Evolution
Origin of life and living beings
dqof neb
any change
change over time". Evolution is
The generalconcept of the word is
characteristics of biological
generations in the heritable
across successive of
at every level
processes give rise to diversity
populations. Evolutionary
species, indi vidual organisms and molecules
biological organization, including
such as DNA and proteins.
often used to refer to
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural
The word is more
of "survival
sometimes crudely referred to as the theory
selection. This theory is
of the fittest."
was formulated by Charles Darwin.
The theory of evolution by natural selection
natural selection as an important
cause of evolution.
who was the first to recognize
of three widely accepted
Evolution by natural selection is a consequence
premises:
More offspring are produced than can
1)
possibly survive,
2) Traits vary among individuals, leading to
differential rates of survival and
reproduction,
3) Trait differences are heritable. Thus, when
members of a population die, they are
replaced by individuals that are not born
from random parents. Instead, these neW
members are born from parents that are
better adapted to the environment in which
natural selection took place.
S
Toles
can cause the evolution
they perform. Natural
of traits that are seemingly fitted for the functional
selection is the only known cause of adaptation, but
e only known cause of evolution. Other, nonadaptive causes of evolution
include
In the
mutation and genetic
drift.t
early 20th century, was integrated with Darwin's theory of
genetics
evolution by natural The
selection thro ugh the discipline of population genetics.
Thportance of
natural selection as a
cause of evolution was accepted into other
about evolution,
Moreover, previously held notions Such
branches of biology. as
obsolete.
orthogenesis and "progress" became
common
forms have descended from
a
Darwinism presumes that all life ancestoI.
a great and sudden lean
Evolution is a slow gradual process.
slow
though slow
It can never take
steps. Natural selection
leap, but
acts onlv .
must advance by short and sure,
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takng advantage of slight successive genetis
and accumulate minor advantageous
Natural selection acts to preserve
mutations.s wings
species developed a functional advantage (it grew
Suppose a member of a
and pass it on to
would inherit that advantage
offispring
and learned to fly). Its
The inferior (disadvantaged)
members of the same species would
their offspring.
members of the species.
gradually die out, leaving only the superior (advantaged)
that enables a
of a functional advantage
Natural selection is the preservation
speciesto compete better
in the [Link] 6od olnioe lo
Over the
oodt l
Natural selection is the naturalistic equivalent to domestic breeding.
centuries,human breeders have produced dramatic changes in domestic animal
individuals to breed. Breeders eliminate undesirable
traits
populations by selecting
gradually over time. Similarly, natural selection eliminates inferior species
gradually over time.
Evolutionary history of life
oDOubon9
Origin of life
Highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating
molecule around 4 billion years ago and half a billion years later the last common
ancestor of all life existed. The current scientific consensus is that the complex
biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions. The
beginning of life may have included self-replicatingmolecules such as RNA, and
theassembly of simple cells.
Evolution of life
1- Prokarvotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3-4
billion years ago. No obvious changes in morphology or
cellular organization occurred in these organisms over the next
few billion [Link] to uiaioeib sb touort noioale
lsn
2- The eukaryotic emerged between 1.6-2.7 billion
cells years0 by
ago. The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed
eukaryotic the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or
cells, with
led to the
hydrogenosomes. Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms
and plants.
formation of chloroplasts in algae
(Mitochondtia are descendants
of purple non-sulfurbacteria)
Aerobic
bacterium
Endosymbiosis
Mytochondrion
Eukaryotic cell with
cell mitochondrion
Ancestral eukaryotic
(Chloroplastsare descendants
of cyanobacteia)
Photosynthetic
bacterium
Chloroplast
Endosymbiosis
and
Eukaryotic cell with chloroplast
mitochondrion
Eukarya
Archaca
Archaea
3- The history of life was that CBactorja
of the unicellular eukaryotes, Comort Domains of Life
prokaryotes and archaea until
about 610 million years ag0 Archaea
when multicellular organisms
Archaea VS Bacteria
began to appear in the Oceans
Archaea is derived frorn the Bacteria are small single-celled
in the Ediacaran period. Greek word archaios, nneaning organisms. Bacteria are found
"ancient" or "primitive,"and almost everywhere on Earth and
indeed some archaea exhibit are vi tal to the planet's
4- The evolution of characteristicsworthy of that ecosystems.
narme.
Exarmple ExamRle
multicellularity occurred in
multiple independent events,
in organisms as diverse as
Sponges, brown algae, cyano bacteria, slime moulds and myxobacteria.
5- Cambrian explosion. Here, the
majority of types of modern animals
appeared in the fossilrecord, Various
triggers for the
Cambrian explosion
have been
proposed, including the
accumulation of
Oxygen in the
atmosphere from
photosvnthesis. ud
Cambrian explosion
6- About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonized the land
and
were
soon followed by arthropods and other animals. Insects were
particularty
successful and even today make up the majority of animal species.
450 mllon years
ago
Vascular plants
Arthropod
Bryophytes
Green algae
7- Amphibians first appeared around 364 million years ago, followed by early
amniotes, then birds around 155 million years ago (both from "reptile"-like
lineages), mammals_around 129 million years ago, Homininae around 10 million
years agoand mo dern humans around 0.25 million years ago.
Chorion
Hominoidea
Amnion o
Embryo
iis HominideaS Hylobatidae
Homininae
Ponginae
Gut
Hominini Gorilini
Aliantois
Homo Pan Gorilla Pongo Hylobate
Yolk stalk
Yolksac
Fig:Keptilint cgg
Human Bonobo Chimpanzee Gorilla Orangutan Gibbon
Common descent of organisms was first deduced from four
simple facts about
organisms:
First, they have
geographic distributions
that cannot
adaptation. be explained by
local
Second, the
diversity of life is not a set
organisms that share of completely
unique but
morphological similarities. organisms,
Third, vestigial
traits with no
0ula
Finally, clear
those purpose resemble functional
ofnested organisms can be ancestral traits
groups -
similar to a
classified
family tree.
using these similarities into a hierarchy
TREE OF LIFE
Bird SANIMALIA
PLANTAE
Angiosperm
Fish
Mam m al
Reptile
Lycopsid
Filicopsi d
W Amphibi an
Chorcata Brachiopod
Gymnosperrn Bryozoa
EchinOderrn
Sphenopsid
Bryophyta
FUNGI
MOLISCa
GreernAlgae Arthropod
Cnidaria
Annelid
Brown-Green Algae
Porifera
EUBACTERIÀ
ARCHAE PROTISTA
BACTERIA
More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of
biochemical similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the
same basic set of nucleotides and amino acids. The development of molecular
genetics has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms' genomes: dating
When species diverged through the molecular clock produced by mutations. For
example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed that humans and
Chimpanzees share 96%of their genomes and analyzing the few areas where they
differ
helps shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed.
Human chromosomes
Sa The genetic similarity
between a human and
5 6 7 89 10 1 12 13 4 15 16 17 18 19 20- 21 22 XY M
a chimpanzee is:
Chimpanzee chromosomes
96%