CHAPTER : 7
7.1 INFORMAL FALLACY
7.2 WHAT IS FALLACY,FORMAL AND INFORMAL FALLACY,AND
FALLACY OF IRRELEVANCE.
What is fallacy?
A fallacy is an error in reasoning or argumentation that makes an argument or statement invalid,
misleading, or deceptive. It's a flaw in logic, language, or evidence that can lead to incorrect conclusions.
Fallacies can be intentional or unintentional and can occur in various contexts, including everyday
conversations, debates, and formal arguments.
Formal and informal fallacies of ambiguity?
Here are some examples of formal and informal fallacies of ambiguity:
Formal Fallacies of Ambiguity:
1. Equivocation: Using a word or phrase with multiple meanings in a way that is confusing or misleading.
Example: "The bank is going to fail." (Here, "bank" could refer to a financial institution or the side of a
river.)
1. Amphiboly: Using a sentence or phrase that is ambiguous due to its grammatical structure.
Example: "I saw the man with the binoculars." (Here, it's unclear whether the man has the binoculars or
the speaker saw the man using the binoculars.)
Informal Fallacies of Ambiguity:
1. Semantic Ambiguity: Using words or phrases with multiple meanings in a way that is confusing or
misleading.
Example: "The new policy is 'clear'." (Here, "clear" could mean transparent, easy to understand, or free
from obstacles.)
1. Vagueness: Using language that is unclear or imprecise.
Example: "The company will 'soon' release its new product." (Here, "soon" is a vague term that doesn't
provide a specific timeframe.)
These fallacies of ambiguity can lead to confusion, miscommunication, and flawed reasoning.
Falacies of presumption?
Here are some examples of fallacies of presumption:
Fallacies of Presumption:
1. Begging the Question: Assuming the truth of the conclusion one is trying to prove.
Example: "God exists because the Bible says so, and we know the Bible is true because it's the word of
God."
1. False Cause: Assuming that a particular event or action caused another event or action without
providing evidence.
Example: "The economy improved because the new president was elected." (Correlation does not imply
causation.)
1. Slanting: Presenting information in a way that is biased or misleading.
Example: "Nine out of ten doctors recommend our product." (But what about the tenth doctor?)
1. Complex Question: Asking a question that assumes a particular fact or situation.
Example: "When did you stop beating your wife?" (Assumes the person has beaten their wife.)
1. False Dichotomy: Presenting only two options when there are, in fact, more.
Example: "You're either with us or against us." (Implies there are only two possibilities.)
1. Assuming the Consequent: Assuming that a particular consequence is true because it follows from a
hypothetical premise.
Example: "If we don't raise taxes, the economy will collapse. Therefore, we must raise taxes." (Assumes
the economy will collapse without evidence.)
These fallacies of presumption can lead to flawed reasoning, miscommunication, and incorrect
conclusions.
Fallacies of irrelavance?
Here are some examples of fallacies of irrelevance:
Fallacies of Irrelevance:
1. Ad Hominem: Attacking the person making an argument rather than addressing the argument
itself.
Example: "John's argument about climate change is wrong because he's a politician."
1. Ad Populum: Arguing that something is true because it's popular or widely believed.
Example: "Most people believe in astrology, so it must be true."
1. Appeal to Authority: Arguing that something is true because an authority figure says so.
Example: "The CEO of a major corporation says that our product is the best, so it must be true."
1. Appeal to Emotion: Using emotions rather than logic to persuade others.
Example: "Think of the children! We must support this policy."
1. Red Herring: Introducing unrelated information to distract from the main argument.
Example: "But what about the issue of immigration? We can't focus on climate change right now."
1. Strawman: Misrepresenting or exaggerating an opposing argument to make it easier to attack.
Example: "My opponent wants to raise taxes to 100% of income."
u Quoque: Arguing that someone's argument is invalid because they themselves do not follow their
own advice.
Example: "You're arguing for vegetarianism, but I saw you eating a burger last week."
These fallacies of irrelevance can be used to mislead or deceive others, and can undermine constructive
debate and critical thinking.