Chapter 12

ENGLAND
Viking Age: Began in 800 CE. Vikings crossed the North Sea and settled in England. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes also
settled in the region. The Anglo-Saxons became the dominant group.
Alfred the Great (r. 871-899): Repelled the Danes in the 9th century. Strengthened Anglo-Saxon control over
England.
William of Normandy: Won the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Unified England under one monarch. Granted fiefs to
barons. Established royal administration through officials. Commissioned the Domesday Book (1086) for tax
collection.
Barons were noblemen who received lands (fiefs) from the king in exchange for their loyalty and military
service.
Domesday Book (1086)- a national census that provided the baseline data on the existing resources of the
kingdom that was used as basis for the collection of taxes.
Traveling Circuit Judges - were royal officials appointed by the king to travel to different regions (circuits)
of the kingdom to administer justice.
Henry I (r. 1100-1135): Created the Royal Exchequer (Treasury) for centralized tax collection. Introduced "traveling
circuit-judges" to administer royal justice.
Henry II (r. 1154-1189): Expanded royal justice with the system of trial jury. Standardized justice throughout the
kingdom. Increased people's participation in governance, promoting accountability.
Richard I, also known as Richard the Lionheart (r. 1189-1199), was the King of England known for his bravery and
military leadership, particularly during the Third Crusade.
John (r. 1199-1216) was the King of England and younger brother of Richard I. His reign was marked by conflicts
with the barons, heavy taxation, and military defeats, particularly against Philip Augustus II of France.
Philip Augustus II (r. 1180-1223) was the King of France who sought to expand his territories and diminish English
control in France. He successfully recaptured many lands held by the English, including Normandy.
Magna Carta (1215): Signed by King John (r. 1199-1216) under pressure from barons. Recognized barons'
rights and access to fair trials. Established the principle of taxation with barons' consent. Asserted the right to
a jury trial and protection of the law. Marked the beginning of a limited monarchy, making the king subject to
the law.
PARLIAMENT
Parliament: An important institution in England that limited the king's power. It began convening in the 13th century
and evolved into a representative body for both aristocracy and common people. Initially, it was convened to approve
taxes for military campaigns but later gained significant legislative and financial powers.
Edward I: An English monarch who summoned the Model Parliament, which included representatives from various
estates such as barons, clergy, knights, and townspeople.
Model Parliament: Summoned by Edward I, it was the most comprehensive assembly in England at the time,
bringing together different estates to discuss and approve matters, including taxes.
Power of the Purse: The right of Parliament to approve taxes and decide on expenditures, which was used to limit the
powers of the monarchs.
House of Lords: The upper chamber of Parliament, representing the nobility.
House of Commons: The lower chamber of Parliament, representing the common people. Today, it holds significant
power in the government.
Limited Monarchy: A system of governance in which the monarch's powers are restricted by laws and institutions
such as Parliament.
FRANCE
Hugh Capet: The founder of the Capetian Dynasty, installed as the king of France in 987.
Capetian Dynasty: A royal dynasty in France that ruled from 987 to 1328, known for producing male heirs and
promoting stability through hereditary succession.
Primogeniture: A system of hereditary succession where the first-born son is the accepted legitimate heir to the
throne.
Battle of Bouvines: A significant battle in 1214 where Philip Augustus II of France defeated King John of England,
strengthening the French monarchy and reducing English territories in France.
Louis VIII: A French king who expanded the territory of France by acquiring most of southern France, further
boosting the power of the monarchy.
Louis IX: A French king who established the Supreme Court, promoting royal justice over local justice and
maintaining a long period of peace and prosperity.
Supreme Court: Established by Louis IX, it had the power to overturn local court decisions, strengthening the
authority of the monarchy.
Henry IV (of Navarre): A French king who laid the foundation for royal absolutism. His conversion to Catholicism
ended the war with Spain, allowing him to strengthen royal authority.
Absolutism: A political system where the monarch holds absolute power, unrestricted by laws or other institutions.
Intendants: High-ranking officials used by Henry IV to enforce royal decrees in the provinces.
Estates-General: A representative assembly in France that Henry IV was able to avoid convening due to his wealth.
Duc de Sully: The chief minister of Henry IV who improved the tax collection system and financial policies,
increasing the wealth of the monarchy.
SPAIN
Reconquista: The military campaign by Christian kingdoms in Spain to expel Muslims and reestablish Christianity,
culminating in the 15th century.
Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille: Their marriage in 1469 unified their kingdoms, leading to the creation
of the nation-state of Spain and an aggressive foreign policy of overseas expansion.
ITALY
Italy: Achieved unification in 1870. During the Middle Ages, made up of separate states often prey to powerful
surrounding states. By the 15th century, divided into five areas:
 Venice: Resisted control due to commercial interests.
 Milan: Resisted control due to commercial interests.
 Florence: Resisted control due to commercial interests.
 Papal States: Central region, controlled by the Papacy.
 Kingdom of Naples: Southern region.
Commercial Interests: The economic activities that motivated Venice, Milan, and Florence to maintain
independence.
Papacy: The office of the Pope and the central governing body of the Roman Catholic Church. Consolidated control
over the Papal States. Engaged in wars or alliances to strengthen position vis-à-vis European monarchs.
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE (GERMANY)
Holy Roman Empire: Power shifted after Charles the Bald's line died in 911.
o Key duchies: Saxony, Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, Thuringia.
o German dukes guarded independence, hindering unification.
o Achieved unification in 1871 by Otto von Bismarck.
 Factors Hindering Unification:
o Lack of a clear law of succession.
o German dukes' interest in maintaining independence.
o Weak kings chosen by dukes.
o Limited resources compared to English or French monarchs.
o Costly wars in Italy attempting to revive Charlemagne's empire.
Henry the Fowler: Chosen king by German dukes in 918. Founded the Saxon Dynasty.
Otto the Great: Strengthened royal power. Allied with the Church. Crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962 after
defeating Italian nobles. Restoration of the imperial tradition of Rome.
Lay Investiture: Power struggles weakened the Holy Roman Empire.
Rudolf of Habsburg restored the imperial crown in 1272. Consolidated and expanded the Habsburg ancestral lands.
RUSSIA
Kiev: Center of the first Russian state. First great prince: Rurik, a Varangian.
Prince Vladimir I: Converted to Eastern Orthodox Church. Strengthened ties with the Byzantine Empire.
Christianity became a unifying factor.
Mongols: Conquered Kiev in 1240. Established Khanate of the Golden Horde. Controlled Russia for 200 years.
Strengthened Eastern Orthodox Church by not taxing it. Allowed some Russian states sovereignty if they paid tribute.
Grand Duchy of Moscow: Defeated the Mongols in the 15th century.
Ivan III (the Great):
o Made Moscow the nucleus of the Russian Empire.
o Expanded territory to include Moscow, Poland, Ukraine.
o Adopted title of czar (Caesar).
o Curbed powers of the boyars (nobility).
o Confiscated lands from boyars and gave them to loyal subjects.
o Consolidated empire with absolute power, laying foundation of the Russian state.

CHAPTER 13: THE END OF MIDDLE AGES (1300-1500 CE)

Economic Crisis and Social Decline
Decline in Agricultural Production:
o 14th century saw a significant reduction in agricultural production.
o Resulted in serious food shortages and famine.
o Irresponsible farming and warfare disrupted agricultural activities.
o Increased prices impacted the poor significantly.
o Led to dissatisfaction and peasant revolts, which were quelled by the aristocracy.
Black Death:
o Devastating plague in the 14th century, decimated about 1/3 of Europe's population.
o Bubonic plague, arrived in Europe in 1347 via ships carrying infected rats.
o Spread quickly throughout Europe, causing widespread panic and fear.
o Significant death toll disrupted basic economic activities.
o Led to serious shortages of basic commodities and increased prices.
o Positive outcomes included reduced prices of basic commodities, increased standard of living for
survivors, and redistribution of wealth and land.
Crisis in Papacy
Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377):
o Philip IV of France imposed taxes on churches, defied the Pope.
o Clement V, a French clergy, became Pope and moved offices to Avignon, France.
o Popes during this period were subject to French king's authority, reducing Papacy's power.
Great Schism:
o Urban VI, an Italian, created his own College of Cardinals, opposing the French-dominated College of
Cardinals.
o Resulted in two Popes: one in Rome and one in Avignon.
o Ended in 1417 with the election of Martin V by the Council of Constance, restoring unity within the
Church.
Heresy and Church Challenges:
o Spread of heresy challenged basic Church doctrines.
o Prominent figures like John Wycliffe, John Hus, and Martin Luther undermined the Church's
authority.
o Movement led to the establishment of different churches, including the Protestant Church.
 o Weakened Papacy contributed to the strengthening of monarchs' powers.

One Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)

 Trigger: Death of the last Capetian king without a legitimate heir.
o Rival claims: Philip VI of Valois (first cousin of the last king) vs. Edward III of England (nephew of
the last king).
 Early English Victories:
o Effective use of the longbow gave the English the upper hand.
o Key battles: Battle of Crecy (1346) and Poitiers (1356).
 French Pushback and Treaty of Troyes:
o By 1380, the French regained control of most territories, leaving English control limited to port cities
along the English Channel.
o Battle of Agincourt (1415): Henry V of England defeated the French.
o Treaty of Troyes (1420): Charles VI of France legitimized Henry V’s conquests and named him heir,
disinheriting his own son.
 Charles VII and Joan of Arc:
o Charles VII defied the Treaty of Troyes and proclaimed himself king.
o Joan of Arc led the French to victory at the Battle of Orleans (1429).
o Joan was captured, tried for witchcraft and heresy, and burned at the stake (1431).
 End of the War:
o By 1453, the French expelled the English from all territories except Calais.
o In 1558, the French regained control of Calais, ending English presence in France.

Significance of the War

 France:
o Strengthened national unity and sense of nationhood.
o Increased the power of the French monarch.
o Laid the foundation for absolutism, culminating in the reign of Louis XIV.
 England:
o Defeat led to internal turmoil and the War of Roses (1455-1485).
o Emergence of the House of Tudor with Henry VII’s victory.
o Produced significant monarchs: Henry VIII and Elizabeth I.
o Shifted focus to overseas expansion, leading to the establishment of the British Empire.
Chapter 14: Asia, Africa, the Americas, and the Pacific Islands: The Blossoming of Civilizations (200 BCE-1500
CE)
Asia: India
Gupta Dynasty (320-437 BCE)
 Post-Maurya Division: Following Asoka's death in 238 BCE, India was divided among rival rulers.
 Kushan Conquests: First-century CE saw the Kushans conquering northwestern India. Kanishka, the most
powerful Kushan king, promoted Buddhism.
 Mahayana Buddhism: Developed under Kanishka's rule, spreading to northern Asia, China, Mongolia, Tibet,
and Japan.
 Golden Age of Hindu Culture: Guptas ruled from 320-535 CE, marked by wealth from tariffs, taxes, and
royal lands.
 Cultural Achievements: Flourishing trade, advanced mathematics (value of pi, decimal system, zero), and
medical practices.
 Literature: Panchatantra, a collection of 87 stories, written around 300-500 CE.
 Hinduism's Ascendancy: Grew during Gupta rule, marking a decline in Buddhism.
 Decline: Began after Chandragupta II's death (380-413 CE), with invasions by the Huns contributing to the
empire's fragmentation.
Rajputs (650-1250 CE)
 Period of Disarray: Rajputs settled in northwestern India, establishing small kingdoms.
 Warrior Code and Hinduism: Converted to Hinduism, embraced a warrior code, and constructed temples to
Brahman, Shiva, and Vishnu.
 Decline of Buddhism: Buddhism nearly disappeared from Rajput territories.
Mughal Dynasty (1526-1857)
 Early Muslim Influence: Muslims spread to India by 711 CE, establishing the Delhi Sultanate (1200-1526).
 Tamerlane's Invasion: Sacked Delhi in 1398, causing turmoil but not diminishing Islam's presence.
  Babur's Conquests: Descendant of Genghis Khan, established Mughal Dynasty in 1526, capturing Lahore
and defeating Delhi.
 Akbar's Rule: Expanded the empire, promoted religious tolerance, established efficient governance, and
unified northern India by 1605.
 Jahangir and Shah Jahan: Jahangir (1605-1627) and Shah Jahan (1628-1658) continued Akbar's legacy;
Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal.
 Aurangzeb's Reign: Imprisoned his father, Shah Jahan, enforced anti-Hindu laws, and faced resistance from
Hindus and Sikhs.
 Decline: After Aurangzeb's death (1707), the empire weakened, leading to Persian invasion in 1739 and
fragmentation into independent states.

The Coming of the Europeans

 European Maritime Advances:
o European conquest of the seas enabled new land explorations and global dominance.
o Vasco da Gama reached India via the Cape of Good Hope in 1498.
o Led to European footholds in India through trading ports.
 Initial European Incursions:
o Europeans encountered Mughal rulers and small Hindu kingdoms on India's southern coastline.
o Mughals initially did not see Europeans as a threat, focusing more on land-based power.
 Naval Weakness:
o Mughals lacked a strong navy to control European influx.
o Some historians argue this naval weakness was a fatal flaw for the Mughal Empire and Hindu
kingdoms.
 Earlier Maritime Contacts:
o Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Arabs had earlier traded with Indian ports.
o Western Europeans visited in small numbers as early as the 13th century.
 Annexation by Great Britain:
o Mid-19th century marked a turning point in Western imperialism.
o By 1857, Great Britain annexed India, ending the Mughal Empire.
o The last Mughal emperor was largely ceremonial, marking the formal end of Mughal rule.
China
Sui Dynasty (589-618 CE)
 Sui Wen-ti (Wendi):
o First ruler of the Sui Dynasty.
o Established control over northern and southern China.
o Reestablished order after the collapse of the Han Dynasty.
 Yang-di:
o Successor of Wendi.
o Built the Grand Canal, connecting the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers.
o High taxes and forced labor for infrastructure projects led to peasant rebellions.
o Military defeat in Korea and eventual assassination marked the end of the Sui Dynasty.
T'ang Dynasty (618-907 CE)
 Founding and Political Strength:
o Founded by Wai-tsung (Taizong).
o Policies strengthened China politically and economically.
o Revived civil service exams based on Confucian Classics, creating an educated bureaucracy.
 Economic and Cultural Flourishing:
o Promoted trade, protected the Great Silk Road, and made Ch'ang-an (Qangan) a commerce center.
o Art and literature flourished, with patrons like the gentry class supporting artists and writers.
o Notable poets: Li Po (Li Bo) and Tu Fu (Du Fu).
 Empress Wu Zhao:
o First woman ruler of China.
o Made Buddhism the official state religion.
 Emperor Xuanzong:
o Brought wealth to China and beautified Ch'ang-an.
o Promoted religious diversity with many temples for various religions.
 Innovations:
o Use of woodblock printing for Chinese characters.
o Improved papermaking techniques.
 o Oldest existing printed book: The Diamond Sutra (868 CE).
o Inventions: compass and gunpowder.
 Decline:
o High government maintenance costs and increasing taxes led to discontent.
o Famine and Arab incursions weakened the dynasty.
o The defeat of the Imperial Army in 751 and loss of Central Asia to Muslims.
o Fall of Ch'ang-an in 905 and the murder of the last T'ang emperor in 907.
o Disarray until Sung T'ai-tsu established the Sung (Song) Dynasty in 960.

Song (Sung) Dynasty (960-1279 CE)

 Territorial Losses: Failed to retake western and northern lands lost to the Hsia and Tatars.
 Cultural Achievements:
o Introduction of paper money.
o Silk and porcelain became important luxury trade goods.
o Golden Age of painting with distinctive black ink use.
o Movable type printing invented by Pi Sheng (c. 1040).
o Wider use of the compass for navigation and gunpowder for arrows.
o Emergence of Neo-Confucianism, combining Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism.
 Fall: Precipitated by Mongol invasions in the late 12th century.

Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) - The Mongols

 Genghis Khan:
o Built a vast empire stretching from Turkistan to China.
o Known for instilling fear, leading to many towns surrendering without a fight.
 Kublai Khan:
o Completed the conquest of China in 1279.
o Established his capital in Beijing.
o Kept caravan routes safe and built a network of roads.
o Extended power to Korea, North Vietnam, and other regions, though failed to conquer Japan.
o Adopted Chinese institutions, practiced religious and racial tolerance.
o Many foreigners, including Marco Polo, came to China during this period.
 Decline: Began after Kublai Khan's death, weakening Mongol rule.

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

 Establishment:
o Ming T'ai-tsu defeated the Mongols and founded the Ming Dynasty.
o Established control over all of China by 1382.
o Built the capital in Nanking, later moved to Beijing by his son, Yung-lo.
o Built the Forbidden City as the emperor's exclusive enclave.
 Governance:
o Scholar officials were restored to power.
o Civil service examinations continued, some argue they limited intellectual freedom.
o Public schools were opened.
o An encyclopedia with 11,095 handwritten volumes was produced under Yung-lo in 1408.
 Decline:
o Started around 1600 due to corrupt officials, high government costs, and famine.
o Manchu invasion ended the Ming Dynasty in 1644.

Qing (Ch'ing) Dynasty (1644-1912)

 Establishment:
o The Manchus, after capturing Beijing in 1644, established the Qing Dynasty.
o They chose Mukden (present-day Shenyang) as their capital.
o The name "Qing" means "pure".
 Separation from Chinese People:
o The Manchus kept themselves distinct from the Chinese.
o They forbade intermarriage and required Chinese men to wear braided hair as a sign of their lower
status.
 Continuation of Chinese Institutions:
 o Despite their separation, the Manchus continued using certain Chinese institutions, such as the
examination system.
 Kangxi Emperor (1661-1722):
o Eased the peasants' burden by lowering taxes and reducing labor days on government projects.
o Maintained the Ming policy of limiting European trade to Macao, later adding four more ports.
 Economic Impact:
o Chinese products, especially silk and porcelain, were highly valued in Europe, leading to a significant
influx of silver.
o Between 1500 and 1800, about 80% of the world's silver production flowed into China.
 Opium Wars:
o The British continued to sell opium to China despite the emperor's request to stop.
o The Opium Wars (1839-1842 and 1856-1860) resulted in China's defeat and the opening of its ports to
European powers.
 Decline:
o The Qing Dynasty eventually weakened due to internal corruption, high government costs, and
famine.
o The Manchu rule ended with the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, leading to the establishment of the
Republic of China in 1912
Japan
 Etymology:
o "Japan" originates from the words "jih pen," meaning "origin of the Sun."
 Early Chinese Influence:
o Influences visible in writing, painting, architecture, and Buddhism.
 Geography and Society:
o Archipelago with four main islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu.
o Society organized into clans with shared ancestry.
o Emperor as a symbolic figurehead, dominated by the ruling clan.
 Shinto Religion:
o Dominant religion under the Yamamotos.
o "Shinto" means "way of the gods."
o Central idea: worship of nature, with chief deity being the Sun goddess Amaterasu-Omikami.
o Belief in the divine descent of emperors from the Sun goddess.
 Chinese Influences:
o Prince Shotoku (7th century) was a key convert to Buddhism, fostering Chinese cultural influences.
o Adoption of Chinese writing system and painting techniques.
o Construction of Japanese Buddhist pagodas based on Chinese designs.
o Attempt to introduce Chinese examination system, which ultimately failed.
 Nara Period (710-784 CE):
o First capital built in Nara, modeled after Chinese capital Ch'ang-an.
 Heian Age (794-1185) and Rise of Feudalism:
o Emperor Kammu established a new capital at Heian (Kyoto) and strengthened central government.
o Feudalism emerged due to powerful landlords and clan chiefs.
o Clashes between great families, notably the Taira and Minamoto clans.
o Minamoto clan's victory in 1185, leading to Yoritomo being granted the title shogun in 1192.
o Shogunate period, with shoguns wielding real power while the emperor remained a symbolic figure.
 Kamakura Shogunate:
o Defended Japan from Kublai Khan's invasions, leading to financial strain and decline.
o Rise of feudal lords (daimyo) and samurai class.
o Samurai adhered to Bushido Code, emphasizing courage, loyalty, and honor.
o Practice of seppuku (hara-kiri) for maintaining honor.

Coming of the Europeans

 Portuguese Arrival:
o First Europeans in Japan in 1543, introducing guns.
o Daimyos quickly adopted firearms.
o Catholic missionaries, led by Francis Xavier, spread Catholicism.
 Missionary Freedom:
 o Missionaries enjoyed freedom to travel and spread faith.
o Absence of a strong central government facilitated European influx.

Unification of Japan

 Oda Nobunaga:
o Emerged as a dominant leader amidst daimyo wars.
o Took control of Kyoto in 1573 using firearms against samurais.
 Toyotomi Hideyoshi:
o Achieved unification of Japan, taking the title Taiko.
o Raised taxes on peasants, forced occupational immobility.
o Failed attempt to annex Korea.
o Ordered Christian missionaries to leave Japan; executed six Spanish missionaries in 1567.

Tokugawa Shogunate and the Closed Door Policy

 Tokugawa Ieyasu:
o Became shogun in 1603, established a dynasty lasting until 1868.
o Moved capital to Edo (Tokyo).
o Controlled daimyos by requiring their residence in Edo and holding their families hostage.
 Ban on Christianity:
o Banned Christianity in 1614 due to growing influence of converts.
o Led to Christian persecution and massacre.
 Closed Door Policy:
o Banned all European merchants, except the Dutch confined to Nagasaki.
o Prohibited Japanese people from leaving the country.
o Period of isolation lasting two centuries.
 Repercussions of Isolation:
o Relative peace and stability; strong armed forces.
o Cultural enrichment through creativity and tradition.
o Zen Buddhism flourished, emphasizing meditation and respect for nature.
o Economic benefits for merchants and artisans.
o Lagged behind in science, military, and industrial technology.
 End of Isolation:
o In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry negotiated the Treaty of Kanagawa.
o US gained trading rights with Japan through military and diplomatic pressure.

Africa
Geographic Settings
 Division:
o North Africa: Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters.
o Sub-Saharan Africa: Separated from North Africa by the Sahara Desert, the world's largest desert
(5,500,000 square kilometers).
 Major Deserts:
o Sahara Desert: Spanning from the Atlantic to the Nile.
o Kalahari Desert: Covers about 900,000 square kilometers, forming most of Botswana and extending
into Namibia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa.
 Distinct Physical Features:
o Sahel: Transition zone between desert and rainforest.
o Plateaus: Major landform in Sub-Saharan Africa, dropping sharply to narrow coastal plains,
contributing to Africa's isolation.
o Rift Valley: Major feature in East Africa with the largest lakes: Malawi, Tanganyika, and Victoria.
 Major Rivers:
o Nile River: World's longest river, with Blue Nile rising in Lake Tana (Ethiopia) and White Nile in
Lake Victoria, joining at Khartoum (Sudan) and entering the Mediterranean in Northern Egypt.
 o Congo River: Central Africa.
o Niger River: Northwest Africa.
o Zambezi River: Southeast Africa.
 Challenges for European Navigation:
o Rapids and plateaus made navigation difficult for European ships, contributing to Africa's interior
isolation.
o Sudd: Great swampy region.
o Tropical Rainforest: Covers the Congo Basin, western coastlands, and eastern Madagascar.
o Malaria and Tsetse Flies: Infestation of these areas, making penetration dangerous and further
isolating Africa.
 African Plains/Savannas:
o Dominant landscape feature in Africa.

North Africa

Ptolemaic Egypt

 Alexander the Great's Empire:

o Alexander's empire included Egypt, which became part of Ptolemaic Egypt after his death.
o Ptolemy I gained control and buried Alexander in Alexandria.
 Ptolemaic Rule:
o Ptolemies assumed the title of pharaoh.
o Construction of the Museon and the great library of Alexandria.
o Alexandria became a center of learning and wealth, monopolizing strategic products like salt
and papyrus.
 Cleopatra VII:
o Joint ruler with Ptolemy XII in 51 BCE.
o Allied with Julius Caesar and later Mark Antony.
o Defeated at the Battle of Actium, marking the end of Hellenistic Egypt.

Egypt as a Roman Province

 Roman Governance:
o Egypt became a Roman province, with governors in Alexandria.
o Taxes collected and sent to Rome.
 Introduction of Christianity:
o Christianity spread and became the official religion.
o Egyptian Church embraced the Coptic (Monophysite) Christianity, differing from Latin and
Greek Christianity.

Egypt under the Muslims

 Islamic Expansion:
o Muslim armies overran North Africa in the 7th century CE.
o Fez and Tunisia gained independence from the Abbasids.
o Fatimids captured Egypt in 969 CE, establishing Cairo as the capital.

Carthage

 Phoenician Origins:
o Carthage built by Phoenicians, 16 kilometers north of Tunis, Tunisia.
 Trade and Conflict:
o Dominated Western Mediterranean trade.
o Clashed with Rome, leading to its destruction in the 3rd Punic War (146 BCE).
 Subsequent History:
 o Became part of the Byzantine Empire in 533 CE.
o Destroyed by Arabs during the Islamic expansion in 698 CE.

Kingdoms in Sub-Saharan Africa

Kush (Nubia)

 Early History:
o First known kingdom in Sub-Saharan Africa.
o Dominated by Egypt from 2000 to 1000 BCE.
o Extensive trade and cultural exchange with Egypt.
 Independence and Expansion:
o Established capital at Napata around 1100 BCE.
o Adopted Egyptian culture and title of pharaoh.
o Occupied Thebes and captured Upper Egypt by 710 BCE, becoming Egypt's 25th dynasty.
 Decline:
o Defeated by the Assyrians in 671 BCE.
o Capital moved to Meroe, a prosperous trading center.
o Ended by King of Axum in 330 CE.

Axum (Ethiopia)

 Rise:
o Emerged as a powerful kingdom after conquering Kush.
o Controlled trade between the Red Sea and African interior.
 Religion:
o Remained unconverted during Islamic expansion.
o King Ezana converted to Christianity in 324 CE.
o Succeeded by the kingdom of Ethiopia.

Ghana (West Africa)

 Emergence:
o First kingdom in West Africa.
o Unified by the introduction of the Arabian camel for desert crossing around 200 CE.
 Trade and Wealth:
o Strategic location at the end of the caravan route.
o Trade of salt from Morocco and gold, ivory, kola nuts from the south.
o Wealth based on gold production and trade, with significant taxes collected.
o Destroyed by the Almoravids in the 11th century.

Mali (West Africa)

 Founding:
o Replaced Ghana in the 11th century.
o Founded by the Malinke people.
 Prominent Rulers:
o Sundiata (1230-1255 CE) assumed the title Mansa (emperor).
o Mansa Musa known for his wealth and pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 CE.
 Cultural Impact:
o Timbuktu became a major center of Muslim scholarship.
o Declined due to new gold deposits shifting trade routes east.

Other States
  Songhai Kingdom:
o Located on the Niger River, with its capital at Gao.
 Kingdom of Guinea and Zimbabwe:
o Shared common traditions and periods of prosperity from gold trade.
 City-States:
o Prosperous coastal city-states like Malindi, Mombasa, and Zanzibar.
o Population mixed with Bantu and Arab Muslims (Swahili).
 Cultural Aspects:
o Family organized by common ancestry, significant role of women.
o Religion mixed monotheism, polytheism, and ancestor spirits.
o Swahili language combined Bantu and Arabic.

Coming of the Europeans

Portuguese Exploration

 Early Initiatives:
o Portuguese explored Africa in the 1400s.
o Established St. George of Mina in 1482.
o Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488.
o Vasco da Gama sailed to India via the Cape of Good Hope in 1497.
o Established a monopoly on gold from the Zambezi River.

Slave Trade

 Pre-European Slave Trade:

o African kingdoms engaged in the slave trade before European arrival.
o Wars among tribes and kingdoms provided prisoners for the trade.
 Expansion of Slave Trade:
o European demand for slaves increased with the establishment of sugar plantations in the
Americas.
o Initial European goods exchanged for slaves: cloth, brass, metal goods.
o Later preferred goods: guns and horses.
o Estimated 9-14 million African slaves were brought to the Americas.
o Many perished during the transatlantic voyage and from harsh conditions in the Americas.
o Descendants of African slaves in the Americas fought for political rights and equal
opportunities.

Early Americas: Central American Civilizations

Olmec Civilization

 Emergence:
o First civilization in the Americas, along the Atlantic coast of southern Mexico.
o Worshipped many gods, including the god of fire, rain, corn, and the feathered serpent.
o Left behind colossal carved stone heads, purpose and function unknown.
o Collapsed around 400 BCE.

Teotihuacan

 Sophisticated Culture:
o Flourished from 400 to 700 CE in the valley of Mexico.
o Well-planned city with huge pyramids, including the Pyramid of the Sun.
o Engaged in human sacrifice.
 o Sacked and burned in 750 CE.

Mayan Civilization

 Development:
o Developed city-states in the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras around 300
CE.
o Farmers using slash-and-burn method.
o Invented a system of writing using glyphs, a calendar, and a number system based on 20.
o Worshipped many gods, built pyramids with flat tops for religious rituals.
o Ended as an empire by 900 CE, but Mayans continued to live in the Yucatan.

Toltec Civilization

 Dominance:
o Ruled much of Mexico from the 10th to 12th centuries.
o Built pyramids and the capital at Tula around 970 CE.
o Overran the Mayans in the Yucatan around 1000 CE, built Chichen Itza with an observatory
and a sacred well.

Aztec Civilization

 Migration and Settlement:

o Migrated to the valley of Mexico around the 12th century.
o Built Tenochtitlan in 1325 CE on an island in Lake Texcoco.
o Largest city in the Americas by 1500 CE.
 Religious Practices:
o Believed in offering the hearts of captives to their god.
o Practiced human sacrifice, extracting the heart while alive.
o Feared by neighbors, who paid tribute to avoid capture.
 Spanish Conquest:
o Hernando Cortes landed in Mexico in 1519 and killed Montezuma II.
o Tenochtitlan was later destroyed, ending Aztec power.

South American Civilizations

Chavin Culture

 Early Development:
o Oldest city in South America, around 1000 BCE.
o Built temples for a god that was part man and part jaguar.

Moche Culture

 Andean Civilization:
o Known for metalworking and irrigation.
o Powerful army and well-crafted jewelry.
o Built pyramid-temples.
o Declined around 700 CE.

Tiahuanaco Culture

 Emergence:
o Near Lake Titicaca, about 14,000 feet above sea level.
 o Known for impressive stone buildings, tightly fitted stones.

Nazca Culture

 Notable Achievements:
o North of Tiahuanaco.
o Famous for mysterious large geometrical figures on the ground, visible from the sky.

Inca Civilization

 Expansion and Rule:

o Capital at Cuzco in southern Peru, around 1200.
o Pachacuti expanded the empire along the western coast of South America by 1500.
o Empire included areas from Ecuador and Colombia to central Chile.
 Administration and Economy:
o Claimed descent from the sun god, ruled as absolute monarchs.
o Built extensive road networks.
o Staple foods: corn and potatoes.
o No system of writing but used quipus (knotted strings) to record information.
 Spanish Conquest:
o Francisco Pizarro arrived in 1532, leading to the Inca Empire's downfall.
o Factors for Spanish success: superior weaponry, skilled army, use of horses, and diseases like
smallpox.

Common Aspects of Central and South American Cultures

 Religion:
o Worship of the sun and human sacrifices.
 Architecture:
o Pyramid-temples for religious ceremonies.
 Art and Craft:
o Distinctive basketry, weaving, and embroidery.
 Agriculture:
o Staple crops: corn and potatoes.
o Lucrative crops: chocolate and tobacco, later harnessed by European conquerors.

The Pacific Islands

Early Settlement

 Archaeological Evidence:
o Migration to the Pacific Islands started around 40,000 years ago.
o Habitable islands settled by the second millennium CE.
 European Influence:
o Significant changes in culture, population, and economy since the 16th century.
o By the 18th century, castaways, beachcombers, missionaries, and merchants arrived.
o 19th and 20th centuries saw an increase in laborers and settlers brought by different
countries.
o European administrators governed many islands; missionaries and migrants remain
numerous.

Island Groups

 Divisions by Jules-Sebastien-Cesar Dumont d'Urville:

 o Melanesia: Large continental islands, rugged landscape, isolated cultures.
o Polynesia: High volcanic islands, fertile soil, socio-political unity.
o Micronesia: Smaller islands with greater similarities, able to support life beyond subsistence.
 Language and Culture:
o Early inhabitants spoke a non-Austronesian language, later arrivals spoke Austronesian.
o Differences in culture due to blending of these groups.

Exploration and Impact

 European Exploration:
o Vasco Nunez de Balboa first saw the Pacific Ocean in 1513.
o Ferdinand Magellan crossed the Pacific (1520-1521).
o Explorers like Alvaro de Mendana de Neira, Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, and Abel Janszoon
Tasman mapped various islands.
o Early European visits had fleeting impact, often leading to conflict over resources.

Scientific Exploration

 18th Century:
o Increased exploration fueled by scientific interest.
o James Cook mapped many Pacific islands, proving the non-existence of a southern continent.
o Importance of Oceania for natural resources like pigs, sandalwood, and sea cucumber.

Missionaries and Migration

 Spread of Christianity:
o Missionaries increased in number; some native rulers adopted missionary laws.
o Resistance to Christianity due to traditional beliefs in mana.
o Spread of Christianity was slow, especially in Melanesia.
 European Influence:
o European powers claimed Pacific islands in the 19th century.
o Great Britain, Germany, and the USA annexed various islands.

Independence and Modern Challenges

 Independence:
o Most South Pacific islands gained independence in the 1960s.
 Common Characteristics:
o Small population and land area.
o Limited natural resources.
o Isolation from each other and other markets.
o Challenges like secessionist movements and climate change.