throughout the book (et
pass.)."
et al.
- Meaning: et alii, meaning "and others." It's used to shorten the list of authors when there are
more than two.
- Usage: Used in citations and references to avoid writing out all the authors' names.
- Example: "Smith, Jones, et al. (2023) conducted a study on the impact of social media."
ib./ibid.
- Meaning: ibidem, meaning "in the same place." It refers to the same source cited in the
previous note or reference.
- Usage: Used to avoid repeating the full citation for the same source.
- Example: "Ibid." can be used in a footnote or endnote if the previous note cited the same
source.
i.e.
- Meaning: id est, meaning "that is, or in other words." It provides a clarification or restatement
of a previous idea.
- Usage: Used to explain or elaborate on a point.
- Example: "The author discusses the importance of critical thinking, i.e., the ability to analyze
and evaluate information."
sic.
- Meaning: thus, meaning "so, thus." It indicates that a word or phrase is quoted exactly as it
appears in the original source, even if it contains an error.
- Usage: Used to show that a mistake is not your own, but is present in the original text.
- Example: "The author writes, 'The United States is a country in North America sic.'" (The error
is in the original source, not in the author's quotation.)
Ph.D.
- Meaning: Philosophiae Doctor, meaning "Doctor of Philosophy." It's a terminal degree
awarded for advanced study and research.
- Usage: Refers to the degree itself or to the individual holding the degree as a title.
- Example: "Dr. Smith is a Ph.D. in history."

Advocacy Campaign
1. Advocacy and Advocate:
- Advocacy: This refers to actively supporting an idea or a cause. It's about taking a stand and
working to bring about change.
- Advocate: An advocate is the person who engages in this active support. They might speak
out, write about, or organize efforts to promote a cause.
2. Complexity of Advocacy Planning:
- Power Struggles: Advocacy often involves dealing with powerful individuals or groups who
might oppose your ideas. You need to understand who has power, how they might react, and
develop strategies to navigate these challenges.
- Opposition: There will likely be people who disagree with your cause. You need to anticipate
their arguments and be prepared to address them effectively.
3. Challenges Faced by Advocates:
- Lack of Resources: Money is often a limiting factor. Advocates need to find creative ways to
fund their projects and campaigns.
- Prepared Opponents: Those who oppose your cause will often be well-organized and have
resources to fight against you. Advocates need to be prepared to meet those challenges head-
on.
4. Strategic Planning:
- Clear Plan: To be successful, advocacy requires a well-defined plan. This plan outlines your
goals, strategies, and how you will implement them.
- Identifying Opponents & Allies: You need to know who is working against you and who is likely
to support you. This helps you focus your efforts and build coalitions.
5. VOSA (Vision, Objective, Strategy, Action Plan):
- Analogy: Imagine building a house. You have a clear vision of what you want to achieve (a
safe and warm home). You have objectives (build the house), a strategy (blueprints), and an
action plan (detailed steps, timelines, and responsibilities for each task).
- VOSA Applied to Advocacy:
- Vision: The overall goal or ideal outcome you are aiming for.
- Objective: The main task or action you will take to achieve the vision.
- Strategy: The overall plan or approach to reaching the objective.
- Action Plan: The detailed steps, timelines, and responsibilities involved in executing the
strategy.
6. Conducting Advocacy Research:
- Gather Information: Start by collecting basic information about the social issue you are
advocating for. This includes understanding the problem, its causes, and potential solutions.
- Define the Problem:
- Awareness: Recognize and understand the issue fully.
- Refinement: Focus on the specific aspects of the problem that your advocacy will address.
- Prioritization: Decide which parts of the problem are the most important to address first.

7. Developing Mission, Goals, and Objectives: