Structural loads refer to forces (and moments) that act on the structure.
They are a primary
consideration in building design because they dictate the size of the structural member.
Before doing structural analysis, loads must be analyzed so that the structural engineer can
ensure that the structural members are properly sized up to be able to safely carry the loads
imposed upon them.
At the end of this chapter, the student shall be able to:
1. Identify the different types of load;
2. Familiarize Code requirements in each type of load; and
3. Calculate the loadings of each type of structural load.
4.1 OVERVIEW OF LOADS
The types of load provided in the NSCP is shown in F-41. The loads can be classified into
permanent and variable loads. Permanent loads, are loads that do not change (or change very
slightly) over time such as dead loads; whereas, variable loads are those having inherent degree
of variability with respect to time. Live loads, roof live loads, rain loads, wind loads, and
earthquake loads are all examples of variable loads.
Loads are sometimes categorized in terms of load direction: gravitational and lateral.
Gravitational loads are loads in the direction of gravity such as dead load, live load, and roof live
load; whereas, lateral loads are loads acting laterally along the sides of the building such as
wind, and earthquake.
4.2 DEAD LOAD
[NSCP Section 204]
In general, design dead loads are the actual weights of construction materials and fixed service
equipment that are attached to or supported by the building or structures. These include the
weight of the main structural elements such as slats, girders (see F-42), columns, and
foundations. And, superimposed loads encompassing any fixed materials or equipment installed
after the main structural element is erected. Examples of fixed service equipment are: HVAC
systems, plumbing stacks and risers, etc. (see F-43).
Table 204-2 of the NSCP provides the minimum design dead loads for various types of common
construction components, including ceilings, coverings (roofs and walls), and floorings (see F-
4.4). Minimum densities of selected construction materials as well as minimum design dead
loads are given in T-41 and T-42, respectively.
It must be understood that the actual weights of construction materials and of equipment can
be greater than the tabulated values; hence, it is always prudent to verify weights with
manufacturers or other similar resources prior to design.
Initially during the design phase, the weights of materials and of service equipment are not
usually known. Hence, member size is initially assumed. The estimated dead loads are assumed
to be greater than the actual loads so that the design is conservative. After members are sized
based on final details, the dead load can be computed more precisely. If there is a large
difference between the computed and the initial value, there is a need to revise the
computation using improved values of the dead load.
4.3 LIVE LOAD
[NSCP Section 205], [ANSI/ASAE EP378.4 JUN2010]
Live Loads are floor loads produced by the use and occupancy of a building or structure.
Occupancy refers to, for example, a residential use, office, storage, etc. (see F-4.5). The nominal
design values for common occupancies are given in NSCP Table 205-1. The loads are usually
expressed as uniformly distributed loads of horizontal plan area or as concentrated loads. The
values are not necessarily group specific, which means a building can have an office use and a
storage use. Design values for selected occupancy are given in T-43.
For agricultural use, design values are available in ASABE Standards. Selected values are shown
here in T-4.4 and illustrated in F-46. When solving the loading for slats, it is in terms of per unit
length as shown in the said table; whereas, when solving the loading for solid floors and floor
supports (or girders), it is in terms of per unit area (see F-4.7).
When estimating the magnitude of the live loads, the future utilization of the structure must
also be considered. It is to be noted that special provisions are also available for special
situations such as if the building includes a machine or apparatus (e.g. boiler rooms in
slaughterhouse, etc.).
4.4 ROOF LIVE LOAD
[NSCP Section 205.4]
Roof live load is generally associated with the loads from equipment and maintenance
personnel that the roof will experience during construction and later during maintenance.
Sample situations are: repair of glazing on the roof (see F-4.8) and a trolley conveyor that is
supported by the roof.
Minimum roof live loads for various roof slope conditions are given in NSCP Table 205-3.
Selected conditions are given in T-45. The live loads are assumed to act vertically upon the
projected area on a horizontal plane (see F-4.9). It can be observed that the pitch of the roof
(the ratio of the rise to its span) affects the amount of load that realistically can be placed upon.
In Section 205.4.4 of the Code, roofs for special purposes, specifically greenhouses, shall be
designed to carry a 0.45 kN concentrated load in addition to the uniform live load to the roof
bars, purlins and rafters. This said concentrated load is applied anywhere along the length.
4.5 WIND LOAD
[NSCP Section 207]
4.5.1 Overview
Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure (see F-4.10). When wind
comes into contact with a building, it creates pressures that act perpendicular to the building
surfaces. These pressures are either positive or negative. Positive pressure is termed for
pressure acting toward the surface; whereas, negative pressure (also called as suction pressure)
is termed for pressure acting away from the surface. The extemal surface that faces the wind
direction is called the windward side (essentially a front side); whereas, the external surface
that is at the back is called the leeward side.
The pressures on the leeward wall, side walls, and leeward portion of roofs are negative and
assumed to be constant. For the windward portion of roof, the pressure can either be positive
or negative, depending upon the roof slope. Flatter roofs are more to negative; whereas, sloped
roofs are more of positive pressure (see F-4.11).
In general, pressures must be considered based on the Main Wind-Force Resisting System
(MWFRS) and on the Components and Cladding (C&C) of a building. The MWFRS consists of
structural elements that have been assigned to resist the effects from the wind loads for the
overall structure such as the moment frames, braced frames, and shear walls that are parallel to
the wind force. The C&C, on the other hand, are elements that do not qualify as part of the
MWFRS where they receive the wind loads directly or indirectly. Examples are exterior walls,
roofs, purlins, windows or doors, etc. This is important because it will dictate as to which section
in the NSCP you will refer into. An outline of the wind load section is given in T-4.6.
In this lecture, we will only tackle the overview of MWFRS wind loads for buildings. The steps to
determine the MWFRS wind loads for buildings of all heights and types of enclosures can be
found in NSCP Table 207B.2-1.
4.5.2 Risk Category
The Risk Category is a classification of structures based on the nature of occupancy (see T-47)
according to NSCP Table 103-1. This will dictate which map of the basic wind speed you will be
using.
4.5.3 Basic Wind Speed, V
The basic wind speed, V, is the peak wind speed measured in some time interval with a
specified gust duration - in this case 3-seconds. The wind speed is previously the maximum wind
speed averaged over one kilometer passing through an anemometer in one-hour time interval
(see F 4.14).
The values are obtained in a map provided in the NSCP Figure 207A.5-1. There are actually three
maps on the risk category of structures. It can be observed that areas adjacent to the Pacific
Ocean have the fastest wind speed (see F-4.15).
4.5.4 Wind Load Parameters
The wind load parameters are factors that affect the wind velocity pressure.
Wind Directionality Factor, Kd
The wind directionality factor, K d, accounts for the statistical nature of wind flow and the
probability of the maximum effects occurring at any particular time for any given wind direction
(see F-4.16). (NSCP Section 207A6]
Exposure Category
Exposure category is a measure of the terrain surface roughness and the degree of exposure or
shielding of the building. It essentially accounts for the boundary layer concept of surface
roughness. The more buildings or obstructions are in the vicinity, the lesser the wind speed at
lower heights. The more open the vicinity is, the greater the wind speed that can be felt at
lower heights (see F-4.17). (NSCP Section 207A.7.2 and 207A.7.3]
Topographic Factor, Kzt
Buildings or other structures that are sited on the upper half of an isolated hill, ridge, or
escarpment can experience significantly higher wind velocities than those sited on relatively
level ground. The topographic factor, Kzt accounts for this increase in wind speed (see F-4.18).
[NSCP Section 207A B]
Gust Effect Factor, G
The gust effect factor, G, accounts for the loading effects along the wind direction due to
turbulence-structure interaction (see F-479). [NSCP Section 207A.9]
Enclosure Classification
Wind may enter through the building openings. The size and the location of these openings
affect the internal pressure and must be considered in the design. The NSCP classifies the
enclosures as: open, partially closed, and enclosed (see F-420). The distinction is basically with
reference to the gross area and to the area of openings (see T-4.8).
Internal Pressure Coefficient
Depending upon the enclosure of a building, wind may enter the building and build up internal
pressures. The coefficients account for this scenarios. Values are given here in T-4.9. Gust and
aerodynamic effects are combined into one factor (GCpi).
Referring now to F-4.21, it can be seen that for open buildings, wind can flow in and out of the
building causing no pressure buildup. In enclosed buildings, some internal pressures are present
due to small leakage paths that do exists even though the building has no dominant opening or
openings. In partially-enclosed building, wind can enter the building but cannot exit hence the
pressure inside will buildup.
4.5.5 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient
This coefficient modifies wind velocity (or pressure) with respect to exposure and height above
the ground. As shown in F-4.22, pressure increases with height.
4.5.6 Wind Velocity Pressure
By obtaining the wind load parameters and the preliminary data, velocity pressure qz (or qh ) can
now be calculated using equation E-41. The subscript z indicates that the velocity pressure is
taken at the height from the ground up to the eave; whereas, the subscript h is from the ground
to the roof mean height (see F-423). The equation qx is used for the windward wall. For all other
sides and roofs, qh is used. Figure F-424 illustrates this difference for a gable-roof type that is
categorized under enclosed or partially enclosed.
4.5.7 External Pressure Coefficient
The external pressure coefficients, Cp, can be obtained from NSCP Figure 207B.4-1 to 2078.4 8
for various enclosure classification. These coefficients reflect the actual wind loading on each
surface of a building as a function of wind direction.
When using the said table, the dimensions B and L must be properly determined. The distance B
is the horizontal dimension of the building that is normal to the wind direction. The distance L is
the horizontal dimension of the building measured parallel to the wind direction. This,
therefore, means that if the wind direction changes to parallel to the ridge line, the B and L will
also interchange (see F-4.25).
4.5.8 Design Wind Pressure
When all the factors and the velocity pressure is obtained, the design wind pressure can now be
calculated by multiplying the velocity pressure and the pressure coefficients, and essentially
taking the net value of the external and the internal wind pressure. The design equation will
vary with enclosure type and other details, as shown in T-4.10.
4.5.9 Minimum Design Wind Pressure
Section 207B.4.7 of the Code specifies a minimum value of wind load, in kN/m², to be multiplied
by the wall area and the roof area of the building projected onto a vertical plane (see F-4.26).
4.6 EARTHQUAKE LOAD
[NSCP Section 208]
4.6.1 Overview
The Earthquake Event
An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth's surface. It occurs due to energy
release at planes of weaknesses in the earth's crust called faults (see F-4.27). The point of origin
is called hypocenter, and the point projected to the surface is called epicenter. The intensity is
greatest at the epicenter and decreases as it gets farther away (see F-4.28).
When energy is released, it causes ground acceleration (ground shaking) which produces
acceleration of the structure causing buildings to sway back and forth. The building sways
because the inertia of its mass resists the motion (see F-429) causing vibration of the building
along the horizontal direction.
Building Response
Some earthquakes are short only lasting for few seconds; while, others are long lasting over a
minute. Some earthquakes have high frequencies; while, other have low frequencies. Different
buildings respond differently as affected by its mass and stiffness (or height).
To illustrate further, we will use a single degree of freedom model for one story building. When
a force is applied at the base of the structure, as shown in F-4.30, the top will sway back and
forth as an oscillation. The time it takes to get back to its initial deflected position under free
vibration is called the natural period, T. The period is computed using E-42.
The period depends upon the properties of the structures, primarily mass and stiffness. When
mass is increased, the time period also increases. Therefore, heavy buildings vibrate slower than
lighter buildings (see F-4.31). When the stiffness increases, the time period decreases. Short
buildings are stiffer than tall buildings. Thereby, short buildings vibrate faster than tall buildings
(see F-4.32).
Response Spectrum
The response spectrum (see F-4.33) represents the response behavior of all possible structures
with varying mass and stiffness to a specific earthquake. It is used in dynamic analysis of
structures. If another earthquake is applied, then there will be another response spectrum (see
F-4.34)
Static Force Procedure
There are several analytical procedures, including the response spectrum analysis, In
determining the magnitude of the base shear for which buildings must be designed.
The equivalent lateral force procedure is what we will introduce here. Basically, this type of
analysis uses static concept in which an equivalent static force is used from a dynamic
earthquake force (see F-435). It is valid for regular structures and lower heights. Details of
restrictions on where you can apply this static force analysis is given in NSCP [Link]
4.6.2 Risk Category
As with the wind load section, structures must be categorized based on the nature of occupancy
according to NSCP Table 103-1. For earthquake load, this will dictate the importance factor to
use.
4.6.3 Site Classification
The type of soil profile affects the ground motion produced by an earthquake. Six different soil
types (see T-4.11) are identified in the NSCP. Sites with soft soils tend to amplify ground motions
because of resonance (See F-4.36).
4.6.4 Site Seismic Hazard Characteristics
Seismic Zone & Seismic Zone Factors
Same with the wind load, there is also a seismic map for the Philippines (see F-4.37). The said
map is divided into two zones only. Zone 4 are those areas prone to earthquake events and
Zone 2 are those areas where there are less likely to have earthquake events. The zone for a
particular site is determined from this map.
Section [Link] of NSCP requires that each structure shall be assigned a Seismic Zone Factor Z
(refer to T-4.12) which represents the magnitude of the ground acceleration, in percent of
gravity. in each zone.
Seismic Source Type
The seismic source type (referring to T-4.13 and F-438) is used to specify the capability and
activity of faults in the immediate vicinity of the structure. It is used only in seismic Zone 4.
Faults that are capable of producing large magnitude events and having a high rate of seismic
activity are categorized as Type A. On the other hand, Type C are those faults that have no
capability of producing large magnitude earthquakes and have a relatively low rate of seismic
activity. Type B is a category of all faults other than Types A and C.
Zone 4 Near-Source Factor
This factor is used in conjunction with the soil profile type to determine the seismic coefficients
Ca and Cv. It depends on the closest distance to the known seismic source (see F-4.39) and the
seismic source type. Its values can be obtained in NSCP Table 208-5 and Table 208-6.
Seismic Coefficients Ca & Cv.
The seismic coefficients, and Cv are measures of the expected ground acceleration at the Ca site.
They are dependent on the seismic zone and soil profile type. Therefore, they reflect the
regional seismicity and the soil condition at the site. Values of seismic coefficients, C a and Cv can
be found in NSCP Table 208-7 and 208-8, respectively.
4.6.5 Seismic Base Shear, V
The seismic base shear, V, is the total design lateral force (or shear) at the base of the structure
due to ground motion (see F-4.40, E-4.3, and E-44). It is basically a Newton's second law of
motion, F = ma where, V is the force, W is the mass, and CvI / RT is the acceleration.
4.6.6 Period Determination
There are many modes of vibration (see F-441). The fundamental period (referring to mode 1),
T, can be determined by using the empirical formulas, one of which is given in E-45 which may
be used for all framing systems. The numerical coefficient, Ct, depends upon the type of
building. Values of this coefficient for selected building types are given in T-4.14.
4.6.7 Importance Factor, I
Importance factor, I, is a measure of the degree of protection required for a building based on
its Risk Category (see T-4.15). Larger values are assigned to more important risk category to
increase the design value of base shear which consequently reduces the inelastic behavior and
damage caused to the structure by the design earthquake.
4.6.8 Response Modification Coefficient, R
The response modification coefficient takes into account the ability of the Seismic Force
Resisting System (SFRS) to dampen and dissipate energy from the ground shaking to respond in
a ductile manner without loss in the load-carrying capacity.
It appears in the denominator of the base shear equation (E-4.3). Therefore, the greater the
value of R, the lesser the base shear and the more economical is the design. The value ranges
from 1.0 to 8.5, depending upon the type of SFRS (see T-4.16). There are six general categories
of the SFRS. Three examples of this system are: bearing wall, building frame, and moment-
resisting frame (see F-4.42). For more types of SFRS, refer to NSCP Table 208-11.
4.6.9 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces
Once the seismic base shear, V, is determined, it is distributed over the height of the building as
a force at each level Fx (see F-4.43). At each floor, the force is located at the centroid (see F-
444). Furthermore, an additional force is added at the top. Related equations are shown in E-4.6
to E-4.8).
4.7 SOIL LATERAL LOAD
[NSCP Section 209]
Basement, retaining walls and foundations are types structural components constructed below
the ground. The soil adjacent to the structure or structural member induces lateral earth
pressure on walls. Thus, the wall member must be designed to resist lateral loads caused by
adjacent soil (see F-4.45).
To determine the magnitude of the soil pressure, a geotechnical investigation is usually
undertaken. Alternatively, the lateral soil loads given in NSCP Table 209-1 may be used in the
absence of such investigation (see T-4.17).
The design lateral soil load, H, depends on the type of soil and on the boundary conditions at
the top of the wall. If the walls have restricted movement at the top, the at-rest pressure is
used. Walls with free movement at the top are to be designed for the active pressure.
4.8 RAIN LOAD
[NSCP Section 210]
Rain loads are loads referring to the weight of the accumulated rainwater on the roof due to
inadequate roof drainage or roof slope (see F-4.46). When rain falls during a rainstorm event,
there is a time required for the rain to run off the roof. If the runoff time is longer, as in the case
of flatter roof pitch or if drainage is inadequate, rainwater will accumulate.
The design rain load equation is given in E-4.9. The distance, d_{s} is the static head from the
primary drain to the secondary drain; whereas, the distance, d_{h} the rainwater depth which is
a function of several factors (see F-4.47).
4.9 FLOOD LOAD
[NSCP Section 211]
Flood loads are loads which are caused by flood conditions (see F-4.48). Floods produce
hydrostatic, hydrodynamic or wave loads on structures that can cause damage or failure due to
scour and erosion of the structure. The Code requires that buildings within flood hazard areas
shall be designed to resist the effects of flood hazards and flood loads.
4.10 OTHER MINIMUM LOADS
[NSCP Section 206]
Other minimum loads (see F-4.49), as specified by the Code, are as follows: impact loads
(elevators and machinery), anchorage of concrete and masonry wall, interior wall loads,
retaining walls, water accumulation, uplift on floors and foundations, crane loads, heliport and
helistop landing area.
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