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Tom micro - Tom lecture notes

Mechanical Engineering (Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University)

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Friction
When a body moves or tends to move on another body, a force
appears between the surfaces. This force is called force of friction
and it acts opposite to the direction of motion. Its line of action is
tangential to the contacting surfaces. The magnitude of this force
depends on the roughness of surfaces.
In engineering applications friction is desirable and undesirable. We
can walk on the ground because of friction. Friction is useful in
power transmission by belts. It is useful in appliances like brakes,
bolts, screw jack, etc. It is undesirable in bearing and moving
machine parts where it results in loss of energy and, thereby,
reduces efficiency of the machine.

Types of Friction
1. Static friction. It is the friction, experienced by a body, when at
rest.
2. Dynamic friction. It is the friction, experienced by a body, when in
motion. The dynamic friction is also called kinetic friction and is less
than the static friction. It is of the following three types:
(a) Sliding friction. It is the friction, experienced by a body, when it
slides over another body.
(b) Rolling friction. It is the friction, experienced between the
surfaces which has balls or rollers interposed between them.
(c) Pivot friction. It is the friction, experienced by a body, due to the
motion of rotation as in case of foot step bearings.
The friction may further be classified as:
1. Friction between unlubricated surfaces, and
2. Friction between lubricated surfaces

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Laws of Static Friction

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction,
opposite to that in which the body tends to move.
2. The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly
equal to the force, which tends the body to move.
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction (F) bears a
constant ratio to the normal reaction (RN) between the
two surfaces. Mathematically
F/Rn = constant
4. The force of friction is independent of the area of
contact, between the two surfaces.
5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of
the surfaces.
Laws of Kinetic or Dynamic Friction
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction,
opposite to that in which the body is moving.
2. The magnitude of the kinetic friction bears a
constant ratio to the normal reaction between the two
surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than that in case
of limiting friction.
3. For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains
constant. But it decreases slightly with the increase of
speed.

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Laws of Solid Friction

1. The force of friction is directly proportional to the
normal load between the surfaces.
2. The force of friction is independent of the area of
the contact surface for a given normal load.
3. The force of friction depends upon the material of
which the contact surfaces are made.
4. The force of friction is independent of the velocity of
sliding of one body relative to the other body.
Laws of Fluid Friction
1. The force of friction is almost independent of the
load.
2. The force of friction reduces with the increase of the
temperature of the lubricant.
3. The force of friction is independent of the
substances of the bearing surfaces.
4. The force of friction is different for different
lubricants.
Coefficient of Friction
It is defined as the ratio of the limiting friction (F) to
the normal reaction (RN) between the two bodies. It is
generally denoted by u. Mathematically, coefficient of
friction,
u = F/Rn

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Dry friction
Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid
surfaces in contact. The two regimes of dry friction are 'static
friction' between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction
(sometimes called sliding friction or dynamic friction)
between moving surfaces

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(i) Uniform pressure theory:

When the mating component in clutch, bearing are new,
then the contact between surfaces may be good over the
whole surface.
It means that the pressure over the rubbing surfaces is
uniform distributed.
This condition is not valid for old clutches, bearings
because mating surfaces may have uneven friction.
The condition assumes that intensity of pressure is
same.
P = W/A =Constant; where, W= load, A= area
(ii) Uniform wear theory in clutches
and bearings:
When clutch, bearing become old after being used for a
given period, then all parts of the rubbing surfaces will
not move with the same velocity.
The velocity of rubbing surface increases with the
distance from the axis of the rotating element.
It means that wear may be different at different radii
and rate of wear depends upon the intensity of pressure
(P) and the velocity of rubbing surfaces (V).
It is assumed that the rate of wear is proportional to the
product of intensity of pressure and velocity of rubbing
surfaces.
This condition assumes that rate of wear is uniform;
P*r = Constant; where, P = intensity of pressure, r =
radius of rotatio

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Friction of Pivot and Collar Bearing

The rotating shafts are frequently subjected to axial thrust. The bearing
surfaces such as pivot and collar bearings are used to take this axial
thrust of the rotating shaft. The propeller shafts of ships, the shafts of
steam turbines, and vertical machine shafts are examples of shafts
which carry an axial thrust.
The bearing surfaces placed at the end of a shaft to take the axial thrust
are known as pivots. The pivot may have a flat surface or conical
surface as shown in Fig. 10.16 (a) and (b) respectively. When the cone
is truncated, it is then known as truncated or trapezoidal pivot as shown
in Fig (c).
The collar may have flat bearing surface or conical bearing surface, but
the flat surface is most commonly used. There may be a single collar,
as shown in Fig (d) or several collars along the length of a shaft, as
shown in Fig(e) in order to reduce the intensity of pressure. In

In modern practice, ball and roller thrust bearings are used when power is
being transmitted and when thrusts are large as in case of propeller shafts
of ships.
A little consideration will show that in a new bearing, the contact between
the shaft and bearing may be good over the whole surface. In other words,
we can say that the pressure over the rubbing surfaces is uniformly
distributed. But when the bearing becomes old, all parts of the rubbing
surface will not move with the same velocity, because the velocity of rubbing
surface increases with the distance from the axis of the bearing. Thismeans
that wear may be different at different radii and this causes to alter the
distribution of pressure. Hence, in the study of friction of bearings, it is
assumed hat

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Flat Pivot Bearing

When a vertical shaft rotates in a flat pivot bearing (known as foot step bearing), as shown in
Fig., the sliding friction will be along the surface of contact between the shaft and the bearing.

Let W =Load transmitted over the bearing surface, R =Radius of bearing

surface, p =Intensity of pressure per unit area of bearing Surface

between rubbing surfaces, and μ =Coefficient of friction.

We will consider the following two cases:

1. When there is a uniform pressure

2. When there is a uniform wear

1. Considering uniform pressure

When the pressure is uniformly distributed over the bearing area, then

Consider a ring of radius r and thickness dr of the bearing area.

Area of bearing

surface, A = 2π[Link]

Load transmitted to

the ring, δW = p × A =

p × 2 π [Link]

...............(i)

Frictional resistance to sliding on the ring acting tangentially at radius r,

Fr= μ.δW = μ p × 2π [Link] = 2πμ.[Link]

Frictional torque on the ring,

Tr = Fr × r= 2π μ p [Link] × r = 2 πμ p r2 dr &&&.(ii)

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Integrating this equation within the limits from 0 to R for the total frictional torque on the pivot
bearing.

2. Considering uniform wear

We have already discussed that the rate of wear depends upon the intensity of pressure
(p) and the velocity of rubbing surfaces (v). It is assumed that the rate of wear is
proportional to the product of intensity of pressure and the velocity of rubbing surfaces
(i.e. p.v.). Since the velocity of rubbing surfaces increases with the distance (i.e. radius r)
from the axis of the bearing, therefore for uniform Wear

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Flat Collar Bearing

Consider We have already discussed that collar bearings are used to take the axial thrust
of the rotating hafts. There may be a single collar or multiple collar bearings as shown in
Fig.(a) and (b)respectively. The collar bearings are also known as thrust bearings.
The friction in the collar bearings may be found as discussed below :

Consider a single flat collar bearing supporting a shaft as

shown in Fig(a). Let r1 = External radius of the collar, r2 =

Internal radius of the collar. Area of the bearing surface,

1. Considering uniform pressure

When the pressure is uniformly distributed over the bearing surface, then the intensity of
pressure

the frictional torque on the ring of radius r and thickness dr,

Integrating this equation within the limits from r2 to r1 for the total frictional torque

on the collar.

Total frictional torque

Substituting the value of p from equation (i),

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2. Considering uniform wear

the load transmitted on the ring, considering uniform wear is,

Total load transmitted to the collar,

We also know that frictional torque on the ring,

Tr = μδW r =μ2πCrdr
Total frictional Torque on the bearing from r1 to r2

Substituting the value of C from equation (ii),

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Conical Pivot Bearing

The conical pivot bearing supporting a shaft carrying a load W is shown
in Fig
P-0= Intensity of pressure normal to the cone,

〈= Semi angle of the cone,

∝= Coefficient of friction between the shaft and the
bearing, and
R= Radius of the shaft.

Consider a small ring of radius r and thickness dr. Let dl is the

length of ring along the cone, such that

dl = dr cosec 〈
Area of the ring,

A = 2 [Link] = 2 [Link] cosec 〈

...( dl = dr cosec 〈)

1. Considering uniform pressure

We know that normal load acting on the ring,

W n = Normal pressure × Area

= pn × 2 [Link] cosec 〈

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and vertical load acting on the ring,

* W = Vertical component of W n = W [Link] 〈

=pn × 2 [Link] cosec 〈. sin 〈 = pn × 2 [Link]

pn = W / R 2

We know that frictional force on the ring acting tangentially at radius r,

Fr = ∝. Wn = ∝. pn .2 [Link] cosec 〈 = 2 ∝. pn .cosec 〈.[Link]

and frictional torque acting on the ring,

Tr = Fr ⋅ r = 2 ∝. pn .cosec 〈.[Link] ⋅ r = 2 ∝. pn cosec 〈.r 2 .dr

Integrating the expression within the limits from 0 to R for the total frictional torque on
the conical pivot bearing

2. Considering uniform wear

In Fig., let pr be the normal intensity of pressure at a distance r from the central axis. We

know that, in case of uniform wear, the intensity of pressure varies inversely with the

distance pr.r = C (a constant) or pr = C/r

and the load transmitted to the ring,

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Limiting Angle of Friction

Consider that a body A of weight (W ) is resting on a horizontal plane B, as shown in Fig.
10.2. If a

horizontal force P is applied to the body, no relative motion will take place until the

applied force P is equal to the force of friction F, acting opposite to the direction of

motion. The magnitude of this force of friction is F = ∝.W

= ∝.R N, where RN is the normal reaction. In the limiting case, when the motion just begins,

the body will be in equilibrium under the action of the following three forces:

1. Weight of the body (W ),

2. Applied horizontal force (P), and

3. Reaction (R) between the body A and the plane B.

The reaction R must, therefore, be equal and opposite to the resultant of W and P and will
be inclined at an

angle to the normal reaction RN. This angle is known as the limiting angle of

friction. It may be defined as the angle which the resultant reaction R makes with the

normal reaction RN.

From Fig. 10.2, tan = F/RN = ∝ R N / R N = ∝

Angle of Repose
Consider that a body A of weight (W ) is resting on an inclined plane B, as shown in Fig.

10.3. If the angle of inclination 〈 of the plane to the horizontal is such that the body begins

to move down the plane, then the angle 〈 is called the angle of repose. A little

consideration will show that the body will begin to move down the plane when the angle

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of inclination of the plane is equal to the angle of friction (i.e. 〈 = ). This may be proved as

follows :

The weight of the body (W ) can be resolved into the following two components :

1. W sin 〈, parallel to the plane B. This component tends to slide the body down the
plane.

2. W cos 〈, perpendicular to the plane B. This component is balanced by the normal

reaction (R N) of the body A and the plane B.

The body will only begin to move down the plane, when

W sin 〈 = F = ∝.R N

= ∝.W cos 〈 tan 〈

= ∝ = tan or 〈 =

Friction of a Body Lying on a Rough Inclined Plane

Consider that a body of weight (W ) is lying on a plane inclined at an angle 〈 with the

horizontal, as shown in Fig. (a) and (b).

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little consideration will show that if the inclination of the plane, with the horizontal, is less
than the angle of

friction, the body will be in equilibrium as shown in Fig. 10.6 (a). If,in this condi- tion, the

body is required to be moved upwards and downwards, a corresponding force is required

for the same. But, if the inclination of the plane is more than the angle of friction, the body

will move down and an upward force (P) will be required to resist the body from moving

down the plane as shown in Fig. (b).

Let us now analyse the various forces which act on a body when it slides either up or down
an inclined
plane.

1. Considering the motion of the body up the plane

Let W = Weight of the body,

〈 = Angle of inclination of the plane

to the horizontal, = Limiting angle

of friction for the contact surfaces,

P = Effort applied in a given direction in order to cause the body

to slide with uniform velocity parallel to the plane, considering

friction,

P0 = Effort required to move the body up the plane neglecting friction,

= Angle which the line of action of P makes with the weight of the body
W,

∝ = Coefficient of friction between the surfaces of the plane and the body,

RN = Normal reaction, and

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R = Resultant reaction

When the friction is neglected, the body is in equilibrium under the action of the three

forces, i.e. P0, W and R N, as shown in Fig. 10.7 (a). The triangle of forces is shown in Fig.

10.7 (b). Now applying sine rule for these three concurrent forces,

When friction is taken into account, a frictional force F = ∝.R N acts in the direction
opposite to the motion

of the body, as shown in Fig. 10.8 (a). The resultant reaction R between the plane and the

body is inclined at an angle with the normal reaction RN. The triangle of forces is shown

in Fig. (b). Now applying sine rule,

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2. Considering the motion of the body down the plane

Neglecting friction, the effort required for the motion down the plane will be same

as for the motion up the plane, i.e.

When the friction is taken into account, the force of friction F = ∝.RN will act up the plane
and the resultant reaction

R will make an angle with R N towards its right as shown in Fig. (a). The triangle of forces

is shown in Fig. (b). Now from sine rule,

Efficiency of Inclined Plane

The ratio of the effort required neglecting friction (i.e. P0) to the effort required
considering friction (i.e. P) is known as efficiency of the inclined plane. Mathematically,
efficiency of the inclined plane,
= P0 / P
Let us consider the following two cases :

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1. For the motion of the body up the plane

2. For the motion of the body down the plane

Since the value of P will be less than P0, for the motion of the body down the
plane, therefore in this
case,

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Friction in Journal Bearing-Friction Circle

A journal bearing forms a turning pair as shown in Fig. 10.15 (a). The

fixed outer element of a turning pair is called a bearing and that

portion of the inner element (i.e. shaft) which fits in the bearing is

called a journal. The journal

is slightly less in diameter than the bearing, in order to permit the free
movement of the journal in a bearing.

When the bearing is not lubricated (or the journal is stationary), then
there is a line contact between the two

elements as shown in Fig. 10.15 (a). The load W on the journal and

normal reaction R N (equal to W ) of the bearing acts through the

centre. The reaction RN acts vertically upwards at point A . This point A

is known as seat or point of pressure.

Now consider a shaft rotating inside a bearing in clockwise direction as

shown in Fig. 10.15 (b). The

lubricant between the journal and bearing forms a thin layer which

gives rise to a greasy [Link], the reaction R does not act

vertically upward, but acts at another point of pressure B. This is due

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to the fact that when shaft rotates, a frictional force F = ∝ R N acts at

the circumference of the shaft which has a tendency to rotate the shaft

in opposite direction of motion and this shifts the point A to point B.

In order that the rotation may be maintained, there must be a couple

rotating the shaft
.Let = Angle between R (resultant of F and R N) and R N,

∝ = Coefficient of friction

between the journal and

bearing, T = Frictional torque in

N-m, and r = Radius of the shaft

in metres.

For uniform motion, the resultant force acting on the shaft must be
zero and the resultant turning moment
on the shaft must be zero. In other words,

R = W , and T = W × OC = W × OB sin = W.r sin

Since is very small, therefore substituting sin = tan

T = W.r tan = ∝.W.r

If the shaft rotates with angular velocity

rad/s, then power wasted

in friction, P = T. = T ×

2 N/60 watts

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Lubrication
INTRODUCTION

• The object of lubrication is to reduce friction, wear,

and heating of machine parts that move relative to
each other.

• A lubricant is any substance that, when inserted

between the moving surfaces accomplishes these
purposes.

• In a sleeve bearing a shaft, or journal rotates

oscillates within a sleeve, or bushing and the relative
motion is sliding.

• In an antifriction bearing, the main relative motion is

rolling.

• A follower may either roll or slide on the cam. Gear

teeth mate with each other by a combination of
rolling or sliding. Piston slides within their cylinders.
All these application require lubrication to reduce
friction, wear and heating.
•

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What is lubricant viscosity?

Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow. When a fluid
is flowing, the molecules comprising it experience friction
due to the molecular interaction among them. It means
that different fluids with different viscosities flow at
different speeds when the same force is applied. Another
way to look at it is that the force required to induce
movement of the fluid will be larger for more viscous
fluids. Honey or corn syrup has a viscosity in the range of
2000-3000 cP (centipoise), while water only around 1 cP.
Clearly water flows more easily, since it has much lower
viscosity.
In other words, the shear stress developed in the fluids is
a function of viscosity. The fluids in which the shear stress
is proportional to the shear rate, are called Newtonian
fluids and the constant of proportionality is called
viscosity:

(1)

So why is this important?

Viscosity is key for any process involving fluid flow. It will
determine, for example – How long a reservoir will take to
fill. Viscosity will also determine how much energy is
required to pump out process fluid. Viscosity can also
help you determine the structure of molecules such as
proteins in a solution or the force required to inject a new
drug formulation into a patient.

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The unit of viscosity is newton-second per square meter

( ), which is usually expressed as pascal-
second ( ) in SI units. In lubrication practice, the
earlier mentioned cP unit is widely
used, .
Dynamic vs Kinematic Viscosity: What is
the difference?
1. Dynamic viscosity: Dynamic viscosity is also known
as absolute viscosity
2. . The SI physical unit of dynamic viscosity (μ) is the
Pascal-second (Pa s), identical to 1 kg m−1 s−1. The
physical unit for dynamic viscosity in the centimetre
gram second system of units (cgs) is the poise (P). It
is more commonly expressed, particularly in ASTM
standards, as centipoise (cP).
2. Kinematic viscosity: Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of
dynamic viscosity and the density

so . Kinematic viscosity has SI units of

. The physical unit for kinematic viscosity is
the stokes (St), named after George Stokes. However,
due to practicality reasons typically it is expressed in
terms of centistokes (cS or cSt); 1 stokes = 100
centistokes = 1 cm2 s−1 = 0.0001 m2 s−1. Kinematic
viscosity is typically used and reported in industr

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Lubrication Regimes
• Sliding friction is significantly reduced by an
addition of a lubricant between the rubbing
surfaces.
• Engine bearings are lubricated by Engine oils
constantly supplied in sufficient amounts to
the bearings surfaces.
• Lubricated friction is characterized by the
presence of a thin film of the pressurized
lubricant (squeeze film) between the surfaces
of the bearing and the journal.
• The ratio of the squeeze film (oil film)
thickness h to the surface roughness Ra
determines the type of the lubrication regime

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Boundary lubrication (h<Ra)

• A constant contact between the friction
surfaces at high surface points
(microasperities) occurs at boundary
lubrication.
• This regime is the most undesirable since it is
characterized by high coefficient of friction
(energy loss), increased wear, possibility of
seizure between the bearing and journal
materials, non-uniform distribution of the
bearing load (localized pressure peaks).
• Very severe engine bearing failures are
caused by boundary lubrication.
• Conditions for boundary lubrication are
realized mainly at low speed friction (engine
start and shutdown) and high loads.
• Extreme pressure (EP) additives in the
lubricant prevent seizure conditions caused
by direct metal-to-metal contact between
the parts in the boundary lubrication regime.

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Thick film Lubrication

• In thick-film lubrication, the moving/sliding surfaces are separated

from each other by a thick-film of fluid, (at least 1000 Å thick), so that
direct surface-to-surface contact and welding of junctions rarely
occurs.
• The lubricant film covers/fills the irregularities of the sliding/moving
surfaces and forms a thick layer in between them, so that there is no
direct contact between the material surfaces.

• This consequently reduces wear. The resistance to movement of

sliding/moving parts is only due to the internal resistance between the
particles of the lubricant moving over each other. Therefore, the
lubricant chosen should have the minimum viscosity under working
conditions at the same time, it should remain in place and separate the
surfaces.
• In such a system, friction depends on the viscosity, thickness of the
lubricant, the relative velocity and area of the moving/sliding surfaces.
• The coefficient of friction in such cases is as low as 0.001 to 0.003.
• Hydrodynamic friction occurs in the case of a shaft running at a fair
speed as well as in well-lubricated bearings with not too high load.
• In a journal bearing, a film of the lubricating oil covers the irregularities
of shaft as well as the bearings surfaces; and the metal surfaces do not
come into direct contact with each other.

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• Thus, the resistance to movement is only due to the

internal resistance of the lubricant.
• Delicate instruments, light machines like watches,
clocks, guns, sewing machines, scientific instruments,
etc. are provided with this type of lubrication.
• Hydrocarbon oils are considered to be satisfactory
lubricants for thick-film lubrication.
• Inorder to maintain viscosity of the oil in all seasons of
year, ordinary hydrocarbon lubricants are blended
with selected long chain polymers.

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Hydrodynamic lubrication
• Hydrodynamic lubrication implies there is a
(comparatively) thick film of fluid between the
moving surfaces, so no contact occurs between
the surfaces.
• It requires that there be sufficient speed
differential between the surfaces. which causes
the formation of the "oil wedge"
• There has to be pressure buildup in the film due to
relative motion of the surfaces.
• Huid friction is substituted for sliding friction
• Hydrodynamic lubrication doesn't need an oil
pump or pressurized lubricant source to happen,
but will be reached if a shaft spins fast enough in a
bearing supplied with sufficient lubricant flow
• Prevalent in journal and thrust bearing

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Hydrodynamic Journal
1. Fluid pressure is created by the relative motion
between the moving parts.
2. Cost is less.
3. The speed is high.
4. Load carrying capacity is less.
5. Design of Bearing house is less complicated.
6. It cannot be used as air bearings.
Hydrostatic Journal
1. Pressurized supply of fluid is provided.
2. Cost is high
3. Speed is low
4. Load carrying capacity is high.
5. It can be used as air bearing.

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Introduction
• In automobiles, the power develops by the engine which use to turn
wheels. Therefore, the engine is to connect to the transmission systems
for transmitting power to wheels.
• A Clutch is a mechanism used to connect or disconnect the engine from
the rest of the transmission elements.
• It is located between the engine and gearbox. The clutch disengages for
starting, changing gears, stopping, and idling.
• The function of the Clutch is to permit the engagement or
disengagement of gear when the vehicle is stationary and the engine is
running without damaging gear wheels.

What Is Single Plate Clutch?

• A single plate clutch has one clutch plate. This clutch works on the
principle of friction. It is the most common type of clutch used in motor
vehicles.
• The clutch primarily consists of two members, one mounted on the
driving shaft and the other on the driven shaft.
• These two shafts are parallel and concentric with each other; one shaft is
fixed to its housing while the other is splined so that it can move axially.
The driving torque can increase by increasing the effective radius of
contact.

What Is Working Of Single Plate Clutch?

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• In the Clutch the three parts needs. These are the engine flywheel,
a friction disc or a clutch plate and a pressure plate.
• Some springs give axial force to stay the clutch in the engaged
position. When the engine is running and therefore the flywheel is
rotating, the pressure plate also rotates because the pressure
plate attaches to the flywheel. The friction disc is located between
the flywheel and the pressure plate.
• When the driving force has pushed down the clutch is released.
This action forces the pressure plate to move away from the
friction disc against the force of pressure springs. With this
movement of the pressure plate, the friction plate is released, and
therefore the clutch disengaged.
• When your foot is off the pedal, the springs push the pressure
plate against the clutch disc, which successively presses against
the flywheel. This locks up the engine to the transmission input
shaft, causing them to spin at the same speed.
• The quantity of force the clutch can hold depends on the friction
between the clutch plate and the flywheel, and in this way, much
force the spring puts on the pressure plate.
• When the clutch presses, the piston pushes on the release fork,
which presses the throw-out bearing against the center of the
diaphragm spring. As the middle of the diaphragm spring pushes
in, a series of pins near the outside surface of the spring causes
the spring to pull the pressure plate away from the clutch plate.
This releases the clutch from the spinning engine.
What Is Construction Of Single Plate Clutch?
• A single plate clutch consists of different parts for proper working.
They are arranged in a systematic order.
• Mainly it consists of a clutch plate with both side friction lining
and some other parts which help in the proper functioning of a
clutch like a flywheel, pressure plate, thrust bearing, hub, springs,
and input mechanism for engagement and disengagement of the
clutch.
• The clutch plate attaches to the hub between the flywheel and the
pressure plate, it moves axially on the driven shaft.
• In a single plate clutch, the clutch plate should have both side
friction lining because it mounts between the pressure plate and
flywheel, friction is responsible for the torque transmission.

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• The pressure plate engages with the flywheel and springs.

Pressure plate helps to push the clutch plate with the flywheel.
• A lever attaches to thrust bearings with some mechanism on the
driven shaft which transmits input and output motion from the
clutch pedal.
What Is Application Of Single Plate Clutch?
• Single plate clutches are used where large radial space is
available. e.g. cars, buses, and trucks.
What Is Advantages Of Single Plate Clutch?
1. The working of engagement and disengagement is very smooth
in a single plate clutch.
2. Power losses are very less.
3. As sufficient surface area is available for heat dissipation in such
clutches, no cooling oil is required. Therefore, single plate
clutches are dry type.
4. Single plate clutches have a quick operation and respond fast.
5. It makes it easier to change gears than a cone type.
What Is Disadvantages Of Single Plate Clutch?
1. Single plate clutches have high wear and tear rate.
2. It has less torque transmitting capacity.
3. The springs have to be the more stiff hence greater force requires
to disengage.
4. It requires high maintenance.
5. The space required to accommodate the clutch is more as
compared to the multi-plate clutch.

Difference Between Single Plate Clutch And Multi Plate

Clutch

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SINGLE PLATE CLUTCH MULTI PLATE CLUTCH

A single plate clutch has one clutch The multi plate clutch consists of more
plate than one clutch plate

Torque transmitting capacity is less High torque transmitting capacity

Single plate clutch is bigger than the Multi plate clutch is smaller than the
multi plate clutch single plate clutch

Heat generation is less Heat generation is more

It does not ensure smooth It ensures a smooth and gradual

engagement engagement

There is no need for a cooling

It needs a cooling medium
medium

It is also called Dry Clutches It is also called Wet Clutches

The coefficient of friction is high The coefficient of friction is low

Frictional power loss is less Frictional power loss is more

Single Plate Clutch requires more

Multi Plate Clutch requires less space
space

Single plate clutches are used in cars, Multi plate clutches are used in
buses and trucks Motorcycles, Scooters

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What Are The Parts Of Single Plate Clutch?

• A single plate clutch assembly for transmission of power consists of a
flywheel, a clutch plate, pressure plate, clutch covers, release levers,
primary or clutch shaft.

Single Plate Clutch

1.

Flywheel
• The flyWheel is an integral part of the engine, which also use as a part of
the clutch. It is a driving member and connects to the pressure plate of
the clutch shaft is houses with bearings in a flywheel. The flywheel
rotates as the engine crankshaft rotates.

2. Pilot Bearing

• The pilot bearing or bushing press into the end of the crankshaft to
support the end of the transmission input shaft.
• The pilot bearing prevents the transmission shaft and clutch disc from
wobbling up and down when the clutch releases.

3. Clutch plate or Disc plate

• It is the driven member of the single-plate clutch and line with friction
material on both surfaces. It has a central hub with internal splines to
limit the axial travel along the splined gearbox driving shaft.
• This helps to provide damping actions against torsional vibrations or
variations of the driving torque between engine and transmission.
• A clutch disc is a plate between flywheel and friction or pressure plate. It
has a series of facings inverters on each side to enlarge the friction.

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• These clutch facings are made of asbestos material. They are highly
worn and heat resistant.

4. Pressure plate
• The main function of the pressure plate is to establish even contact with
the driven plate facing through which the pressure springs can exert a
sufficient force to transmit the full torque of the engine.
• The pressure plate presses the clutch plate on to the flywheel from its
machined surface. Between the pressure plate and clutch cover
assembly, pressure springs are fitted.
• The pressure will be withdrawn from the flywheel whenever release
levers are depressed by the toggle or release levers are pivoted
accordingly.

5. Clutch Cover
• The clutch cover assembly bolts to the flywheel. It consists of a pressure
plate, release lever mechanism, clutch cover, and pressure
springs. Generally, the clutch plate revolves with the flywheel.
• However, when the clutch has disengaged, the flywheel, as well as the
pressure plates, are free to rotate independently from the driven plate
and driving shaft.

6. Release levers
• These pivots on pins to the clutch cover, their outer ends locate and
positions on pressure plate legs, and the inner ends are projecting
towards the clutch shaft.
• A careful and accurate adjustment of the release mechanism is one of
the most important factors governing the performance of a clutch
assembly.

7. Clutch shaft
• It is a component of the gearbox. Since it is a splined shaft to the hub of
the clutch plate, which is sliding on it.
• One end of the clutch shaft attaches to the crankshaft or flywheel and
the other end connects to the gearbox or forms a part of the gearbox.

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What Are The Types Of Single Plate Clutch?

1. Diaphragm Spring Type Single Plate

Clutch

• 1.
Diaphragm Spring Type Single Plate Clutch
• The construction of this type of clutch is similar to that of the single
plate clutch. In this type of clutch diaphragm springs (also called
Belleville springs) are used instead of the ordinary coil springs.
• In the free condition, the diaphragm spring is of conical form but when
assembled, it is constrained to an approximately flat condition because
of which it exerts a load upon the pressure plate.
• The diaphragm spring is supported on a fulcrum retaining ring so that
any section through the spring can be regarded as a simple lever. The
pressure plate is axially movable, but it is fixed radially with respect to
the cover.
• This is done by providing a series of equally spaced lugs cast upon the
back surface of the pressure plate.
• The drive from the engine flywheel is transmitted through the cover,
pressure plate and the friction plate to the gearbox input shaft.
• The clutch is disengaged by pressing the clutch pedal which actuates
the release fingers by means of a release ring.
• This pivots the spring about its fulcrum, relieving the spring load on the
outside diameter, theraeby disconnecting the drive.

2. Helical Spring Single Plate Clutch

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• 2. Helical
Spring Single Plate Clutch
• The clutch plate is mounted on the splined shaft and can move along
the axis of the shaft. There is no relative movement between plate and
shaft as far as rotational movement is concerned.
• Both have the same rotational movement due to splines provided on
the shaft. The flywheel is mounted on the engine crankshaft and rotates
with it. The pressure plate is bolted to the flywheel through clutch
springs. It can slide freely along the axis of the clutch shaft.
• The clutch is engaged due to the force exerted by the clutch springs.
This force causes contact between the pressure plate, clutch plate, and
flywheel.
• The clutch plate is located between the flywheel and the pressure plate.
The clutch plate is provided with friction material on both sides.
• The rotary movement from the flywheel is transferred to the clutch plate
and the clutch shaft due to friction. The clutch shaft also acts as the
output shaft.
• When the clutch pedal is pressed the clutch is 8disengaged.9 The
pressure plate moves back against the force of springs, and the clutch
plate becomes free between the flywheel and the pressure plate.

Cone Clutch – Basic

A Clutch is a mechanical device that engages and disengages power transmission

mainly from the driving shaft to the driven shaft. Clutch placed between Flywheel
and Pressure Plate. Generally, the driving shaft connected to the engine, and the
driven shaft provides output power.

Cone Clutch – Construction

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The Cone clutch consists of friction surfaces in the form of a cone. The engine
Crankshaft consists of a female cone. Generally, the male cone is mounted on the
splined clutch shaft. It has friction surfaces on the conical portion. The male cone
can slide on the clutch shaft. Cone clutches are generally used in low peripheral
(relating to) speed vehicles. They were commonly used in automobiles and other
combustion engine transmissions. Small cone clutches are used in synchronizer
mechanisms in manual transmissions. Cone clutches are not used in racing and
rallying etc vehicles.

Working Diagram Of Cone Clutch

Working of Cone Clutch:

A cone clutch serves the same purpose as a disk or plate clutch. However, instead
of mating two spinning disks, the cone clutch uses two conical surfaces to transmit
torque from the engine to wheels by friction. When the driver presses the clutch
pedal, the male cone slides against the spring force, and the clutch is disengaged.
When the driver removes the pressure on the clutch pedal, the friction surfaces of
the male cone are in direct contact with the female cone due to the force of the
spring.

Difference Between Multiplate clutch and Cone

Clutch :
1.

Multi-plate clutches – Small power transmission for the same operating

condition.

Cone Clutch – Very large power/torque transmission. (Because of increase

of normal force). i.e. Fn = F/Sinα; α is semi cone angle F is axial force; Fn
is the normal force

2.

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Multiplate clutch – Size is larger

Cone Clutch – Smaller size or require less actuating force compared with
plate clutch.

Advantages Of Cone Clutch:

1. A small axial force is required to keep the clutch engaged.

2. Simple design.
3. For a given dimension, the torque transmitted by the cone clutch is
higher than that of a single plate clutch.

Disadvantages Of Cone Clutch :

1. One pair of friction surfaces only.

2. The tendency to grab.

3. The small cone angle causes some reluctance in disengagement.
4. If the angle of the cone is smaller than 200, the male cone tends to
bind or joint in the female cone. It requires heavy force to disengage
the clutch.
5. A small amount of wear on the cone surface results a considerable axial
movement of the male cone for which it will be difficult to allow.

Application Of Cone Clutch :

• Cone Clutches are used in specialist transmissions in racing, rallying, or
in extreme off-road or other industrial applications.
• Presswork
• Machine Tools
• Racing Car

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Centrifugal Clutch
Working Principle

It9s working totally depends upon the centrifugal force created by the driving
member (engine or motor). The centrifugal force is used to engage the clutch
with driven shaft. As the engine starts rotating, it produces a centrifugal force
which makes the sliding shoes to move outward. The friction lining of the
shoes gets connected to the inner surface of the drum and it starts moving.
Since the drum is connected to the driven shaft, so the power is transmitted
from the engine shaft to the transmission shaft and finally to the load.

Working of Centrifugal Clutch

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• As the engine rotates, the inside assembly of the centrifugal clutch starts
rotating but drum remains stationary and no power is transmitted. At
lower speed, the centrifugal force produced is not sufficient to
overcome the spring force. So the clutch remains disengaged. But as the
speed increases, the centrifugal force also increases and now the
centrifugal force becomes greater than the spring force.
• As the centrifugal force becomes greater than the spring force, this
allows the sliding shoes to move outward against the spring and get
engaged with the inner surface of the drum.
• The drum starts rotating and transfers the rotating power from the
engine to the driven shaft of the transmission.
• When the load on the engine increases, its speed decreases and
disengages the clutch.
•

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Main Parts

The main parts of the centrifugal clutch are

1. Shoes:

The shoes are of sliding types which slides in the guideways. It consists of friction lining at
the end and this friction lining makes contact with the drum during the engagement.

2. Spring:

Spring is used to disengage the clutch when the engine rotates at a slower speed.

3. Spider or guides:

The spiders are mounted on the driver (engine) shaft or motor shaft. The spiders are equally
spaced. Equally spaced means, if they are four guides than each guide is separated from
each other by 90 degree. The sliding shoes are kept in between these guides and each guide
is holding a spring.

4. Friction lining:

The outer surface of sliding shoes has friction lining. It helps in making a grip with the inner
surface of the drum.

5. Drum:

The drum of the clutch act as housing which encloses all the parts of the clutch that includes
sliding shoes, guides, springs etc. It is connected to the driven shaft of the transmission
system or chains or belt.

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Cluctch Operating Mechanisum

Working Principle Of A Hydraulic Clutch:

The working procedure of the Hydraulic Clutch is usually divided into two parts. One
is Engagement and another one is Disengagement. The following section discusses
the same concisely;

Engagement:

•
At first, the Clutch pedal has to be pressed by the driver of a vehicle to
start the engagement process.
• When the clutch pedal is pressed then it starts the working process of
the diaphragm Clutch.
• The clutch pedal is attached to the clutch plate. Therefore, the clutch
plate starts its rotation.
• The friction surfaces of the clutch plate can be used to make contact
with the pressure plate and also flywheel.
• The pressure plate gives pressure to the spring and spring makes
contact with the splined sleeves.
• Then the attachment of pressure plate, splined sleeves, friction surfaces,
clutch plate, and the flywheel is made and the engagement is done in
this way.
Disengagement:

• At first, the Clutch pedal has to be released by the driver of a vehicle to

start the disengagement process.
• The splined sleeves come backward and release the contact of the
pressure plate and the clutch plate.
• Then the flywheel also released from the contact of the clutch plate.
• The rotation of the clutch plate becomes slows down and at last stops.
• Then the disengagement process is done in this way.
Components Of A Hydraulic Clutch

The Hydraulic clutch is made of different types of components. They are as follows:

• Clutch Pedal
• Diaphragm Clutch
• Clutch Plate
• Friction Surface
• Pressure Plate
• Flywheel

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• Diaphragm Spring
• Splined Sleeves

1. Clutch Pedal

Most primary part that engages the clutch in vehicles is the Clutch Pedal. A driver has
to press the clutch pedal to start the engagement process. At first, after pressing the
clutch pedal, the clutch plate starts its rotation.

2. Diaphragm Clutch

Diaphragm Clutch is usually an independent clutch, but in Hydraulic Clutch the

Diaphragm Clutch can be used. The diaphragm Clutch is attached to the clutch pedal.

When the clutch pedal is pressed by the driver then at first, the clutch pedal pushes
the Diaphragm Clutch then the other diaphragm Clutch presses the flywheel to do
further processes.

3. Clutch Plate

One of the most important parts of the Hydraulic clutch is the Clutch Plate. The
clutch plate is made of thin metal plates. There is a friction lining present, which is
attached to the clutch plate, on both sides.

Apart from that, this clutch plate is usually placed among the pressure plate and the
flywheel. The friction lining of the thinner surface of the clutch plate makes its
contact to the flywheel and the friction lining of the outer surface of the clutch plate
and that makes contact to the pressure plate and makes the friction.

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4. Friction Surface

Friction surfaces are attached to the clutch plate on both sides. When the clutch plate
starts its rotation then the friction surface makes contact to the pressure plate and
also to the flywheel. Therefore, the friction force is generated. This friction force
makes the high torque.

5. Pressure Plate

Another useful part of the Hydraulic clutch is the Pressure plate. The pressure plate is
placed on one side of the clutch plate. The pressure plate is attached with springs
with the help of the bolts and along with the clutch pedals.

The friction surfaces of the clutch plate make contact with the pressure plate. The
pressure plate9s function mainly depends on weight. When weight is given to the
pressure plate then it makes contact with the friction surface of the clutch plate and
produces the friction.

6. Flywheel

Another useful part of the Hydraulic clutch is Flywheel. The flywheel has placed on
another side of the clutch plate. The flywheel is attached to the transmission shift.
The friction surfaces of the clutch plate make contact with the flywheel. So, friction is
produced.

7. Diaphragm Spring

Diaphragm Spring is attached to the pressure plate. These springs mainly work, with
the help of the pressure plate. This pressure is produced from the high weight, that is
given to the pressure plate. Along with that, thrust spring makes contact with the
friction surface of the clutch plate and produce high friction.

8. Splined Sleeves

Splined sleeves are mainly used to make engagement and disengagement in the
multi-plate clutch system or mainly in the Hydraulic clutch system. These Splined
sleeves are placed between the friction lining of the clutch plate and the pressure
plate.

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When pressure plate gives pressure then the splined sleeves used to go forward to
make the clutch engaged and when the pressure plate releases the pressure then the
splined sleeves used to go back to make the clutch disengaged.

Advantages Of A Hydraulic Clutch:

There are many advantages of the hydraulic clutches. Some of the advantages are
stated below:

• The hydraulic clutch is self-lubricated so the hydraulic clutch needs no

maintenance for the lubricating clutch.
• In the case of a hydraulic clutch, the height of the pedal is adjusted
automatically.
• In comparison to the other clutch systems, the hydraulic clutch can give
an easier feeling during pushing the clutch.
• There are many variations present of the hydraulic clutch so this clutch
can be fitted at any place.
• Due to corrosion the, inner wires used in the mechanical clutch may
bend so mockingly the wires can get stuck. This incident can lead the
damage to the clutch. But in the case of the hydraulic clutch, this type
of damage is not possible. Because a replacement of a particular fluid
in the hydraulic clutch is enough to prevent the above type of damage.
• Losing the cable after some time affects the disengagement process
that may damage the clutch completely. But in the case of the
hydraulic clutch, there is no cable required so this clutch is safe from
damage caused by loosening the cable.
• So, using a hydraulic clutch instead of another clutch is safer and more
reliable.
• It is better to use the hydraulic clutch because of its quality. The quality
of this hydraulic clutch is better than the mechanical clutch
Disadvantages Of A Hydraulic Clutch:

There are many disadvantages of the hydraulic clutches also present. Some of the
disadvantages of hydraulic clutches are stated below:

• The hydraulic clutch consists of some mechanisms such as the slave

cylinder and cylinder are the two mechanisms of this clutch. So, there is
a chance of outflow of fluid that can be used in the hydraulic clutch.
This outflowing happens from the cylinder as well as from the slave
cylinder due to the damage that results in the leakages. For repairing
this damage, users have to spend extra money.

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• This hydraulic clutch consists of plastic metallic piping systems. This

pipe is breakable or can be torn down. So, from time to time checking
is necessary. This is more expensive to maintain damage prevention.
• For proper functioning, standard and correct fluid is required otherwise
seals may be damaged. So, maintaining the standard for proper fluid
can be a little more expensive.
• From time to time checking the level of fluid of the hydraulic clutch is
compulsory for users.
• The price of the hydraulic clutch is more expensive than the mechanical
clutch. This is one of the most crucial disadvantages of this clutch.
Application Or Use Of The Hydraulic Clutch:

Most of the reputed car manufacturers are opting for the hydraulic clutch for their
products for quality and simplicity in applications. Nowadays the use of hydraulic
clutches is highly observed in trucks and automotive industries also. Due to the
features of self-oiling or lubrication, auto -adjustment, low effort to the actual
adjustment, the hydraulic clutches are used in various systems.

Vacuum-operated Clutch
In this type of clutch, engine intake manifold vacuum is used for disengaging the
clutch (Fig. 24.15). It uses a vacuum reservoir connected to the intake manifold
through a non-return valve. It has a vacuum cylinder and piston, the rod side of the
piston is opened to the atmosphere. The solenoid valve is operated when the switch
is closed so that the circuit is complete. The switch is mounted on the gear lever so
that when the gear lever is operated to change the gear, the switch is also closed.

Fig. 24.15. A typical layout of the vacuum operated clutch arrangement.

In the normal position the valve rod is in the bottom position of the valve (shown
dotted in Fig. 24.15) and the switch is open. At this stage, the pressure on both sides
of the piston in the vacuum cylinder is atmospheric. When the switch is closed due to
the operation of gear change lever, the solenoid coil is energized and the valve rod is
pulled up. This action opens the passage between the reservoir and the vacuum
cylinder, so that a pressure differential acts on the piston of the vacuum cylinder. As
a consequence the piston moves in the forward direction, causing the operation of
linkage to disengage the clutch.

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Shoe Brake
The brake shoe is allowed to expand in both the direction. As the brake lining
of shoe touches the inner surface of the drum, friction is generated in between
the brake shoe and drum and stops the vehicle from moving.

Working of Shoe Brakes

1. As the brake pedal is pressed, it compresses the fluid in the master cylinder
and allows the piston of the wheel cylinder to expand outward.

2. The outward motion of the piston of wheel cylinder forces the brake shoe
outward against the brake drum.

3. As the brake shoe lining touches the inner surface of the drum, and due to
the friction generated in between the brake shoe and drum, the motion of the
wheel reduces and vehicle stops.

4. As the force is removed from the brake pedal, the retracting springs draws
the brake shoe inward and the contact between the friction lining and drum
ended. Now again the brake is ready to apply.

5. A self adjusting screw is present at the bottom, which is used to maintain a

minimum gap between the drum and brake shoe. When the lining of the
brake shoe is wear out than the gap between the drum and brake shoe
increases, at that time the adjuster is adjusted again to maintain the minimum
gap.

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Main Parts

The whole assembly of the drum brake is fitted to the back plate of the wheel.
The back plate remains stationary and it does not rotates with the wheel.

1. Brake Drum:

It is a round cast iron housing which is used to stop the vehicle with the help
of brake shoe. The drum brake is bolted to the hub of the wheel. It rotates
with the hub.

2. Brake Shoe:

It is the frictional part of the drum brake, without it the working of the brake is
not possible. The brake shoe has brake lining at its outer curve. It is the brake
lining which makes contact with brake drum during the stopping of the
vehicle. It is of two types

(i) Primary Brake Shoe: The shoe having large lining material is called as
primary shoe.
(ii) Secondary brake shoe: The shoe with small lining material is called
secondary shoe.

3. Wheel Cylinder:

It is used to force the brake shoe outward to apply the brake. The wheel
cylinder is connected to the master cylinder. It contains piston which moves
outward when brake is applied and forces the brake shoe towards inner
surface of the drum.

4. Return or Retracting Spring:

It is used to retract the brake shoe after brake is applied. Two return springs
are there in durm brake, one for the primary shoe and other one is for
secondary shoe.

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5. Self Adjuster:

It maintain the minimum gap between the brake shoe and drum so that they
do not contact each other when pedal is not pressed. In the case if the brake
lining wear out, and gap increases in between the shoe and drum, It can be
adjusted again to maintain the gap between shoe and drum inner surface.
once it is adjusted it maintains the same gab during the brake working by
itself.

Advantages

1. They are self energizing braking system. It means they are

designed to operate by itself.
2. It is cheaper than the disc braking system.
Disadvantages
1. Heating problem: Since the friction area is totally covered by lining, so
heat is developed during the friction is not allowed to go out in the
atmosphere. This may reduces the braking efficiency of the vehicle.

2. The drum brakes will not work properly if it gets wet in water. This is
because water takes longer time to come out from the drum. the water
reduces the friction in between the brake lining and drum.

In this article we have learnt about how drum brakes works and its main parts,
working principle with advantages and disadvantages . If you like this article
than don9t forget to share.

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Internal Shoe Brake

In this braking system the brake shoes are mounted inside of brake drum
and the lower ends of brake shoes are connected with help of anchor pins
and brake carrier plate. Based on this the movement of brake shoe is
positioned. In between the upper ends of brake shoes one brake cam is
mounted. Brake pedal is located at the right side corner of the driver’s leg.
When the brake pedal is pressed, a long rod which is connected with
the brake cams in the four brake carrier plate simultaneously are
expanded inside the brake drum which causes friction that stops the
rotating wheel. When the brake pedal is released, the brake cam is brought
to its original position. The brake shoes are also brought to their original
positions at the same time without touching the brake drum due to the
spring’s compressive force. Hence the wheels on the brake drum rotate
immediately without
any friction.

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External Shoe brake

This type of braking system is mostly used in cars as hand brake. In this system the
outer layer of the brake drum has a brake lining which is contact with the brake band.
The brake band is operated by brake lever and the linkages to stop the rotating brake
drum. By pulling the hand brake lever, the brake band is forced to press the brake
drum tightly. Hence the rotation of brake drum is stopped and the vehicle is stopped.
When the hand lever is released, the brake band is loosened and the force acting on
the brake drum is released. Due to this action the wheels connected with the brake
drums are started to rotate without any
difficulties.

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BAND AND BLOCK BRAKE

The band brake may be lined with blocks of wood or other material. The
friction between the blocks and the drum provides braking action. Let there
are 8n9 number of blocks, each subtending an angle 2 θ at the centre and
the drum rotates in anticlockwise direction.

Band and block brake.

Consider one of the blocks (say first block). This is in equilibrium under the
action of the following forces :
1. Tension in the tight side (T1),
2. Tension in the slack side (T1') or tension in the band between the first
and second block,
3. Normal reaction of the drum on the block (RN), and
4. The force of friction (µ.RN).
Resolving the forces radially, we have

Resolving the forces tangentially, we have

Dividing above equations

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Similarly it can be proved for each of the blocks that

Braking torque on the drum of effective radius re,

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Dynamometer
A dynamometer or dyno can be defined as a device that is used to
measure torque and the rotational speed of a machine.

This measured data can determine the brake power, speed and other
parameters of the rotating machine or an engine.

A dyno, apart from measuring torque and power, can also be used as a
test-bed for different types of engine-related activities such as calibration of
engine management controllers, deep investigation of combustion
behaviour and tribology.

A dynamometer can be classified into two types:

Power absorption dynamometer:
Power Absorption dynamometers measure and absorb the power output of
the engine to which they are coupled.

The power absorbed is usually dissipated as heat by some means.

Examples of power absorption dynamometers are Prony brake

dynamometer, Rope brake dynamometer, Eddy current dynamometer,
Hydraulic dynamometer, etc.

Power transmission dynamometer:

In power transmission dynamometers the power is transmitted to the load
coupled to the engine after it is indicated on some scale.

These are also called torque meters.

Classification of absorption dynamometers

Prony brake dynamometer:
It is the simplest form of absorption type dynamometer.

It has two wooden blocks that are placed on a pulley which is fixed on the
shaft of the engine whose power is to be measured.

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The wooden blocks are clamped together with two sets of bolts and nuts.

To control the speed of the pulley, the pressure is adjusted over a pulley
with the help of a helical spring present between the nut and the upper
block.

A long lever is attached to the upper block which carries weight on its outer
end.

This weight placed on the lever balances the brake when unloaded.

When the brake is to be applied, the suitable weight is loaded on the outer
end of the lever and nuts are tightened till the shaft of the engine runs at a
constant speed.

The movement because of the weight loaded on the outer end of the lever
balances the movement of frictional resistance between the pulley and
wooden block.

The power absorbed during friction is converted into heat which is why this
dynamometer needs to be cooled down often.

The brake power formula is given by,

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Brake power (bp) = 2π NT, where T = Weight applied (W) × distance (l)

Rope brake dynamometer:

This device also measures the brake power and consists of some turns of
rope that is wound around the rotating drum fixed on the output shaft.

One end of the rope is connected to the loading device and another end to
the spring balance.

The power is absorbed when friction is produced between the rope and the
drum.

This type of dynamometer is cheap and can be made quickly.

However, braking power is not accurately measured due to a change in the

friction coefficient of the rope with the temperature change.

Brake power is given by:

Brake power (bp) = π DN (W 2 S)

Where D is the diameter of drum brake

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W is the weight of the load

S is reading in spring balance.

Eddy current dynamometer:

It comprises a stator with some electromagnets and a rotor disc coupled
with the engine9s output shaft made of steel or copper.

When the rotor is rotated, an eddy current is produced because of a

magnetic flux set up by field current in the electromagnet.

This eddy current is dissipated in generating heat, therefore it needs some

cooling arrangements.

The torque is measured with the help of a moment arm just like in other
types of absorption dynamometer.

Hydraulic dynamometer:
It works on the principle of dissipating heat in fluid friction rather than dry
friction.

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Its construction is similar to that of the fluid wheel and it consists of an

impeller coupled to the output shaft of the engine.

The impeller rotates inside a casing filled with fluid.

Due to the centrifugal force which develops in the outer casing, it tends to
rotate along with the impeller but its rotation is restricted by the torque arm
that supports weight balance.

Belt transmission dynamometer:

The spring balance system measures the friction generated between the
impeller and fluid.

The continuous flow of working fluid carries the heat dissipated in the
hydraulic dynamometer.

Moreover, to control the output power in this type of dynamometer, sluice

gates can be moved in or out to partially or wholly obstruct the flowing
water between the impeller and casing.

Classification of transmission dynamometers:

Epicyclical train dynamometer:

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In an epicyclical train dynamometer, between the prime mover and driven,

an epicycle gear train is placed to measure the power transmitted.

A spur gear is a key to the engine shaft which rotates in the anti-clockwise
direction.

Moreover, an angular gear is keyed to the engine shaft and rotates in the
anti-clockwise direction.

In this type of dynamometer, pulleys are linked to the belt passing through
two pulleys that are placed on a lever.

This lever carries dead weight at one end and balancing weight at another
end.

Torsion dynamometer:
When the power is transmitted through the shaft, there is a twist near the
driving end by a small angle relative to the other end.

In such a case, a torsion dynamometer is used that measures the power

and angle of twist in the shaft.

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Principle of Working of Eddy Current

Dynamometer
Eddy Current Dynamometer works on the principle that, <when
a conductor moves through a magnetic field, it induces eddy
currents (called as local currents). These eddy currents flow in a
short circular path around the conductor and are dissipated in
the form of heat. =

Construction of Eddy Current Dynamometer

Eddy Current Dynamometer consists of non-magnetic steel rotor
mounted on the shaft, whose power is to be measured. It rotates
inside a smooth cast iron stator. Clearance between stator and
rotor is very small. Stator carries an exciting coil, which is
energized by d.c. supply from an external source. The stator is
mounted, such that, it permits free swing about its axis. Stator is
provided with a torque arm, to which, a spring balance is
attached.

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Fig. 1: Eddy Current Dynamometer

Working of Eddy Current Dynamometer
Stator winding is excited by a d.c. supply as shown in Fig. 1.
When the solid rotor moves in the magnetic field produced by
stator winding, an emf is produced in it, thereby inducing eddy
currents. These eddy currents oppose the rotation of rotor. The
moment of resistance is measured by torque arm or brake arm
and then torque and hence, shaft power can be calculated. The
mechanical power supplied to dynamometer is converted in the
form of heat. This heat is dissipated or carried away partly by air
circulation and partly by water. Therefore, cold water is
circulated through the air gap between the stator and rotor.

Advantages of Eddy Current Dynamometer

1. Good control at low rotating speeds.
2. Suitable for high speed range.
3. Ability to measure large power output at all speeds. Therefore, it is
preferred in testing of automobile and aircraft engines.
4. It is compact as compared to other dynamometers of same
capacity.

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5. The torque developed is smooth and continuous under all

operating conditions.
Disadvantages of Eddy Current Dynamometer
1. It cannot produce torque at zero speed.
2. Comparatively smaller in size, which reduces its strength and
reliability.
Applications of Eddy Current Dynamometer
1. Measurement of extremely large power in the range of 200 kW-
225 kW.
2. If the shafts are rotating at high speeds of 5000 to 6000 r.p.m., it is
most suitable instrument for power measurement.

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Cam and Follower

INTRODUCTION
A cam is a mechanical device used to transmit motion to a follower by direct contact. The drivers called the
cam and the driven member is called the follower. In a cam follower pair, the cam normally rotates while
the follower may translate or oscillate. Familiar example is the cam shaft of an automobile engine, where
the cams drive the push rods (the followers) to open And close the valves in synchronization with emotion
of the pistons.

Cams:
Type of cams, Type of followers, Displacement, Velocity and acceleration time curves for cam profiles,
Disc cam with reciprocating follower having knife edge, roller follower, Follower motions including SHM,
Uniform velocity, Uniform acceleration and retardation and Cycloidal motion.
Cams are used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The motion created can be simple and
regular or complex and irregular. As the cam turns, driven by the circular motion, the cam follower traces
the surface of the cam transmitting its motion to the required mechanism. Cam follower design is important
in the way the profile of the cam is followed. A fine pointed follower will more accurately trace the outline
of the cam. This more accurate movement is at the expense of the strength of the cam follower.
Types of cams
Cams can be classified based on their physical shape.
a)Disk or plate cam The disk (or plate) cam has an irregular contour to impart a specific motion to the
follower. The follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the cam shaft and is held in
contact with the cam by springs or gravity.

Fig 1 Plate or disk cam.

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b)Cylindrical cam: The cylindrical cam has a groove cut along its cylindrical surface. The roller follows
the groove, and the follower moves in a plane parallel to the axis of rotation of the cylinder.

Fig. 2 Cylindrical cam.

c)Translating Cam. The translating cam is a contoured or grooved plate sliding on a guiding surface(s).The
follower may oscillate (Fig.3 a)or reciprocate (Fig. 3b).The contour or the shape of the groove is determined
by the specified motion of the follower.

Fig. 3 translating cam

Types of followers
(i)Based on surface inContact.
(a)Knife edge follower
(b)Roller follower
(c)Flat faced follower
(d)Spherical follower

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(ii)Based on type of motion

(a)Oscillating follower
(b)Translating follower

Based on line of motion

(a)Radial follower:Thelines of movement of in-line cam followers pass through the centers of the camshafts
(b) Off-set follower:For this type,the lines of movement are off set from the centers of the Cam shafts

NOMENCLATURE OF CAMS
Cam Profile The contour of the working surface of the cam.
Trace Point The point at the knife edge of a follower, or the center of a roller, or the center of a spherical
face.
Pitch Curve The path of the tracer point.
Base Circle The smallest circle drawn, tangential to the cam profile, with its center on the axis of the cam
[Link] size of the base circle determines the size of the cam.
Prime Circle The smallest circle drawn, tha can be drawn from the center of the cam and tangent to the
pitch curve.
Prime circle radius = Base circle radius for knife edge and flat faced follower
Prime circle radius = Base ciircle radius + radius of roller for roller follower

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Pressure Angle The angle between the normal to the pitch curve and the direction of Motion of the follower
at the point of contact
Lift of stroke: It is the maximum travel of the follower from its lowest position to the topmost position.
The maximum rise is called lift
Pitch Point: It is a point on the curve having maximum pressure angle
Pitch Circle: It is the circle drawn from the center of the cam through the pitch points

Fig. 7: Cam nomenclature

Types of follower motion:
Cam follower systems are designed to achieve a desired oscillatory motion. Appropriate displacement
patterns are to be selected for this purpose, before designing the cam surface. The cam is assumed to rotate
at a constant speed and the follower raises, dwells, returns to it original position and dwells again through
specified angles of rotation of the cam, during each revolution of the cam. Some of the standard follower
motions are as follows:
They are, follower motion with,
(a)Uniform velocity
(b)Modified uniform velocity
(c)Uniform acceleration and deceleration
(d)Simple harmonic motion

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(e)Cycloidal motion
Displacement diagrams:
In a cam follower system, the motion of the follower is very important. Its displacement can be plotted
against the angular displacement θ of the cam and it is called as the displacement diagram. The displacement
of the follower is plotted along they-axis and angular displacement θ of the cam is plotted along x-axis.
From the displacement diagram, velocity y and acceleration of the follower
can also be plotted for different angular displacements θ of the Cam. The displacement, velocity and
acceleration diagrams are plotted for one cycle of operation., one rotation of the cam. Displacement
diagrams are basic requirements for the construction of cam profiles. Construction of displacement diagrams
and calculation of velocities and accelerations of followers with different types of motions are discussed in
the following sections.
(a)Follower motion with Uniform velocity:
Fig.3.8shows the displacement, velocity and acceleration patterns of a follower having uniform velocity
type of motion. Since the follower moves with constant velocity, during rise and fall, the displacement
varies linearly with θ .Also ,since the velocity changes from zero to a finite value, with in no time,
theoretically, the acceleration be coming in finite at the beginning and end of rise and fall.

Follower motion with modified uniform velocity:

Itis observed in the displacement diagrams of the follower with uniform velocity that the acceleration not
the follower becomes in finite eat the beginning and ending of rise and return strokes. In order to prevent
this, the displacement diagrams are slightly modified. In the modified form, the velocity of the follower
changes uniformly during the beginning and end of each stroke. Accordingly, the displacement to the
follower varies parabolically during the sparoids. With this modification, the acceleration becomes constant
during the sparoids, instead of being infinite a sin the uniform velocity type of motion. The displacement,
velocity and acceleration patterns shown in fig 9

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b)Simple Harmonic Motion: In fig 10, the motion executed by point Pl, which is the projection of point P
on the vertical diameter is called simple harmonic motion. Here, P moves with uniform angular velocity
ωp, along a circle of radius r (r=s/2).

(c)Cycloidal motion:
Cycloid is the path generated by a point on the circumference of a circle, as the circle rolls without
slipping, on a straight/flat surface. The motion executed by the follower here, is similar to that of the
projection of a point moving along a cycloidal curve on a vertical lines shown in figure. 11

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MODULE 4
BALANCING OF ROTATING & RECIPROCATING MASSES
Balancing of Rotating Masses: Balancing of Several Masses Rotating in the Same Plane,
Balancing of Several Masses Rotating in Different Planes (only Graphical Methods).
INTRODUCTION:
The high speed of engines and other machines is a common phenomenon now-a-days. It is,
therefore, very essential that all the rotating and reciprocating parts should be completely balanced
as far as possible. If theseparts are not properly balanced, the dynamic forces are set up. These
forces not only increase the loads on bearings and stresses in the various members, but also produce
unpleasant and even dangerous vibrations. In this chapter we shall discuss the balancing of
unbalanced forces caused by rotating masses, in order to minimise pressure on the main bearings
when an engine is running. Balancing of Rotating Masses We have already discussed, that
whenever a certain mass is attached to a rotating shaft, it exerts some centrifugal force, whose
effect is to bend the shaft and to produce vibrations in it. In order to prevent the effect of centrifugal
force, another mass is attached to the opposite side of the shaft, at such a position so as to balance
the effect of the centrifugal force of the first mass. This is done in such a way that the centrifugal
forces of both the masses are made to be equal and opposite. The process of providing the second
mass in order to counteract the effect of the centrifugal force of the first mass is called balancing
of rotating masses.
The following cases are important from the subject point of view:
1. Balancing of a single rotating mass by a single mass rotating in the same plane.
2. Balancing of a single rotating mass by two masses rotating in different planes.
3. Balancing of different masses rotating in the same plane.
4. Balancing of different masses rotating in different planes.
We shall now discuss these cases, in detail, in the following pages.
BALANCING OF A SINGLE ROTATING MASS BY A SINGLE MASS
ROTATING IN
THE SAME PLANE
Consider a disturbing mass m1 attached to a shaft rotating at ὼ rad/s as shown in Fig. Let
r1 be the radius of rotation of the mass m1 (i.e. distance between the axis of rotation of the shaft

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and the centre of gravity of the mass m1). We know that the centrifugal force exerted by the mass
m1 on the shaft This centrifugal force acts radially outwards and thus produces bending moment
on the shaft. In order to counteract the effect of this force, a balancing mass (m2) may be attached
in the same plane of rotation as that of disturbing mass (m1) such that the centrifugal forces due to
the two masses are equal and opposite.

r2 = Radius of rotation of the balancing mass m2 (i.e. distance between the axis of rotation of the
shaft and the centre of gravity of mass m2 )
Centrifugal force due to mass m2,
FC2= m2 ὼ 2.r 2

BALANCING OF A SINGLE ROTATING MASS BY TWO MASSES

ROTATING IN
DIFFERENT PLANES:
We have discussed in the previous article that by introducing a single balancing mass in the
same plane of rotation as that of disturbing mass, the centrifugal forces are balanced. In other
words, the two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. But this type of
arrangement for balancing gives rise to a couple which tends to rock the shaft in its bearings.
Therefore in order to put the system in complete balance, two balancing masses are placed in two
different planes, parallel to the plane of rotation of the disturbing mass, in such a way that they
satisfy the following two conditions of equilibrium.

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1. The net dynamic force acting on the shaft is equal to zero. This requires that the
line of action of three centrifugal forces must be the same. In other words, the centre of the masses
of the system must lie on the axis of rotation. This is the condition for static balancing.
2. The net couple due to the dynamic forces acting on the shaft is equal to zero. In
other words, the algebraic sum of the moments about any point in the plane must be zero. The
conditions (1) and (2) together give dynamic balancing.
The following two possibilities may arise while attaching the two balancing masses
:
1. The plane of the disturbing mass may be in between the planes of the two balancing
masses and
2. The plane of the disturbing mass may lie on the left or right of the two planes
containing the balancing masses. We shall now discuss both the above cases one by one.
1. When the plane of the disturbing mass lies in between the planes of the two balancing Masses
Consider a disturbing mass m lying in a plane A to be balanced by two rotating masses m1
and m2 lying in two different planes L and M as shown in Fig. 2. Let r, r1 and r2 be the radii of
rotation of the masses in planes A, L and M respectively.
Let.
l1 = Distance between the planes A and L, l2 =
Distance between the planes A and M, and l =
Distance between the planes L and M.

We know that the centrifugal force exerted by the mass m in the plane A,
FC= m.ὼ2.r

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Similarly, the centrifugal force exerted by the mass m1 in the plane L,

FC1= m1.ὼ2.r1
and, the centrifugal force exerted by the mass m2 in the plane M,
FC2= m2.ὼ2.r2
Since the net force acting on the shaft must be equal to zero, therefore the centrifugal force
on the disturbing mass must be equal to the sum of the centrifugal forces on the balancing masses,
therefore

Now in order to find the magnitude of balancing force in the plane L (or the dynamic force
at the bearing Q of a shaft), take moments about P which is the point of intersection of the plane
M and the axis of rotation. Therefore

Similarly, in order to find the balancing force in plane M (or the dynamic force at the
bearing P of a shaft), take moments about Q which is the point of intersection of the plane L and
the axis of rotation. Therefore

It may be noted that equation (i) represents the condition for static balance, but in order to
achieve dynamic balance, equations (ii) or (iii) must also be satisfied.

2. When the plane of the disturbing mass lies on one end of the planes of the balancing Masses

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In this case, the mass m lies in the plane A and the balancing masses lie in the planes L and
M, as shown in Fig.3. As discussed above, the following conditions must be satisfied in order to
balance the system, i.e. FC +FC2=F C1
Now, to find the balancing force in the plane L (or the dynamic force at the bearing Q of a
shaft), take moments about P which is the point of intersection of the plane M and the axis of
rotation.
Therefore
FC1×l=FC×l2
Similarly, to find the balancing force in the plane M (or the dynamic force at the bearing P
of a shaft), take moments about Q which is the point of intersection of the plane L and the axis of
rotation. Therefore
FC2×l=FC×l1

BALANCING OF SEVERAL MASSES ROTATING IN THE SAME PLANE:

Consider any number of masses (say four) of magnitude m1, m2, m3 and m4 at distances
of r1, r2, r3 and r4 from the axis of the rotating shaft. Let masses with the horizontal line OX, as
shown in Fig..4(a) Let these masses rotate about an axis through O and perpendicular to the plane
of paper, with a constant angular velocity of ὼ rad/s. The magnitude and position of the balancing
mass may be found out analytically or graphically as discussed below

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[Link] method:
The magnitude and direction of the balancing mass may be obtained, analytically, as
discussed below :
1. First of all, find out the centrifugal force* (or the product of the mass and its radius
of rotation) exerted by each mass on the rotating shaft.
2. Resolve the centrifugal forces horizontally and vertically and find their sums, i.e. Σ
Hand ΣV. We know that Sum of horizontal components of the centrifugal forces
ΣH=[Link]ϴ1+ [Link]ϴ2+….. And sum of
vertical components of the centrifugal forces.
ΣV=[Link]ϴ1+ [Link]ϴ2+…..
3. Magnitude of the resultant centrifugal force

FC =√ (ΣH) 2+ (ΣV) 2
4. If ϴ is the angle, which the resultant force makes with the horizontal, then
tanϴ=ΣV/ΣH
5. The balancing force is then equal to the resultant force, but in opposite direction.
6. Now find out the magnitude of the balancing mass, such that FC= m.r

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M=balancing mass, and r =

its radius of rotation.

2. Graphical method:
The magnitude and position of the balancing mass may also be obtained graphically as
discussed below :
1. First of all, draw the space diagram with the positions of the several masses, as
shown in Fig..4 (a).
2. Find out the centrifugal force (or product of the mass and radius of rotation) exerted
by each mass on the rotating shaft.
3. Now draw the vector diagram with the obtained centrifugal forces (or the product
of the masses and their radii of rotation), such that ab represents the centrifugal force exerted by
the mass m1 (or m1.r1) in magnitude and direction to some suitable scale. Similarly, draw bc, cd
and de to represent centrifugal forces of other masses m2, m3 and m4 (or m2.r2, m3.r3 and m4.r4).
4. Now, as per polygon law of forces, the closing side ae represents the resultant force
in magnitude and direction, as shown in Fig. 4 (b).
5. The balancing force is, then, equal to the resultant force, but in opposite direction.
6. Now find out the magnitude of the balancing mass (m) at a given radius of rotation
(r), such that
BALANCING OF SEVERAL MASSES ROTATING IN DIFFERENT PLANES:
When several masses revolve in different planes, they may be transferred to a reference
plane (briefly written as R.P.), which may be defined as the plane passing through a point on the
axis of rotation and perpendicular to it. The effect of transferring a revolving mass (in one plane)
to a reference plane is to cause a force of magnitude equal to the centrifugal force of the revolving
mass to act in the reference plane, together with a couple of magnitude equal to the product of the
force and the distance between the plane of rotation and the reference plane. In order to have a
complete balance of the several revolving masses in different planes, the following two conditions
must be satisfied :
1. The forces in the reference plane must balance, i.e. the resultant force must be zero.

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2. The couples about the reference plane must balance, i.e. the resultant couple must
be zero.
` Let us now consider four masses m1, m2, m3 and m4 revolving in planes 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively
as shown in Fig. 5(a). The relative angular positions of these masses are shown in the end view
[Fig. 5 (b)]. The magnitude of the balancing masses mLand mM in planes L and M may be obtained
as discussed below :
1. Take one of the planes, say L as the reference plane (R.P.). The distances of all the
other planes to the left of the reference plane may be regarded as negative, and those to the right
as positive.
2. Tabulate the data as shown in Table 21.1. The planes are tabulated in the same order
in which they occur, reading from left to right.
3. A couple may be represented by a vector drawn perpendicular to the plane of the
couple. The couple C1 introduced by transferring m1 to the reference plane through O is
proportional to m1.r1.l1 and acts in a plane through Om1 and perpendicular to the paper.

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The vector representing this couple is drawn in the plane of the paper and perpendicular to
Om1 as shown by OC1 in Fig.5 (c). Similarly, the vectors OC2, OC3 and OC4 are drawn
perpendicular to Om2, Om3 and Om4 respectively and in the plane of the paper.
4. The couple vectors as discussed above, are turned counter clockwise through a right
angle for convenience of drawing as shown in Fig.5(d). We see that their relative positions remains
unaffected. Now the vectors OC2, OC3 and OC4 are parallel and in the same direction as Om2,
Om3 and Om4, while the vector OC1 is parallel to Om1 but in *opposite direction. Hence the
couple vectors are drawn radially outwards for the masses on one side of the reference plane
and radially inward for the masses on the other side of the reference plane.
5. Now draw the couple polygon as shown in Fig. 5(e). The vector d’ o8 represents the
balanced couple. Since the balanced couple CM is proportional to [Link], therefore

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From this expression, the value of the balancing mass mM in the plane M may be obtained,
and the angle of inclination § of this mass may be measured from Fig. 5 (b).
6. Now draw the force polygon as shown in Fig. 5 ( f ). The vector eo (in the direction
from e to o) represents the balanced force. Since the balanced force is proportional to [Link],
therefore,

From this expression, the value of the balancing mass mL in the plane L may be obtained
and the angle of inclination ³ of this mass with the horizontal may be measured from fig 5(b).

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BALANCING OF RECIPROCATING MASSES

Primary and Secondary Unbalanced Forces of Reciprocating Masses, Partial Balancing of
Unbalanced Primary Force in a Reciprocating Engine, Balancing of
Primary and secondary Forces of Multi-cylinder In-line Engines, Balancing of Radial Engines
(only Graphical Methods)
INTRODUCTION BALANCING OF
RECIPROCATING MASSES:
The various forces acting on the reciprocating parts of an engine. The resultant of all the
forces acting on the body of the engine due to inertia forces only is known as unbalanced force or
shaking force. Thus if the resultant of all the forces due to inertia effects is zero, then there will be
no unbalanced force, but even then an unbalanced couple or shaking couple will be present.
Consider a horizontal reciprocating engine mechanism as shown in Fig.1.
FI = Inertia force due to reciprocating parts,
FN = Force on the sides of the cylinder walls or normal force acting on the cross-head
guides, and
FB = Force acting on the crankshaft bearing or main bearing.

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Since FR and FI are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, therefore they balance
each other. The horizontal component of FB (i.e. FBH) acting along the line of reciprocation is
also equal and opposite to FI. This force FBH = FU is an unbalanced force or shaking force and
required to be properly balanced. The force on the sides of the cylinder walls (FN) and the vertical
component of FB (i.e. FBV) are equal and opposite and thus form a shaking couple of magnitude
FN × x or FBV × x. From above we see that the effect of the reciprocating parts is to produce a
shaking force and a shaking couple. Since the shaking force and a shaking couple vary in
magnitude and direction during the engine cycle, therefore they cause very objectionable
vibrations. Thus the purpose of balancing the reciprocating masses is to eliminate the shaking force
and a shaking couple. In most of the mechanisms, we can reduce the shaking force and a shaking
couple by adding appropriate balancing mass, but it is usually not practical to eliminate them
completely. In other words, the reciprocating masses are only partially balanced.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY UNBALANCED FORCES OF
RECIPROCATING MASSES:
Consider a reciprocating engine mechanism as shown in Fig m =
Mass of the reciprocating parts, l = Length of the connecting
rod PC, r = Radius of the crank OC,
ϴ= Angle of inclination of the crank with the line of stroke PO, ὼ = Angular
speed of the crank, n = Ratio of length of the connecting rod to the crank
radius = l / r.

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We have already discussed in Art. that the acceleration of the reciprocating parts is
approximately given by the expression

PARTIAL BALANCING OF UNBALANCED PRIMARY FORCE IN A RECIPROCATING

ENGINE:
The primary unbalanced force (m ὼ2r cos ϴ ) may be considered as the component of the
centrifugal force produced by a rotating mass m placed at the crank radius r, as shown in Fig. 2
The primary force acts from O to P along the line of stroke. Hence, balancing of primary force is
considered as equivalent to the balancing of mass m rotating at the crank radius r.

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This is balanced by having a mass B at a radius b, placed diametrically opposite to the crank
pin C.
We know that centrifugal force due to mass B, =B.ὼ2.b and horizontal component of this force
acting in opposite direction of primary force = B.ὼ[Link] ϴ
The primary force is balanced, if
B.ὼ[Link] ϴ= m.ὼ[Link] ϴ
A little consideration will show, that the primary force is completely balanced if
B.b = m.r, but
the centrifugal force produced due to the revolving mass B, has also a vertical component
(perpendicular to the line of stroke) of magnitude B ὼ 2bsinϴ. This force remains unbalanced. The
maximum value of this force is equal to B2b when ϴ is 90° and 270°, which is same as the
maximum value of the primary force m2r . From the above discussion, we see that in the first case,
the primary unbalanced force acts along the line of stroke whereas in the second case, the
unbalanced force acts along the perpendicular to the line of stroke. The maximum value of the
force remains same in both the cases. It is thus obvious, that the effect of the above method of
balancing is to change the direction of the maximum unbalanced force from the line of stroke to
the perpendicular of line of stroke. As a compromise let a fraction 8c9 of the reciprocating masses
is balanced, such that
c.m.r = B.b
Unbalanced force along the line of stroke

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BALANCING OF PRIMARY FORCES OF MULTI-CYLINDER IN-LINE ENGINES:

The multi-cylinder engines with the cylinder centre lines in the same plane and on the same
side of the centre line of the crankshaft, are known as In-line engines. The following two
conditions must be satisfied in order to give the primary balance of the reciprocating parts of a
multicylinder engine :
1. The algebraic sum of the primary forces must be equal to zero. In other words, the
primary force polygon must *close ; and
2. The algebraic sum of the couples about any point in the plane of the primary forces
must be equal to zero. In other words, the primary couple polygon must close. We have already
discussed, that the primary unbalanced force due to the reciprocating masses is equal to the
component, parallel to the line of stroke, of the centrifugal force produced by the equal mass placed
at the crankpin and revolving with it. Therefore, in order to give the primary balance of the
reciprocating parts of a multi-cylinder engine, it is convenient to imagine the reciprocating
masses to be transferred to their respective crankpins and to treat the problem as one of
revolving masses.
Notes :
1. For a two cylinder engine with cranks at 180°, condition (1) may be satisfied, but
this will result in an unbalanced couple. Thus the above method of primary balancing cannot be
applied in this case.

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2. For a three cylinder engine with cranks at 120° and if the reciprocating masses per
cylinder aresame, then condition (1) will be satisfied because the forces may be represented by the
sides of an equilateral triangle. However, by taking a reference plane through one of the cylinder
centre lines, two couples with non parallel axes will remain and these cannot vanish vectorially.
Hence the above method of balancing fails in this case also.
* The closing side of the primary force polygon gives the maximum unbalanced primary force and
the closing side of the primary couple polygon gives the maximum unblanced primary couple
3. For a four cylinder engine, similar reasoning will show that complete primary balance is
possible and it follows that 8For a multi-cylinder engine, the primary forces may be completely
balanced by suitably arranging the crank angles, provided that the number of cranks are not
less than four9.
BALANCING OF SECONDARY FORCES OF MULTI-CYLINDER INLINE ENGINES:

When the connecting rod is not too long (i.e. when the obliquity of the connecting rod is
considered), then the secondary disturbing force due to the reciprocating mass arises. We have
discussed in Art. that the secondary force,

This expression may be written as

As in case of primary forces, the secondary forces may be considered to be equivalent to

the component, parallel to the line of stroke, of the centrifugal force produced by an equal mass
placed at the imaginary crank of length r / 4n and revolving at twice the speed of the actual crank
(i.e. 2ὼ) as shown in Fig. 3

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Thus, in multi-cylinder in-line engines, each imaginary secondary crank with a mass
attached to the crankpin is inclined to the line of stroke at twice the angle of the actual crank. The
values of the secondary forces and couples may be obtained by considering the revolving mass.
This is done in the similar way as discussed for primary forces. The following two conditions must
be satisfied in order to give a complete secondary balance of an engine :
1. The algebraic sum of the secondary forces must be equal to zero. In other words,
the secondary force polygon must close, and
2. The algebraic sum of the couples about any point in the plane of the secondary
forces must be equal to zero. In other words, the secondary couple polygon must close.

Note : The closing side of the secondary force polygon gives the maximum unbalanced
secondary force and the closing side of the secondary couple polygon gives the maximum
unbalanced secondary couple.

BALANCING OF V-ENGINES
Consider a symmetrical two cylinder V-engine as shown in Fig. 5, The common crank OC
is driven by two connecting rods PC and QC. The lines of stroke OP and OQ are inclined to the
vertical OY, at an angle ³ as shown in Fig 5 m = Mass of reciprocating parts per cylinder, l = Length
of connecting rod, r = Radius of crank,
n = Ratio of length of connecting rod to crank radius = l / r ϴ=
Inclination of crank to the vertical at any instant, ὼ= Angular
velocity of crank.

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We know that inertia force due to reciprocating parts of cylinder 1, along the line of stroke

and the inertia force due to reciprocating parts of cylinder 2, along the line of stroke

The balancing of V-engines is only considered for primary and secondary forces* as
discussed below :
Considering primary forces
We know that primary force acting along the line of stroke of cylinder 1

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Considering secondary forces

We know that secondary force acting along the line of stroke of cylinder 1

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BALANCING OF RADIAL ENGINES (DIRECT AND REVERSE CRANKS

METHOD )

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The method of direct and reverse cranks is used in balancing of radial or Vengines, in which
the connecting rods are connected to a common crank. Since the plane of rotation of the various
cranks (in radial or V-engines) is same, therefore there is no unbalanced primary or secondary
couple.

Consider a reciprocating engine mechanism as shown in Fig. 5. Let the crank OC (known
as the direct crank) rotates uniformly a ὼ radians per second in a clockwise direction. Let at any
instant the crank makes an angle ϴ with the line of stroke OP. The indirect or reverse crank OC is
the image of the direct crank OC, when seen through the mirror placed at the line of stroke. A little
consideration will show that when the direct crank revolves in a clockwise direction, the reverse
crank will revolve in the anticlockwise direction. We shall now discuss the primary and secondary
forces due to the mass (m) of the reciprocating parts at P.
Considering the primary forces
We have already discussed that primary force is m.ὼ2.r,cos ϴ This force is equal to the component
of the centrifugal force along the line of stroke, produced by a mass (m) placed at the crank pin C.
Now let us suppose that the mass (m) of the reciprocating parts is divided into two parts, each equal
to m / 2.

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It is assumed that m / 2 is fixed at the direct crank (termed as primary direct crank) pin C
and m/ 2 at the reverse crank (termed as primary reverse crank) pin C’ , as shown in Fig. 5 We
know that the centrifugal force acting on the primary direct and reverse crank

Hence, for primary effects the mass m of the reciprocating parts at P may be replaced by
two masses at C and C’ each of magnitude m/2. Considering secondary force We know that
secondary force

In the similar way as discussed above, it will be seen that for the secondary effects, the
mass (m) of the reciprocating parts may be replaced by two masses (each m/2) placed at D and D’
such that OD = OD = r/4n. The crank OD is the secondary direct crank and rotates at 2ὼ rad/s in

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the clockwise direction, while the crank OD’ is the secondary reverse crank and rotates at 2 ὼ
rad/s in the anticlockwise direction as shown in Fig. 6

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