Chapter

p 4
Voltage and Reactive Power
C t l
Control
4.1
4 1 Introduction
4.2 The Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power
4.3 Relation between Voltage, Power and Reactive
Power
4.4 Methods of Voltage Control

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 Introduction

• Requirement of power industry to generate both real

and reactive power
• For reactive power the need due to
– Excite the various types of electrical equipment and
transmission network
• Lagging vars required by the consumer to supply magnetizing current
to transformers and induction motors
• Difference requirement in transmission network either absorbed in
the series inductance (I2X) or produced in shunt capacitance (V2B)

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Introduction
VRC Introduction
• MVar requirement of overhead lines

+inductive -capacitive

No load Full load

400kV, [Link] -105.0 +1251.0

100 miles
275 kV,[Link] -22.0 +174.0
50miles
132kV,[Link]
, q -1 6
-1.6 +10 0
+10.0
20miles

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Introduction
VRC Introduction
• MVar requirement of undertaken cables

+inductive -capacitive

No load Full load

400kV, [Link] -540.0 -478.0

10 miles
275 kV,[Link] -170.0 -155.0
10miles
132kV,[Link]
, q -14 5
-14.5 -13 6
-13.6
5miles

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Introduction
VRC Introduction
• MVar requirement of transformers

+inductive -capacitive

No load Full load

400/275kV, 750MVA +0.5 +90

275/132KV 240MVA
275/132KV, +0.3
03 +48.0
48 0
132/33kV,90MVA +0.2 +20.5

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Introduction
VRC Introduction
• For the transmission network
– Reactive power compensation depends on the load
and its power factor
– At no load, the full charging power occurs and
voltage over limits
– With full
f compensation, line operated between no
load and full load with the voltage not exceeding
the permissible limits

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Introduction
VRC Introduction
• For
o the
t e ttransmission
a s ss o network
et o
– High voltages type are selected to keep the losses in an
economically justifiable relationship to the power P
– In view of the inverse square relationship
relationship, reduction of Q
becomes an essential factor for obtaining efficient operation
of HV lines
– Hence, voltage or var control play a leading role in order to
supply good quality service to customers
• Reliably
• economically

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Introduction
VRC Introduction
• Good q
qualityy means the voltage
g levels within the
reasonable limits
• Equipment operate satisfactorily when
– Voltage levels on the system correspond to their rated
voltage or within 5% variation
– More 5%, the performance of the equipments will suffer and
their life is less longer
• Example if the voltage is below the level
– The picture on a tv set starts rolling
– The fluorescent tube refuses to glow
– The torque of an induction motor (which forms about 70%
y
of the total load on the system)) varies as square
q of the
terminal voltage
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC-Introduction
VRC Introduction
• Rapid changes in voltage (flicker) caused by some
industrial load such as
– Arc furnaces
– Arc welders
– Wood chippers

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Introduction
VRC Introduction
• Arc furnace consumption

5 5

4 4
Time(h)

Time(h)
3 3

2 2

1 1

10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Real Power (MW) Reactive power (MVar)

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Introduction
VRC Introduction
• Voltage
g disturbance at transmission and distribution due to
– Cyclic load
– Non-cyclic load

• Other voltage and var variation events

– Planned line switching
– Unplanned line trips
– Planned and unforseen generator trips
– Equipment failure

• Thus, important to have a proper voltage support at strategic

location.

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Introduction
VRC Introduction
• Continuous control of Var can be achieved by
installation of synchronous compensators at
– Line ends
– Intermediate substations (TMI, DMI)

• The use of shunt connected controllable var

compensation
ti tot iimprove
– Power transfer capability
– stability
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC-Introduction
VRC Introduction
• Power transfer without intermediate voltage/var
compensator

E2
V1 V2
E1 E2 δ 12 E1

X12 E1 E 2
P12= sin δ12
X 12

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Introduction
VRC Introduction
• Power transfer with intermediate voltage/var
g / compensator
p

X 13 X 32

E1 E2

V1 V3 V2

C o n tro lla b le s h u n t V a r c o m p e n s a to r

E2 V3

δ32

δ13
E1

E 1V 3
P13 = sin δ 13
X 13

V3E2
P 32 = sin δ 32
X 32
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC-Generation and
Absorption of Reactive Power
• Sy
Synchronous
c o ous Ge
Generators
e ato s
– Used to generate or absorb reactive power
– Ability to supply reactive power determined by the short
circuit ratio (1/Xs)
– Var capacity can also be increased the use of continuously
acting voltage regulators
– Over-excited machine,generates reactive power
– Under-excited machine, absorb reactive power
– Supply to the system of both positive and negative vars

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Generation and
Absorption of Reactive Power
• Overhead Lines
– Absorb reactive power when fully loaded
– The Vars absorbed are I2X/phase
– On light loads the shunt capacities of longer lines
may become predominant and the lines become Var
generators

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Generation and
Absorption of Reactive Power
• Transformers
– Always absorb reactive power
– The Vars absorbed are

(VAload ) 2

= .X T
RatedVA

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Generation and
Absorption of Reactive Power
• Cables
– Generator of reactive power owing or due to their high
capacitance
– Example
• 275kV, 240MVA cable produces 6.25-7.5MVAr/km
• 132kV cable roughly 1.9MVAr/km
1 9MVAr/km
• 33kV cable, 0.125MVAr/km

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Generation and
Absorption of Reactive Power
• Example 4.1
41
In the radial transmission system shown in Figure
4 4 above all p
4.4 p.u.
u values are referred to the voltage
bases shown and 100MVA. Determine the power
factor at which the g
generator must operate.
p

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Generation and
Absorption of Reactive Power
• Figure 4
4.4
4

160km D 48 km
0.04p.u 0.1p.u
C B A
E 0.1pu 0.1 p.u.

0.1p.u 0.04p.u 0.1p.u 0.1p.u

275KV 132KV 11KV

200MW

0.8p.f lagging

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Relation between
Voltage, Power and Reactive
Power
• Power flow across a short line

Bus 1 P+jQ Bus 2

Z = RL + jXL

V1
V2

V1 =|V1|<0° V2 =|V2|<θ°

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Relation between
Voltage, Power and Reactive
Power
• Power flow across a short line
Also
V2 = V1 − IZ (4.1)
So that
∗
V1 ⋅ I = P+ jQ
P − jQ P − jQ
I= ∗
= (4.2)
V1 V1
Since V1 is the reference phasor
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC-Relation between
Voltage, Power and Reactive
Power
• From equation (4
(4.1)
1) and (4.2)
(4 2)
⎛ P − jQ ⎞
V2 = V1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ Z
⎝ V1 ⎠
Neglecting the line resistance, R=0

P Q
V2 = V1 − j X L − X L (4.3)
V1 V1
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC-Relation between
Voltage, Power and Reactive
Power
• Equation (4.3)
(4 3) is illustrated by the phasor
diagram in Fig. 4.5

0 V1
θ

jPX L
V1 QX L
V1

V2

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Relation between
Voltage, Power and Reactive
Power
• Fig. 4.5 shows the voltage level is influenced by the
reactive power drop
QX
V 1
since the quadrature component
L

PX
does not affect the voltage profile
L

V 1

• Clearly observed that load voltage V2 is not affected

much due to the real component of the load P as it is
normal to the vector V1

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Relation between
Voltage, Power and Reactive
Power
• Theeddrop
op due to Q iss d
directly
ect y subt
subtracted
acted from
o tthe
e
voltage V1. Assuming voltage drop due to P=0 eqn.
(4.3) becomes

Q
V 2 = V1 − X L (4
(4.4)
4)
V1
• To keep the V2 fixed to particular V1, the drop QX L
V 1
must remain constant

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Relation between
Voltage, Power and Reactive
Power
• For
o QX L
V1
– Q can be adjusted to keep this quantities fixed
– By connecting shunt capacitors or synchronous capacitor

• QXL should be kept constant in order to keep V2

constant for fixed V1
– Introducing series capacitor which reduce the net reactance
of the system
– Voltage variation will be more for larger loads (large reactive
power). This variation could be controlled by switching in
suitable series capacitor.
p

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Power Transfer and
Reactive Power

• Simple electrical model for synchronous

generator feeding into a power system

I∠-φ

Z∠θ

SA
V∠00
E∠δ SB

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Power Transfer and
Reactive Power

• Power transfer between sources

∗
∗ ⎛ E −V ⎞
S A = EI = E⎜ ⎟
⎝ Z ⎠
∗
⎡ E∠δ − V∠0 ⎤
= E∠δ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ Z∠θ ⎦

E∠δ
= [E∠θ −δ −V∠θ]
Z
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC-Power Transfer and
Reactive Power

• Power transfer between sources

= [E∠θ − V∠θ + δ ]
E
Z

2
E EV
= ∠θ − ∠δ + θ
Z Z

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Power Transfer and
Reactive Power

• Power transfer between sources

⎡E2 ⎤ ⎡ EV
= ⎢ (cosθ + j sinθ )⎥ − ⎢ (cos(δ + θ ) + j sin(δ + θ ))⎤⎥
⎣Z ⎦ ⎣ Z ⎦

⎡ E2 ⎤ ⎡ E2 ⎤
cos(δ + θ )⎥ + ⎢ sinθ − sin(δ + θ )⎥
EV EV
= ⎢ cosθ −
⎣Z Z ⎦ ⎣Z Z ⎦

= PA + jQ A (4 5)
(4.5)
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC-Power Transfer and
Reactive Power

• Similarly

S B = VI *

⎡ EV V2 ⎤ ⎡ EV V2 ⎤
=⎢ cos(θ − δ ) − cosθ ⎥ + j⎢ sin(θ − δ ) − sinθ ⎥
⎣ Z Z ⎦ ⎣ Z Z ⎦

= PB + jQB ((4.6))
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC-Power Transfer and
Reactive Power

• If R=0

Z = jX = X ∠900
• Hence

EV
PA = sin δ ((4.7))
X
E 2 EV
QA = − cos δ (4 8)
(4.8)
X X
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC-Power Transfer and
Reactive Power

• and

EV
PB = sin δ (4.9)
X

2
EV V
QB = cosδ − (4 10)
(4.10)
X X

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Power Transfer and
Reactive Power
• Example 4.2
An interconnector transfers 60MW between 132kV, 3
phase power systems having the same frequency.
Assume that the interconnector is 100km long and
that each line conductor has a reactance of 1.0Ω/km
and negligible resistance. Determine the KVA supplied
by the interconnector.

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Calculation of sending and
receiving voltages in terms of
power and reactive power
• Simple electrical model for a synchronous
generator feeding into a power system

R+jx P+jQ

E V L

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Calculation of sending and
receiving voltages in terms of
power and reactive power
• Phasor diagram for transmission of power
through a series impedance (Fig 4.7)

d
E
IX δV
φ
δ a b c
φ V φ
IP IR g

Ia

I ΔV

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Calculation of sending and
receiving voltages in terms of
power and reactive power
• From Fig 4
4.7
7

E = (V + ΔV ) + δV 2
2 2

= (V + RI cosφ + XI sinφ ) + ( XI cosφ − RI sinφ )

2 2

2 2
⎛ RP XQ ⎞ ⎛ XP RQ ⎞
∴ E = ⎜V +
2
+ ⎟ +⎜ − ⎟ (4.11)
⎝ V V ⎠ ⎝ V V ⎠
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC- Calculation of sending and
receiving voltages in terms of
power and reactive power
• Hence

RP + XQ
ΔV = (4.12)
• and V

XP − RQ
Q
δV = (4 13)
(4.13)
V

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Calculation of sending and
receiving voltages in terms of
power and reactive power
• If

δ V 〈〈 V + Δ V
2
⎛ RP + XQ
Q⎞
E = ⎜V +
2
⎟ (4 14)
(4.14)
• and ⎝ V ⎠

RP + XQ
E −V = = ΔV (4.15)
V
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC- Calculation of sending and
receiving voltages in terms of
power and reactive power
• Hence the arithmetic difference between the
voltages is given approximately by
RP + XQ
(4.16)
V
• If R = 0
XQ
E −V = (4.17)
V

– Voltage
V lt d
depends
d only
l on Q
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC-Operation of a
Generator on Infinite Bus
• Most synchronous machines are connected to
large interconnected electric power networks
• Network important characteristic
– System voltage at the point of connection is
constant in magnitude, phase angle and frequency
– Such a point in a power system is referred to as an
infinite bus

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Operation of a
Generator on Infinite Bus
• Infinite bus
– Voltage at the bus will not altered by the changes in
the generator operating condition
– Example 600MW generator is removed from a
30,000MW systems, the difference in voltage and
frequency will be very slight

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Operation of a
Generator on Infinite Bus
• An alternator connected to an infinite bus

I
E∠δ I V∠00

Xd
Infinite bus

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Operation of a
Generator on Infinite Bus
• An alternator connected to an infinite bus

E ∠δ − V∠ 0
I= (4.18)
jX d

E∠δ − 90 V∠ − 90
= − (4 19)
(4.19)
Xd Xd

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Operation of a
Generator on Infinite Bus
• Power P = Real [VI*]

⎡ ⎧ E∠90 − δ V∠90 ⎫⎤
= Re al ⎢V ⎨ − ⎬⎥
⎣ ⎩ Xd X d ⎭⎦

VE cos (90 − δ )
=
Xd

EV
P = sin δ (4.20)
X d

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Operation of a
Generator on Infinite Bus
• And the reactive power

[ ]
Q = I m VI *

VEsin(90−δ ) V 2
= −
Xd Xd

EV cos δ V 2
Q= − ((4.21))
Xd Xd
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC-Operation of a
Generator on Infinite Bus
• Example
a p e 4.3 3
A synchronous generator delivers 1.0pu current at
1.0pu voltage and p.f. (i) 0.8 lag (ii) 0.8 lead to an
i fi i bus.
infinite b The
Th reactance off the
h generator X is i
1.0pu. Determine
(a) P
P, QQ, E and δ
(b) If the excitation is increased by 20%, calculate P,
Q, E, δ, I and cos Ф
(c) If the system is as in (a) and the power P is
increased by 20%, calculate Q, E, δ, I, cos Ф and P

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Operation of a
Generator on Infinite Bus
• Example
a p e 4.4
A 50MVA, 30kV, three phase, 60Hz synchronous generator has a
synchronous reactance of 9Ω/phase and a negligible resistance. The
generator is delivering rated power at a 0.8
0 8 power factor lagging at the
rated terminal voltage to an infinite bus.
(a) Determine the excitation voltage/phase E and the power angle δ
(b) With the excitation held constant at the value found in (a), the driving
torque is reduced until the generator is delivering 25MW, determine the
armature current and the power factor.
(c) If the generator is operating at the excitation voltage of part (a), what is
the steady state maximum power the machine can be deliver before losing
synchronism? Also, find the armature current corresponding to this
maximum power.

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC-Operation of a
Generator on Infinite Bus
• Exercise
• A 60 MVA,
MVA 69.3
69 3 kV,
kV three
h phase
h synchronous
h generator has
h synchronous
h
reactance of 15 Ω/ phase and negligible armature resistance.
• The generator is delivering rated power at 0.8 power factor leading at the
ated te
rated terminal
a voltage
o tage to a
an infinite
te bus
bus. Determine
ete e tthe
e magnitude
ag tude oof tthe
e
generated emf per phase and the power angle δ.
• If the generated emf is 36 kV perphase, what is the maximum three
phase power that the generator can deliver before losing its
synchronism?
• The generator is delivering 48 MW to the bus at the rated voltage with its
field current adjusted for a generated emf of 46 kV per phase. Determine
the armature current, reactive power and the power factor. State
whether power factor is lagging or leading?

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Methods of Voltage
Control
• Three methods of voltage control
– Injection of reactive power
– Tap-changing
T h i transformer
t f
– FACTS

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Injection of Reactive
Power
• Three methods of injection involving the use of
– Static shunt capacitors and reactors
– Static
St ti series
i capacitors
it
– Synchronous compensators

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Injection of Reactive
Power
• Static shunt capacitors
– Used for lagging power factor circuits
– Connected either directly to a busbar or the tertiary
winding of the main transformer
– To supply part of reactive Vars required by the load
• Reduce reactive vars transmitted over the line
• Maintained the voltage across the load within a certain
desirable limit

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Injection of Reactive
Power

Static Capacitor
Shunt Capacitor
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC- Injection of Reactive
Power
• Static shunt reactors
– Used for leading power factor circuit created
b lightly
by li htl loaded
l d d cables.
bl
– Connected across the load to absorb some of
leading vars.

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

VRC- Injection of Reactive
Power

Sh t R
Shunt Reactor
t

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Injection of Reactive
Power
• Disadvantages of static shunt
capacitors/reactors
– Vars produced by shunt capacitor or reactor
fall as the voltage falls.
– On the light loads,
loads the voltage is high and
the capacitor output is large, thus the voltage
tends to rise to excessive levels.

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Injection of Reactive
Power
• Line with shunt capacitors

TX
G
L d
Load
C
C

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Injection of Reactive
Power

• Series Capacitors
– Lines with series capacitor
Vs X C
I

VR’ I∠-φ

(a)

IRcosΦ +I(XL-XC)sinΦ
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC- Injection of Reactive
Power
• Series Capacitors
– Phasor diagram
Vs

VR’ IX

IXC=VC

VR(Without C)
φ

Vc I

(b)

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Injection of Reactive
Power
• Series Capacitors are effectively used
– If voltage drop is the limiting factor
– If the total line reactance is high
– Improve stability
• Disadvantages of Series Capacitors
– Produces high over voltage when a short circuit
current flows through the capacitor
– Need a special protective devices

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Injection of Reactive
Power
• Synchronous Compensator (Condenser or
phase modifier)
– Is synchronous motor running without a mechanical
load with leading pf
– Can absorb or generate reactive power depending
on the value of excitation (under or over)
– Install at receiving end of the line

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Injection of Reactive
Power
• Great advantage of Synchronous Compensator
– Flexibility use for all load condition
• Produces vars when over excited
• Consumes vars when under excited
– Smooth variations compared to static capacitor

• Diadvantage
– Unstable and un-synchronous when fault occur

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer

• Two types of tap changing transformers

– Off
Off-load-
load the load kept off
– On-load (under load) –no supply interruption
• Do not control the voltage by regulating the
flow of reactive vars but by changing the
a s o a o ratio
transformation a o
• Tap changing operation is motor operated

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• In radial line
– Maintain voltage at their secondary terminals or at
load terminals within limits

• In tie lines
– The tap-changer can regulate vars substantially

• In network or loop
– Can controlled circulating vars
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• Coordination of two tap
tap-changing
changing transformers
in a radial transmission link

Z=R+jX

Is Ir

Load
V1 Vr V2 P+jQ
Vs

1:ts tr:1

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• Formulation

t sV1 = t rV2 + IZ (4 22)

(4.22)
IZ = ΔV = vr cosφ + vx sinφ
= IRcosφ + IX sinφ
RP XQ
= +
Vr Vr
RP + XQ
= (4.23)
t rV 2
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• Eqn.
Eqn (4
(4.23)
23) into (4.22)
(4 22)

RP + XQ
t sV1 = t rV2 +
t rV2
when t r = 1 / t s

V − t V V + ( RP + XQ)t = 0
2
2 2
s 1 2
2
s

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• Hence if ts is specified there are two values of
V2 for a given V1

1 2
[ (
V2 = t s V1 ± t s t s V1 − 4(RP + XQ)
2
2 2 1/ 2
) ]
(4.24)

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• Off
Off-load
load tap changing transformer
– Requires the disconnection of the transformer when the tap
setting
g is to be changed
g

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• On
On-load
load tap changing transformer

Winding

Q1 Q2

S1 S2

Winding

Neutral

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• On
On-load
load tap changing transformer
– Modern practice
– In position shown the voltage is maximum and
since the currents divide equally and flow in
opposition through the coil between Q1 and Q2, the
resultant flux is zero and hence minimum
impedance

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• On
On-load
load tap changing transformer
– To reduce the voltage, the following are required in
sequence
• Open Q1
• Move selector switch S1 to the next contact
• Close Q1
• Open Q2
• Move selector switch S2 to the next contact
• Close Q2

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• On
On-load
load tap changing transformer
– Six operation are required for one change in tap
position
– Voltage change between taps is 1.25% of the
nominal voltage
– Nominal voltage are the voltages at the ends of the
transmission line

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• Booster transformers
– With regulating transformer

Booster

Regulating
transformer

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• Booster
ooste ttransformers
a so es
– Two winding load tap changing transformer
– Performs two function
• Transforming
T f i the
h voltage
l
• Bucking or boosting the voltage(booster transformer role)
– Can be installed at a sub-station as an additional equipment
if voltage regulation is further found to be necessary
– Or can be installed as a separate piece of equipment at any
intermediate point in a line

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• Advantages of Booster transformer
– Can be used at any intermediate point in the
system
– When it is used along with a fixed ratio transformer,
it can be taken out for inspection or overhaul
without affecting much the system
– The rating of the booster is the product of the
current and the injected voltage and is hence only
about 10% of a main transformer

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 VRC- Tap-changing
Transformer
• Example 4.5
45
A 132kV line is fed through an 11/132kV transformer from a constant 11kV supply.
At the load end of the line the voltage is reduced by another transformer of nominal
ratio 132/11kV. The total impedance of the line and transformers at 132kV is (25
+j66)Ω. Both transformers are equipped with tap-changing facilities which are so
arranged that the product of two off-nominal settings is unity. If the load on the
s stem is 100MW at 0
system 0.9
9p p.f.
f lagging calc
calculate
late the settings of the tap change
changerss
required to maintain the voltage of the load busbar at 11kV. Use a base of 100MVA.

V1=132kv
132k V1=132kv
132k

Vr
Vs Z
1:ts tr:1
P1Q

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS
• Flexible AC Transmission Systems or FACTS
have been defined by the IEEE as a power
electronic based system and other static
equipment that provide control of one or more
ac transmission system parameters to enhance
controllability and increase power transfer
capability

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS
• It initiative was originally
g y launched to solve the emerging
g g
system problems in the late 1980s due to restrictions on the
construction of transmission line, and to facilitate the growing
power of export
p p and import
p and wheeling
g transaction amongg
utilities. Figure 4.15 shows the general symbol of FACTS
controller

Fi
Figure 4
4.15
15 generall symbol
b l off FACTS controller
t ll

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS

• Two main objectives of FACTS controllers which

are
– To increase the power transfer capability of
transmission systems
– To provide direct control of power flow over
designated transmission routes.
routes

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS

• Basic of FACTS

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS

• The first objective implies that power flow in a given line can be
increased up to the thermal limit by forcing the necessary
current through the series line impedance if, at the same time,
stability of the system is maintained.
• The second objective implies that the power can be restricted
to select (contracted) transmission corridors by controlling the
current in a line (by, for example, changing the effective line
impedance and phase angle), while parallel and loop-flows can
be mitigated.
mitigated

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS

• The achievement of the two basic objectives

would significantly increase the utilization of
existing (and new) transmission assets, and
could play a major role in facilitating
deregulation with minimal requirements for
new transmission lines.
lines

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS
• Benefits of utilizing FACTS devices

· Better utilization of existing transmission

system assets
· Increased transmission system reliability
and availability
· Increased dynamic and transient grid
stability
t bilit andd reduction
d ti off loop
l flows
fl
· Increased quality of supply for sensitive
industries
· Environmental benefits
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 FACTS
• Better utilization of existing transmission
system assets

Frequently, adding new

ttransmission
a s ss o lines
es to meet
eet increasing
c eas g eelectricity
ect c ty
demand is limited by economical and
environmental constraints. FACTS devices help
to meet these requirements with the existing
transmission systems.

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS
• Increased transmission system reliability
and availability

A major load rejection results in an over voltage

of the line which can lead to a line trip. SVC’s or
STATCOM counteract
STATCOMs t t the
th over voltage
lt and
d
avoid line tripping.

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS
• Increased dynamic and transient grid
stability

Long transmission lines, interconnected grids,

impacts of changing loads and line faults can
create instabilities in transmission systems.
These can lead to reduced line power flow, loop
flows or even to line trips. FACTS devices
stabilize transmission systems with resulting
g
higher energygy transfer capability
p y and reduced
risk of line trips.
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 FACTS
• Increased quality of supply for sensitive
industries

Modern industries depend upon high quality

electricity supply including constant voltage, and
frequency and no supply interruptions. Voltage
dips, frequency variations or the loss of supply
can lead to interruptions in manufacturing
processes with high resulting economic losses.
FACTS devices can help provide the required
quality of supply.
supply

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS
• Environmental benefits

FACTS devices are environmentally friendly.

They contain no hazardous materials and
produce no waste or pollutanse.
pollutanse FACTS help
distribute the electrical energy more
economically through better utilization of existing
installations thereby reducing the need for
additional transmission lines.

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

FACTS Controllers – 4
Categories

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS Controllers
• Shunt
S u t controller
co t o e

Line

– May be of variable impedance, variable source or

combination
bi ti off these.
th
– Inject current into the system at the point of connection
– As long as the injected current is in phase quadrature with
the line voltage, the shunt controller only supplies or
consumes variable reactive power.
– Other phase relationship will involve handling of real
power as well
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 FACTS Controllers

• C bi d series-series
Combined i i controllers
ll

ac
i lines
dc power link

– Could be a combination of separate series controllers, which are controlled in

a coordinated manner, in a multi transmission system

– Or could be a unified controller, in which series controllers provide

independent series reactive compensation for each line but also transfer real
power among the lines via the power link

– Possible to balance both the real and reactive power flow in the lines and
thereby maximize the utilization of the transmission system

– The term ’unified’ means that the dc terminals of all the controller converters
are all connected together for real power transfer
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 FACTS Controllers

• Combined series-shunt controllers

Line

Coordinated
Control
e
Line

dc power link

– Could be a combination of separate

p shunt and series controllers
– Inject current into the system with the shunt part of the controller,
and voltage in series in the line with the series part of the controller
– There can be a real power exchange between the series and shunt
controllers via the power link when the shunt and series controllers
are unified.
Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan
 FACTS Controllers

• Advantages offer by the FACTS controllers

– Control of power flow in transmission systems by controlling
line impedance,
impedance angle and voltage
– Provide secure and controllable tie line connections to
neighbouring utilities and regions thereby decreasing overall
generation reserve requirements on both sides
– Upgrade of lines
– Reduce reactive power flows, thus allowing the lines to carry
more active power
– Increase utilization of the lowest cost generation

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS Devices

• S i Synchronous
Static S h Compensator
C (STATCOM)
Line

+ ( -

– STATCOM is a static synchronous generator operated as a shunt-connected

static Var compensator (SVC) whose capacitive or inductive output current can
be controlled independently of the ac system voltage.
– For the voltage-source converter, its ac output voltage is controlled such that
it is just right for the required reactive current flow for any ac bus voltage and
dc capacitor voltage is automatically adjusted as required to serve as a voltage
source for the converter

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS Devices
• STATCOM

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS Devices
• STATCOM
STATCOM- Arc Furnaces

Dr. Moham
 FACTS Devices
• St ti V
Static Var Compensator
C t (SVC)

– Used
U d for
f reactive
ti power compensationti since
i the
th midid 1970s
1970
– Firstly for arc furnace flicker compensation and then in power transmission
system.
– Voltage support.

– are also used to dampen power swings, improve transient stability,

and reduce system losses by optimized reactive power control.

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS Devices
• SVC

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS Devices
• SVC

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS Devices

• Static Var Compensator (SVC)

– Is a shunt-connected static Var generator or absorber whose
output
t t iis adjusted
dj t d tto control
t l capacitive
iti or iinductive
d ti currentt
so as to maintain or control specific parameters of the
electrical power system (typically voltage magnitude)
– Is based on a thyristor without the gate turn
turn-off
off capability
– It includes separate equipment for leading and lagging Var.
– Considered as a lower cost alternative to STATCOM

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS Devices
• Thyristor-controlled
y Series Capacitor
p (TCSC)
( )

– Is a capacitive reactance compensator

– Adding to a long AC lines for increasing line loadability
– Consists of a series capacitor
p bank shunted byy a thyristor-controlled
y reactor in order to
provide a smoothly variable series capacitive reactance
– Based on thyristor without the gate turn-off capability
– Can vary the transmission line impedance continuously to levels below and up to the
line’s natural impedance to force power flow along a ‘contract path’
– main benefits of TCSCs are increased energy transfer,
transfer dampening of power oscillations
oscillations,
dampening of subsynchronous resonances, and control of line power flow.

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS Devices
• TCSC

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS Devices
• TCSC

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS Devices
• TCSC

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

 FACTS Devices
• Technical benefits of the main FACTS
devices

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan

• Steady state application

Dr. Mohammad Yusri Hassan