My Handwritten

Heat Engine Notes

for RRB ALP CBT 2 Part B

(Mechanical Part)

----- by Pilot Subh -----

Website: [Link] Youtube: Pilot Subh

 E-I

4 a ,
hat engine is machine wtheh converet heot emetgy nto mechasical
Qnertgy
Heat generdes by tthe combusion (buten) f fue) such as
,
Coal,Petrcol Die sel etci
e Workin3 Prineitfe Heat Snguied to the woreKiny cutbstane
orc edium t igh te mhercatuce. The heat nergy Convetod
machr enetegy by the qtongtorn
into
f tius S
thes Snbstanee medin
in Suttbie machines.
loclncfication Het ergiae

Het Egine

Intern a Combu ghon Cie) Ertenel Cembukon Ec)

Rofaty as Wankel Reei yoenting Baam Engine

Turtine

Spatk Ignition Engine(s) Combusiion Ignition Engine (ci)

[x- Potcol Engine Motor
lyeleE- biecel Engie : Bus,Auto ete

Two Streoke Enqine Fourr StrcoKe Engine Twe

Strcoke Fou strcoke

maun engne
ylindore The. eylindere is dta part|body fte hero'n
divet cormbusfion offue tayes þlae te meiyoo-funehon
1n uhieh te prgPon can krom Toþ Dead
is frovide spau
Centerr (BDC) oT Viee-Vercsa
Certere TDe)to Bottom Dend

Oprate to rauo
In this seeion,the iston Can tn the fuel
os only aure
mixture (aic - petbol for enine) (for emgine),temprax
ut
Cin Conboesren Shrore), allrw to opad w
(Exangon shox
and thus qenerote towart
- Grode CoSt
cylindee is genraly made by tgh Ioon.
 eylindarr Head ylnd head closes one end df th
The ylindto s

and is ueenly ensted as one pieee and boltd to the top f

the eylindere
Ti Contins the valve sants ard þo, and cabpesfe the valves
and valve -
atented meehanign
cylindr Linues The holloo eylind c
shuctue ited in side dhe
A
med snold
f the
ene
blocx is Calad ly lidet Linetcs
ylindot tiner toovides Srooth çPiding Guretee
that alows tne
Teiocahng motton of a
þrstn, The frscton reszfonee afereed by the
inet is meglith bhe
This aMowe he bigfon ings to Sfde ovet the inn er
the tiner. tnin lon ¢ 1ubi eont is penecatd
A

Sutfae 4 tne 1inere

f uhieh furetner re sfane
reSanee de to
Due to the ey linae
linere,
to
fietn.
the i ston and tne enne bloK
do met coma
in contaet ut each othete henee dedueing dnewea.
oftne coefliere eine bl oeK
-Therca ate 3 ty pes ¢ liners gercernly used
tc engines m

Dry Linercs
2. Wet Linet
3.
Fined Linerrs
Cnst iron is tne main neteri uoo deo maing eylindere tihetts.

Riston A
pisfon is
tne combustion Space.t is tne first parctuhteh besjne.
e
movement tan t power to the eronKhott
Tne funehien of tne pisfrm togathec wity igs,isto
Conftne tne gnses in dne Com bu kfon Spaee and tns toomtruthe
fed foree ¢ exfansen to tne comeetrg and erankK shapt.
iston usualy made by Grey Caf lon laon ,Cast steey ¢Atuminium
aloy ( Fo Tractrr rgine),
Piston Rings To þoevent the IeaKage ¢ eombustion gas batwen
hewas of piston and eylindr, three to
(genatcaly Cagf Iron'rings
thire irgefr maimum engine) is foro vided on'bisten
'S KnoUrs as rsfon Rings
 E-3

hR arc see
ucualy two set ieten rìngs fororidd on þrgfon
bi Uppete
istn Rings34 is Coabughon
Kngwn as
(m boastion
rirgs Pro ride as
Hgt seal and toerent the leaKage of high
þressure gas
ii. Lowat Pitrn Rings I+ is Kngon as
se
il tings, prorid
effechve and þrevent the leaxage of oi l into tye lie hed
Somo ather fumeone Prsdon Rings

i To
tangfar heat foon bisten to eylnder wals.
i: Sealing tne
tne (ombushon hambrt
fi: To sevent la2a Kase
ef Conbusfro) chambarc aoduts

Piston Pin +
Conmecing od i's Connected +0 dne pisfen by PisPon
Tt is made case in
of hatdening ary steel.
) Comechng Kod The connecsry odd transmit
the ofree en by
Hhe isn to etr
the AranK cautin
it to teuen armd thus Convet the
reci þrotting motion of tne
iston into rotiy notion
Main iy of the erangshtt.
t is tne comeeton
betwen he bisfon and
It is made of drob foged steel.

>CrcanKshaft Thìs is Connecfed to the piston thoough tne Corseting

rcod
It
mefion and
Cenvertr tne geei protstng moion a the þrstom
. into ataty
toangnit tne tooq ue
to the tiy whed ean Cronkshat
Sheuld be
ligat weight
T+ is made niekel seel, chTme)
SHeal, îeked - milybde num
varalim ael, nieke-chome
chone stael

Comshaft The camshaft oet otes he itare amd ehaus

Valbas
teugh te ams,
e
Cam follsulets,þush oods, and eKer arons,
CamShott an engine s ays
{m mounted tateaMe) to dye can
f+ is mde f forged sReed, cast on, (ast stesd
 bilaneod
Fly usheel Th fly whe is a h2avy and dhrougaly
¢
JisK fted onto tne end the ereanKshaft
Fonetion fly ohel
I: Tt stores exeess engy
durUng tne power sftcoKe 1n
the fom t Kinete enzgy and rotunns his stered ematcgy foouse
KThen
reute during tne aux?l atey stroxes.
2
Thus,t serves to oeduee eyelie vatiotions
and ensrces

B. To reduee speadaf uetuaton dureîng each

cluteh
a
Assembly 4'cluteh is
Enqine, arel Made Matercil
mechanicd dewie hat engages and
disergages the pewr trcansrnission eylindere High- Grade Cast lren
naans shaft, espeeially sorm thel<ylindere Hed Cast ren, ast Aluminium
duwing shaft to tne Piston Kast Isen, Aluminium Alley
driren
when we hare to ehanges shaft. Piston Pin Forged Cteal, Case hasdened Sta)
tn te the ger
ransmision system then
Cenneetng
Rod' Forged Stel, luninium Hley
me we |Piston Rings
fer that hae to use the Cast tron, Rsessad Stee) lley
Auteh Berrcing
White Meta
ronkskatt Fooqed stael,Cast stees
In sh, clutches ace used to
Camshest Forpd stee),Cast lson
Cemect the þaime mever motor overgn

to dne load n a mannt tha alous Kast teel

torque toansmissien to be Timig Ciente Cast bon,Abert
interubtect te tegnt
|Enine Vazs
The main þucpose
fa
eluteh |Yalre Spring Corc bonSpring steel
assenbly is enmeeted to Comaet CKanKeaSa
and díce onneet toe rotnting shats
Fly wkel
Cast Iron, Weldad ste
One shatt is Conactod te the Cast Ioon
powge
Scrcee, 63 engn2, ond the
are
dy shat, whteh is drcien by the
powerc ccuree,
rovides the powefc,or
terque that drves he vahiele
ey maehinercy
-Tne eluteh assembly Cemne ets
the two Shafts in thsee difieent coays
 E-5

- The .
|- Engagzd shaft arce lecked togethote to Totate at dhe same speod
2
Slipping- The shafts ate * (ockad togethat bt move at diferent speod
3 Dis engaged - The shalte to get hett ano
te not lo cKad
vfte Aiferan t
Cuteh tscemHy 14 cengiste of Sererca com penont
4he fywtucel , ls rc imeluling
clutoh dise, oessutee pfate, Coyett, Sprng and bearcing•
In a ba ie eluten tse sObly tne cluteh aise and þrescure pfate
ditect the fewete fom the þowre ssurcee
to he driven Shaf by bressing
tigtty agaunst the fly uoherl . The and beattîng ensute hat these
dise tiztty togethot The dises usod a
in
cluteh acembly atte tyeicaly
(ined wts asbesfos .
used to crete fetionorerin ferfrehon Cecamie
) heary dut abþftcatiens
. naterials ae

Top Dead Centere (TDe)

To Dead Centere is
the piston toþ pointohen
the piston eaehes tte maximum (toþ moct tojnt) 1 the bITel
Botom Dead Center BDc) Bottom dend
Centec E the piston
Teaches its bo tom most oimt in the bater)
SttoKe The distanee between TDe and 3De s
caled stoke
f an engine
Piston Bpe
eytindare
head

--StrcoKe
leacanee
Volume
IC Enine ybndere BlocK

= Suoest Volume 1t is the volne swepf by the þston by

fom one dead centse to
anothe dead eentoe ^
toavelly
Suet voluma =
Veluma of-
It is dnoted by
eylinderc
ylindete at Swept
TOC(VTpe)
Tts
m2asucement ean be
listed n
nbie (mcus
o eubie centiñmeters Stroke
leartan'e volwe
 leatranee Volume It is tne volume f tne (ommbusfon hambere above
the bistoyn ushen iF is a TDeIt is denoted y Ve

=} Comoe ssion Rtio T+ is

the ratio f totad lume of the þiston
is at the BDc to the cler(anee Vo|wme L4
is do
noted by
VBDe Vy+ve
Ve Ve
Piston CKoon The to
Crown may
ofon f the istn is caled as þicto
Tt ired
detachable oY þicton has A a
Coasn tn bigge engine like, Marine þoopul
ion enne.
T+ is Coni cal os eettve Piston Crcnon
in habe
manly to fronofe tuebdeneu and
fr
Piston
Pisn
to
ern must have a e
ces þaalle
t4 the angle dhe engne fuel is Inteeted ;
This cuueve degmdireect urt gom tne, suuh atea, mto the
entree of the combuehon ehambr

SroKe
Te istanee batúoeen Top Dead Certse
centre (BDC) is (Tbe) and Bettom Dead
Caled streoke o an
engne.
classificafon : Type of
i. Foure
stoKe J+ has
-foue
sboKe
in le ene is two types

a
iston strokes coAnKshagt
in comiete wortKing yee.. terfain
ii. Two Stroke - 1+ has two þiston Shokes
Tevolution t a ercankçhatt

Sequenes df oferafion dorKing cyeje

ay Sueton StrcoKe ?
In dhe shoe,the aeguita
by piston ful suctod
in (otereeet foofoohon
b, Combressiom StrOKe :
ln nis stoke,the fue ofaal is Comesta
e Exþansion woking StroKe : Im
fired just befre
tuis SboKe, the fuel vopoure (s
the Comþre ssîon
stsKe Conblete
It result io the sudden ise f fessute,due to epansibn f the
(esnbushonþroduutr in the enjne ik eylinder. This sudden
bu shes tye pisten wits a gá
fre and ofate tne [Link]
otabng etanKçh att dreives tne maehine Conneetad to it
Ex haust stroke : The ued fuet mens buttnt gad
s com busion
(dso Knm
bduets ,wheen is useless gas ) ontee nehsfed
hrom tne uylnder and nake spae fa fresh fuel vaprurt

ovee
=
Advattnges.f 2-boke
2 4- SBoe cyele iEngine
qores
I. 2-Shroke eyele ejne twiee tye numter. ¢ Powere sooke than
egine t the sane emine
Sped
2 The ehcy 2- Shoke engnas develoje twîee þat
Same pae betuse tttee than
ito the
4- stooKe engne.
3• Two-Soxe engines fire one eretcy
engines Are onee erlubon ,wile 4-streoe
inn evety two sevsfuhon
4:
2-oKe eyele engine hae a dighteo fty wh) han 4-stoKe engne.
5 2- StoKe enine ves a
higr mneeh onie

Disadvantages
I. 2- StreoKe engine has less Comrasitn tio han
4- Stoke eyele engîne.

2 Therem
finey 2-streoKe enonne is lesc thon 4- Streoke
tngne.

fseony 2
StoKe enoine s
less th an
 4- streoKe Petrcot Engine y2- ShoKe piesy Ergine
I: Inlet alve oben at ie°-20' bafreTD : (mlet valve open nt o
2o° bufre
TOC eloses t 2s°- 4oe ate BDe
2 Comþression charye stute at
36'- 40° aftere BDC. and ehds
2
Theful vae opens t o2
20°-3o' batre Tpc bore TDe and doses at ig26°

3The igmiton of eharge tares blace

at 26-30° bafoe TDc
bafoe
4- Exþon gion stort o-30°before4 The
TDC omd erds at ebonon start atlo°is
30°-5 and ed's a30-50°
bafwe B0L
S. Exhust valve open at
3o'- go' betoe 5 Ex hamst valve obens at
BPL and do ses at (o° I 5*
3e50°
attore| betre
ento.
NotE (Fr Peteo engine)
t Tne nlet vave
enine emans ohem
f
-
foo
streoxe
23 o
lc'
*
NoTE (Foy Diesel Engine)

The only fuel (diesal) is ingeced in

*
The choge ce m
þressed when botn Spay into
Vaves ( (nlet
eehus ate closed
the engine eyliáere , whes gots
* The
inited due to higlh
-Tembtntute
cheye Guel) gmiles
uitn
Sharex ply tor SI engine.
* The bresswe nSde the tnine
cylindee is abore tne atmosþheric
pressuee duuei n
exhaus.
 E-9
LeTiming hear: The
i 9ean mina atcalso Kngn
as
the timir sproeket
-timing pully, is ssety
eseb cenponent a
ici Engone that
þre ese F pnsten
centbo ls
ves pen
the timing dye engine's volve
ad .4 is
ibfe fo Syncmo nizingdne morement tne com shnft
ctanKs hatt,enseiny
dhathe ermine's intaxe and ezhaue alves open
and close at
tne CorTeet mng mes
dring the engine Opettors.
Hete Some foints -tmperfants ¢Timing ksor
(: Funehiorn - The Hmìny geotL
Conbols tye foeciz timng
ftne engye
Valves and istens,
lengute foobat Com busfon ond þrweta
Jen etcotion

2 Syneho ni2hon vement o tne

syneonizus the morement conthaft
ne
eyanKshatt, en sutcingy
that the valves pen and
elose' at the corse et tines du'ng tne
ennes opetOtTan
timing Bet oham - The m)ng e
is (ometed to tne camshntt
(roKShgt by tming bel o ehan, a

tansfecs rotatfondmeton and mavrtans bTher timirg

4. Valve Timing -The timing geor
ond ezhaust valves' ohenîng
dtines the timing ¢ tye imtare
and cdo sirg. Ophn valve
timîng maimies engine fetzmane,fue'
and ees enssions. finy,
5 Emine feleney ho pere timing geae heeatjen enhanees oyetall
ergine ,
economy
fceney e
esuthng in mþroved
fuelnomy
and deed emicions.
TImin gers Ae typically mad ade of
de able materiade iKe
Stel os Cask- on to wutu sfrnd due hi %
sre sel and temparatues
n
the engne
 ppets Taþjet eleanee is duhe dicfanee between dhe top oftue
Vve stemard de 30exer arm (E dhe macine enjne T4 is also Ktan
ee
Vlve lerrm

lappet deatanee, lso Knson as valve elearme,is the disfane

between dne top f tye valve ojnd he bottom e ro eKett aTm r cam
followe when dne vae is dye closed po eiton

Imborfont of orrect Tappet cleneone

" f the trspet deattonee dereases ,dhe vave iwl open and cdocerr
latrc
This be eouse thelocKerr atm stans cenmeted to thetihe valvefor
lecr eleasonee ,
a
longerr berîed time t, we qet
Contae bierc
trn, duis eeps he vre oben for longer og ye
Pshes he valre, doon fo a
longere jerd t
ToCKer
me
tm
2
I4 dye tobet
dearane Inereases,the valve wl hare a
Ofeniny and an eaehy cle. Sne tnene is more clearmea
dh ere ts aGm eContaot aoa
betueen. tye alve, Stem ano
Tocnr rm Assueh ne rdve Tenams ben r a
ghte þerio
4
tme but emans lo ed longer

The torthat ceaTOnee îs rm þofant

Valve oþerahon When tne vadve is
that tne
dosedthe learanee ensutes
valve fly sets tne valre sent, þovevenng
me co m

bushdn ehamber
tye valre

T{ tne clearcmee ie too latg dhe ralve ay not

fhy obes,
Tedueing þawer and fiieney
Tappet olesanee is tygicay adjntad by tuting an
djustment enm
folwet,
"Tabpet learane is maaete ed uing
hng a faelert gouy4
 E-)

Combushon (ic)Emine
Vod ve huida in eyIntercna
Vve gide lindca oo seeve -
dhat helþ to gude and arg dne Valve
Shned
as
Combonents in a
sc engin
They ad so
hey sben and clesod.
helf to ade fm chbn betwewn the valve sfem and
dye eylindsre head , nd reent too m
oil ertering the con busfon
chamberc
Essentsaly , vavequds ae ntfonste fo oanining
the þuohatt Spae bewon tne valves and he

hels to en suCe that tne enne n

une

|0 Scavaming Interm Coibachon, (ic) Eine

The sCar anging,
In an Inteon Gombuston 1c)ene,
ic the toees<
f emoving tne burot gases brm the Cornbusfon of tne engine
Cyllnde
It is Gccurs Aur îng the orere latbpig t (tfeys aes
t tne Sane ime)
-The gord seavomging hous is oi fcant o the enginet
bropare
fu combuskm ond bet to twer ontput.
-Thete atce 3-types searanging is
Croslro Scaraging In dnis method,
I. ts lmcommingY fresh aure/
hag Am the tnlet vadve
upuwad and uShes ou tye qases
the buent gases qaes
bun ,Then
haust go
daon P out foorn the
(îndet by tne ahaust osf
2The
ate placad on theobo t Sles the
BacfwLop scavengng: n
this mathod,
eharcges pnsles oyors
fresh the pifon
eron then îces towatds the ylindtG hed •
Tieaure bun
gases o fored before the posoe
chou
by tye ohawtt pots tocates
elindst
Tut onbove
the inle poxt
 on the
9. (mlet ndlet valve 'o þofs ate eituated

Uniflad Scavangry motted

-
Usiflao Scavengg In
,
The incomîng ar|fresh chatye wkile ertetinyGm on
Htveugh tne onttet valve or eehu ote pfa ud on dhe top
ftne eylindre,

2: (+ is the moct-ffeient scavenging nethrd

Scavengong
4
engine

Te Engine Aovernore is a necharical deie ashich

ic uced to sgutatet the sheud tne engne, usten
there
tnd Duing in CTRaçe in load,
engine deereapes and wt
teade to sleoimg engne
RM f tne

imhis case, hovenor imouz to awTtn the

Nevo
Speed i rense
fel subR to engne so that <peed Con
Con be
be ttainod
Value . atainQd tothe degire
Bt hen lond on enîne nexe e,
then wt tends Speed
supseo to mainkio
dne aegre revofnong pere
minte (RPM). fful
moofant
|. 4it and Miss horernga - system
+he engine stnts runnîng ot of goreming,cohenever
highro Speed (due to
Some
eo eions ae, omiHed os micsad
detesed lco),
This ie Aone wit the
contmfug horerenoor.
Thìs methed ot goercri
ngie widety
Capacity
2 Bulitative aorerning n dhis sysem of
Valve îs aorereni, aConto
fted in the fuel d
deliery pifey whes (onhols
dhe qyantity f fued to be mixad in the chatge
 E-13

The muvement 4 Conter| alre is regulated by tne eentnfya govera

Hhyoouyh,Ya eK and pinjon aUONge ment.
.Ruontittive hovetcning
3-Quattitative In tuis sysfem of qorer
ning,tye
quatty of eharge -
(te. air -fuysabo
is
o
mixtur) Kesfconthnt.
But tne quntty f tne nituret
is
Ls Vaied by means
subied to tne engie eylindr
fa thfHe valve tveh is regulated by
ntifugd ovener
thah
oaeK and pinion arnangcment
4: naton Sysfen a hrere ningn In dnis
Com bi
tnís system 4gorening
due qualitahve and quanhtative
metnsd f goreiny ae
Corn bined tooetiee.
Fued
Rugulaing
Vayre

SHeeve
Drive fom dne engine

aovercno System

AOTE: The fonehen

f flyuwhu an engine
fom that gornor. in is otndy difeent
Crused by fa
ne
{lywhel conthols he
<ped varihron
uctunhons f tne enginee
each turening monemt dureing
Cubed a Shod variatong
y the ratiny lond. The Vaing kemand
goverenor
rauong tne
Isochronous aoretcnos
govetcnog
ushen the agulrbum spaey is is Sac to be Icochronous
consfon .e. aan
Tane egteehny
infnite senGhviy?fmcton The isocho nus ic me stnge
Hn*ng- sorercnor A
is Soud to be hunt ut tye Spead of he
engine Huctutee con
tnuosly, abore and belaw ne merm
This is cauieed by a
too sen re govettno Sal' spad!
 Oto Cyele
,Disel
yde.
This two
Petol e
yele - otto eyele e 0ieej ey ete is vy impeant aeatiny
iesd boint ¢ riew in lc engine Petrol engne is woKing
yele and Diesel tyine is woxin on Diesel cyale
cpele is Knrn ns Comsfant volume eyete,as
the heat is veeiered and ected nt a Congfant vofume lehol
aas engne is woKiny ard
eycle
hs
tuo Congfont vome and two severci He

alinbaie (sentsoie froeass er 4 groeeses . Hete it iu

Rroeess >
-2: Rereresible Adinb atie Comþression
Comoe srin.
+
fooeess2-3: Comglont vsiume hant satpy.
* froeesS 3-4: Reveteible Adiabaie bxpansn ol sen bíe
Exþamgin

2, Constvalume
Het ISen.
Snpbly at Expanion
Centf yelun
Hent rejehon
me
e
Cleasas Congf Vol
(ompression
Velume(v

Vs
e0catd Volume
SSy

p-v iayram T-s 0fagia

rus |-2 The aue is Comesed imto tye eleatconeu volume fdne
lindr and tuu ving the þress
teefcatute fdne ut
ur and
Bte eabay entopy (s =) remins Conefant as thece is o
oan at acrOSS
ashent tue cylin er walls . Thie proeess s Kn Gun
RoverHe Aiabaha Com þreskion or Com lsentropie
froess 22-2 Heat presion
is subbed 4a ai fom hot bady
Vol wme ¢
tne aitt Temains Con
wile g

ne fres [Link] tye wonK done is 2ero bu

we and tenpenatune of the aur
ineseasest fueth ete to tine
maximum yaue ataned
in the eyele = to heat
is an inernse m entoy (s2-S.
Due
&
(T3-)
Pooeess 3-4Ar expando aliabatiealy cauing dhe wox-ntgy to be
:

Arongfeced to dhe suetc cundings at the ozbange of internl enengy

ur ohe
Enbay emans conan as
tu ece is no heat tangr but the fe Sukes
am Brom Stage 3 to 4.
betatead Vofume deesenses

Poess y-: . Purcing

,
Heat is
,
rjected Grorn the ae to cold brdy
dme heat echon enboþy dearOdeS þrese ure and temþercotutee also
Acerease
to m
ate

Matthemabe Vereson
Cy
Heat
ejecd Auaing the bsoeecg 4-l
Volume
hfre comsîon
Yolume V
Cylinde Volum or Totn Vol ume

learcane Volume
oto WoKlon

Heat
Snbpfied- Hent
Rjected
Heat
Hsat
tied
Supsied Heat Raje eted
Hent Heat Sutpied
Heat Rejeeted
Heat Supied
(Tu- )
>l-
fry-T)
 as Adiabahic, Exansbn
3-4 Y
ham a
Vy

Tu
= Ty

)otto -
T -Te
Tu-T
Tu.T-T.Y
=|- (-

NOTE

2: The etfieney imerenser

ren o can ho
ih the (om þyession vot
). But m
aehuay þrnehe
be im troased a

3. longression
beyond Value
ttor So.
Totneylindsr Volume
roio, = Cleazenee Volume t Stoke Volume
Cearane Volume Aeatcamee Volwme
leanane volume StoKe yolune
 E-1

Diesa Cye 1This eyele u aleo Knguon as CnsHont Boecs uta eyele as
heat s Reieved at a (on
tfant ecuhe.
-The
ilead diesel eyele (eneike twoTevet¢ible adiababe oo
,
isentopic a Consont oe ct fe and a congfant volume boOcess
4- Psoeesses.
I fooeess (-2 Revercie Adeabate Ctm þse ssîon
fsoees 2-2: Conçtant Rrassute Haat Snbbly
3. Brocess
3-4: Reyercible Adiabae Erþonson
u. Proeess
4-I (ensfat Vofume Hent Rjechtn
Heat Supy at
Cont Presiute
2

xpansion

Consant
Heat jochbo y
at on t Volune

- Entrty (T-e) Piagran

Poest
ui - Voluma (e) pingr9) Tem}erature

bethe (orreshoning preseutu, Volume, Tempettutte!

ris (ompeted tby the tiston to high þressute and dempetature
40 the values become
tyY andTT4 îs aso Knon as Revercble tliabotie
Com þres! îon.

faocess 2-2
lnthic foous, het is eubbied o air t (unsfantrectute
frorn tue hot boy and therte by
thetre is en Inerease tne tem battutee m

from T to Ts and Volume om to g

= m
C-T)
hatto the old bray

The temþeroturce detrerses oom/T to T

nd frasute deerensee fpo
as
Pu to l Thie toocecg îe alsf Knron Constnt Volme Heot Ryechon
 Pooees y-y: ln tnis rocesyoue sijeetr the g'n. heat cold

brdy at coh stant voilum ll þofn| whetce itlqetutns

m
Process 3-y: tnis booeess,at þoin- 3,the snpbly of heat is
cteped and dnis peint is Knuan as foiot of Cudt Latet
e pands
to tye comitons
f. the air

point 4.
This indicatas tne wosKîc done by
the gas due to the afþense

Th e
broeeu also Knrn as Rererile tdiabate Exbansien
Rorocess
4-|m this froust, aie Rject the heatto the cold brdly
ata
the temþatcature de ereases from ,
y
to e; lu to ad Rsectwe deenses foo
This boees
ie also Krgn as
Constrnt yolume Het Reseebon
oress
e m
Cy (Tu- Ti)
Mathesnahca D
Dercivahon
Calcate the
Heat Supþl ied during Proeesr (onsdatîngAiabat prou, -2
23:
Heat Rejechon durciny
4-!: Ba> neTu-Ti) Fuel Cut- 6ff a'o Pa VyT3
Wonkdone meelT,-y)-ME(tu
Hest Snbbfied
|Purcing Adibabe extangon
3-u:
T3

J-e- T3

|No, Subsftute T2T;,Ty fom ),@

 E-q

Thernal Efideney fe Engne4is dihe Tahio fhe usefuy woK

os pouwae
oatput produeed y
Tt s menscure
Ad. T+
he engine to dye
eechirely the engine (onyett the fom
heat mgy mput e

enerLgy fthe
he chom)td
fuel isto usetd o"K The dnernal afieieney
tesad as a
Thete arte two Ayes
tyRs off herma effieiency lc engines ,hee it is
|. ndicated Thema efieieny
2- BraKe Thesmal Efeieney
tmdic ated Themal Efideny The indiated dhermal
¢ tne
ffiieney
indicated powo (Powett þoedueeJ by
n5ide tye engine
engine cylindre) to buening fue)
)[Link] heate
heat enegy
etplied to the <gine.
The mdicated therna efeieney ¢ me
engine is adways
han loo%. dueto the less
lsses o
enetyysseed.
|TE = lndicatal fowerc
Heat energy snþlFed
Heat enet Satpied

. The
Brake Thermad Effieieney
Tat'o of the brake fowe
The
boaKe therm ficimey
(pawere arailable
hem
is the
e
atth engine eyanKshaft)
Ho
tue hent engy Snppffe to
tne engine
Booxe tnend eficieney îs also
Knron as "Onaal toym al
ftceney".

Bsaxe Powet
Heat Energy Sapþlid
Hent energy Snpþl red =
Mas

BP
Rolaise
iceney Katio +
is aso Knoon as t4Beney Quho. I+ is tne ratio he
i ndicated thermd eftceney to the airr sfansarcd ffieiney

Volumetiie efficieney l+ is the ao

of tne otua volume fchatege
odmi tHed during tye Sucton sfooke at NTP to
preton tne westvolume oftne
 Pouerec
le Indicated (1eIH isthe brge developed in hde tie engìne
ceonbasfen ffoel in the cylindr
lindare ot engjne t is alwags
mose
than booaKe þowet wheee,
L= Shoke lengfn(m)
Kw A
Coos-seetom ata ed Pisn
60 n-numbert offewerr sfroKAs (minnkt

e
nMean etfeisve Presiuee
|le Bsaxe Powere
CP: This istne owolable t the
achual fewett
CsanKshat and and may be ealed tye twetc ad outþut ftne enine.
I+ ic tl oleas less than Indicated Prwerc. where

Go

Tl2 Fìction Powert

,
4 is the towerr locs n overtlo mirg the ntion
between þiston amd eylind wals betwn tye esankshaft un camshatt
and tueiT beatings efe Tt
is the deferenee between Indicted
fouele) and BoaKe Powere (ae).
friehion Powar (Fp) - 18- BP

Mech anica Efffieney #

is the\ oah
Be
P

|le Specif Fut Contuonþtin I4u gonertoly safesred ky In terme

pzoperfen to
te tutma ficieney of the engine:
Braxe- speeitie
t) congunþho (bcfe) and Indicated
Speenfic
(omgum þhion (iste) s
Speife fuel mewmbon On the bass
boKe powef and ladieathe Im dicated pow
Feuel
erees esfechely.
Speeifie ConçUmton þet Uet
Fat (ontamton, SFC= Time

Powere
as
the ratio worKhone to tne energY
Suppied to an enne !
 a
PETROL EN NE
E-21

|lO Worxing fricitle engn ,Nso Knaon as

-The
onn eipfe
peool
to
engine worKing is mil?a he Comre ccîon atio lgniton
bnt therre (s |He

+
pebol enine woms aecosding to the Gto eyele þopol engme
wons in Pooeess
he folloing
+
Proce ss I-2: diabaie
-2: Cisentsobi) comrescion
froeogs 2-3 lonsfan- Volume het addhon
+ fsocess
4-1: Censfant-yol ume heat echon
3
Vlume
Isen.
Exþ• 2 (onf

Isen, olume
(omp tonst.

P-y Diagvamt

fehol
foke
ombresion
Wokinystoke
Exþan on or WoOKing 0r Pswere oKe

Sucton StoKe for tne guetion Sooke oY lmtaKe

t on mores ouon Soxe,the naves
watd. As
it mres, doon a
Vaecum (seatec n
Combus on
chamber, due to tnt
ide
tne
tay tye a

fm the mitue stattt coning

usde nto the Csmbuthon chamber m
(orgut poporhon .
Im tnis tooxe, dne sueton vale opens,ond tne eehauet
Ndveemans eloed .
7 Com proe ssion fooke hen tne
W
Guchon þwoLess
the
mixtute Co mpletes acCoYdin to the
aAiements
, tne prsfon
afue
trarels
wpasarzds
for tne ctt -fual miture comþrastion
 As dhe mosnit þrestutties the mxture iimto tne
þiston
Cembusn chambL. Dutng tnic shoke,the
Volre ae closed indae Valve and echalf
Pue to tne Comrecsion sfroKe -8r þroees, tue tem hertohae
ur-fue mxtue belame

Shak and 1gnites tye an -futmixtue '

Pue to the trovidad &patk,ctue comburhon souss
ar-ful mixture acurs 1n 5deitye
te
cembuion charmberc a
Due to this Com bueion dhe bi ston fututhete moves up, ueh
futtne . increaes etue ison te mberatutce and fressuta 'of dne
migtute roesg
Daring tis hent prsauced.
>Ex þarnsien roKe The
aþan gon srore uco Knon as þwer
woKInS soKe In tns etse, tye gecoted heat
tne þrernaus gfoore Ii m

Ccomþoe ssîon þro eess) rees

toron sand tue piçfontp more
(TOc to RDc) and terns tue ca NKhat
Due to
bistn' down wad moom, tue a
î mixture
eaþards
fl
Aoereaes.

Exhagt shoxe tye pistorn moyes npuwatud,

o pens
the ehau Valve , and
eleases wseless gases
Combushon cham ber fom tne

bfter compleiny the ehauststoKe, dhe þistan again

farts Pobol Emgine The main þatuti f atol engneare ien

blow
5
ItaKe oo Suction Vadve
I. Sparrk pfug
2. y
linder or Combuskon (-Conneehng vod
3. Ca
buotor
chamber. Exheuct Vate
 &23
o n
m-tare Valve The tntaKa valve ic one f the mot impofantjrt
febol engoye or
SpatzK lgnion egine. "The air ebo) mixtute eterrs dhe
engne eylin dert trough the imtare yolve

Exhauss Vawe Exhust yalve is uced to dueekh arcye the ehuo

bucnt o Combusted gases lt ie an oe - way valve. Tt u
dso stops the
bacK-ffeo 4 ezhau gases.

SpaeK Plw The spark pluy is used to start the Com busfo

aure- peho)mitue . at
dhe coþre KSed
are f,menns t is located

e most
watofomþaret
The fege,
beeause (m a þebol enâne tne lqnin þooees? can nof be

NOTE
We hawe ready discucsd alent dne etn, Cylindnc, tonn ehny

Tyes letol tngins Aeording strors febol engine has

tuo tyges Four SocKe 2 Two shocxe

4-stocxe Petol Ergine A

fourt- Shokt <ngine compfes a pewer
ey ele wity faur q- Stokes pistom: t woms im thefo llGwtng
[. Sucom <hoke (take stroKe
2: Comþre siön shKe
3. Powe
soke i. Working SiroKe x
panion stooke
We have duseussed 4- wauye
tni aeady
 rue- StoKe
Wowking yele
Engine cyele
.
The folfouuiny Pv diaggam refaserti the
of the
eyine 4r stooxe
Afoutr strokes ergine comletes
a working
yele in the follewngy yete sets stets:

adishnli Exhugl

IsobriK

dhis icobaruc fooce<s , he piston meves doonwad

#
Isobarc, Proeass (oto 1) (n
ard qenet ates a vaccug Vaevum mide
the combustion chambrt. Puruny yaum
a
cretion, þyesurze detferenee genetentes beteen he atnosßhercîc þressutea
and ehambuis imnert bre
Vadve oens, and
csuteDue to this þre scuu difesenu, tne intaye
tue ai-fuel mitue
entens the conbision chambe•
# Atdia bahe ouss
Ci to
yve cosses 2): Afte tornbeion fthe isobarîe þrocest, inlet
loes, and þicon mores nbwartd and bressurtiges the
migture Duru'ng dhie broeess the aifu
4the mtturee, but te
piston „he rises tye demþettature
and þeiture
hetdos doesn't hange
*
at
\soehrie Process (2 to 2): A
sfatck plug (9nîtes the aire-fe! mixture
tne end
end ofthe compRssioD stroxe
(n ereases the tempucaturee and brestuta (adiatate pres),This frotess
t t ito a high-temþercatuie
tqnition proces also eoeases
pthe fuelmisturte and
and þastute mixtute . The
ar
in .tye entooby (heat) f tne
#
Poste sroKe (Proeess 3 +o
miture at -ful
4) tiis shoKe, the heat
imihen þroeess is usd to þush orodueed dueeto dne
mores to thepiston to moye doon,
the , erankshatt. The movement
eran
sieh futthert
Thecefore 6the
this froess is eall ed abowerí stroKe.
Kshat meves
the Vehite
# Exhaugt Phase
(4 4o )+ In thi þhase, the pîston aq
Qrheust yalve opens, an maes ub, and the
whîch dis chargs the wate
hambuc Due to tne remorm ot hett fsom the Combughion
ac -fue miatue's maleculate
wless het, the Kinete energy o
the
tt diferenee gentates molees deereases. Again, tye boesrutQ
batwen dhe atmosphercie prescute and
Imnee þressuru, and dhe whole eyee
h wwhole
the chamberds
afents
 E-28

The two- engnes -

2-ShoKe Pehol Engine ShoKe have the follswig types
I. 2- StoKe perol engine
2- stoKe Diesel engine
2:
we diseuss absut he Petol engine
Jn tuis batt,
Stoxe Engine worxing princitfe (pehe)
A tws- Stoxe engine completes a poudet eyele (o strogs tne pibn.
A
2-StoKeS engnne womKs way
fustto 6f

in the foll ewing

Iet siore Cthe suction and the comjrescion strokey)
Stroke Cthe fowere and tne exhaus Stookec)
•2nd
Suction and Compesc ion StoKe
• In a 2- Stroxe engone, the suehim and (omþreseion sokes taxe plae
imNtanesuily
moras wbuatd fom the bottom dead eenter(2pe)
Duringthis stroke, tye bieon
to the to} Jaad eenter (T0c).
yacuwm a statets þroduein
th nwotcd movement oftne þiston,
During
(nde dye (ombse sion ylindere (eombusfion chambat) the enne'
Due to ta e nis fabuum vacuum the aute
ereation f -fuey mxture
enters tne cylindu yia aAd an inlet ort
After dhe suctien frosss, the piston eonttnuss itr ubwatd movement
and comresces tue air -fuel
mituu
• tt the end ofthe Compre sion strokey the tomrested mistute is
inited dee to the sfarcy þroided by a sþatcK plus A
tthe minture
inites, the towere stroke piston stats
Pewer stroxe
ad Erhaue
• Like suction and (omboescion stoKes, the þrwet and ezhaust broeess
also Comþlee in just Gne stoKe of tne þtston
Due to the Combusion pro ass , the temeratre, interna h ent, and
reseune
ftne aire fuel
gases brodind mtue
became vatty higa The higah -þrestute
durng the combusfiom þroess err avetty high fore
on tne iston and foree (t to move down ewattd
(fom Tc to Ar
• The down uwatd motion
ef dne þrston tatee tne cranKshat, utieb
further Totates tue fy okeet o e
yehicl
Ax tne
fowar is camyeted, he preton
ohens
futhre moves dson wtatr and
dhe exhau valwe
 • As
the ezhatt valre ohens, the brefon þuches the exhaust gases cu
oye Combuion hambetc
• tne þiston reaches at B0c, the pretor com þfetad
Ae
xþels the
exhaust ases and fills tne combughon chanbatt with
tne fresh
aut fual mixtue, 4nd the whole woKing
eyele repeats . + B0c
on prwetc stroke
of tne enine i completed, and ms the bistn
ready fo tye next powere eyele.

Two-Stoxe Petol yele :

(omletes tust-two
ln a tuwo -oe engine ;a woKng yele
in strokes the piston -
In tnis cyele, theintare
ad Compressin þrots tes
tanens'y in the 1 piston stroke, ushile powere tue
imutaneausky in tye second stroke [Link]
of the piston.
pooesses
fostne stages of dye 2-StooKe tn eaplanation
cyjee ie qren belsuo

. (dead eyele(een line)- The i iine in tne absve -gven diagram

represet tne sueton stoKe, while a
2- StroKe engine doesn't nqve
shoke This is be cause ushen tye tuis
pistoy wwatd, and 4- stoKe enne L started, te
the puston meods to be pulled doun ward to sucK
tue urfuelmintue Howeyet , as
sheon 11ne
to sueK tne aic-fuel Io 2)te two
Sthoke ca engône comtinue
mixture immelintaly,
2 Adnbotie Gmpesrîon (t to
And tne prcton moves d on
2)- t tuis stag2, the itake porffopens.
wattd. Duting ghe istons dawn ward movement,
(om þressg tue a
fuel miktute. Due to tuiY Comprecion pros,
tue temþ[Link] rerute ftye mxtute crense, but tuete m

will be no ehange neat in Thereefore

qdiabatie þroess Cno heat ehange)As tne
tus froeass ts
Knm as an
its end (t poînt comþscion eyele is neat
)a StatcK 14gnf SpatcK pfu provides a SpateK to
Comgressod mirturce and ignites tt, ta
 E-27
3.
Isoehorñe frocass (2 to 3)ln this th phase ,as
dhe Comprested mixture

aite
eaches at
-fuel
pont
mixtuee igmites due to
2
(ar shoon in tye above diogram), tue Compresad
tht it tem þercatuR thermn enogy
and pre Slutte bee ome vety high But durcing this troess the yolume
ahe mîxtutee Yemains consant, heteeore , tuis proess is Knan as the
soeherie (Same vlume) poocsS.
The comustom þorocest Compfeles nt
poit 3 where high am cunt of hermay enengy
Stosad in Che
ac
-fuel mikture tnatis and boessue al
utilied n the pruwt Gtsore
4- Krwee roKe
2t )
In thi troeess, the stred neatand
brescute (due to Combusfiom)
due bì sten
down,
the ar -fuel mKture usa to push
uhien fuetnetmores tn e
(ranKshatt Th
fuctnere moveg
dtye Crankshatt
tly wthee and mores mme
vehiele. Theefore, tnis
Strere is Kneon as bowet stooKe Durino tue brocost. ha valeeme

5. Exhaust Shoke
(y to) Durcing-
ts proeoss,
tue daonutd mavement
tne ston uses to remove dne useles
usel ess eaves tne ey lindero het from tne eslinder . When dye
heat „ne Kinehe enegy ome
lo sreß due to roleenee
at resute deereage. Bw a
nete no ehaust ph açe
in two- SpoKe ernne
and due
a mese nit -fua! -
þro eSS tart ayan, and a
(a þet) entered , and tne
m

þoess refests
iatue ushole

Carbattettos AtI imþorkant oint ¢ Cacbteeter

in Pebol engihe
A
carcbt tor is mechaniea duiee upe
to onake an otfoopiinte
mîgtutee f ate and fuel for
butnng or Com buefon
(arbueotor trepaea a
mixtua f aute and fue)
for combusion) for a SpateK - (gnion enime. uieh is suitase

• 1t convettt hebol 1nto fine droþ|ets and miris

Sueh a way tna wt
îitin dne att in
oy þooble buns smoth Sooth im tue engine, wtout
y

Diesel engfne au also le engfnas. Howevere,

1n
0resel engines,
dnere (s no
eabtetto used Only aure Componed to much nigáce
fs ne
tuel and aic ate mixed e
fuel eaorates
Cled Comþse ssîsn and tgnites (nene
imihon engine )!
 • tna pedal cngne, Combu tthom taxs plae wten a
fuel qes a Spattx fom a patk pluy (spark inihates
ofaitr and
mta
ful butning).Th
engine is so
fu' is done by carhuteHor Henee a Pete
Kngon ans a
Spatek-gmiton engine ine a Spatex
is used
nintute
oi and fuel (petol).

|2 Pre- lgmitn : Pe-iitton is tae 1gniton fthe homogpnerus

mixkute. in the eylinde
, beforu gmiton spatx oc uns,cauad
tmed
by
the local ovetc heangy ane combuebe ictue.
Presgnite is a
þhenomenen in me le engine (Petol ergine) t heh
me nomeyeneeus fuel ehangest buengd bafore the ngrm ignihon
statet (or in ne abcene of spar)
loe -tgniton is inihiated by Some oreheated po)eeng þattr Suen
a dne ,
Spazuing pluy elecbades echausf vale headmetnd cornetsin
dhe cmbusfon cham but , CoRcbon debo gits or broulngy cylindee head
gasKat tn oìm et The autoiqnitom CKnoekjng my oretheat

I hlguing cattbon deborst on exhauwst vadve s,

and hot spot in the
CAmbusthon ehambut !
Im the Combushon chamber and but on
mealie
unftnishsd fatuts.
Lago bmproþecly Seatad valves

4i Hotter
du to intugfi cäent coling
engine
S
Lean air -fel mitute ,he xeessîve ox Ygen lere tne
Com busion chambtc.
6. In sutticient engine i
t ef enana oi) to the
Leaxaae Cormbugfim ehambete and the auto
ignion oferine oi-fuel m
xtutu
 E-29

Efects/Disadvantagas ef fre- tqnition

I: Intrease tue tendeney of detonalon
2 Inconeisteney in
the þrwre stroke.
3• Pyca damag to tue te biton
fison and fouling on the Spatu pfuy.
relmiten retards tue sutward movement f þ ston durcing
,
Comression this euse þowete locs
S:In ingfe - eylindet engjne, reizmiton reduet sped and powdti
eutput
G
Seizure in muti - lindete <jine (if orily one oylindrc snfars

t Gnee wutn tne

colindec wal Contaet Wim the flame for a longer me

due heat tronce to enine eylinde wwall Im ereaCes

to an
abrorma ambugton roeec tnat can ccus unde urtn Condtin.
potonation, , adso Kn non as engine KnacKing
undegae
dx þinnng
hhenom enen tha can lend to engine damage
if lftunaddrested .
Detonahn typieay haspens when tn2 aire -ful mixturei the
enginals comlbu strom chambere ignîtes stontaneausky in mutipe ftame
fronts Tehn et tnan a # c
ingle tam foont inîhated by tue sfateK
þlug This intametue and uncontollad combugfion C uçee
tressure wares
that col| îde wutn each otht , treung a high
Kno«jng
Sound
Thetce ata Seveka
fets dhat cam Comtmbut do
dotonaton an
þebol engine
.
Looauality fuel or fuel tt utn a lono octane vatngiemoe
þoone to deton ahon:
Engines wutn igh er com przstîon atios
h more
aa
Susebtibe to deton ation . A highte Comþessîon ratio tmeeaes
due þreSute and tenpecatuce m tye (om
makrg Sþontaneruy combushon more buian chambatt,
licaly
 , Sueh as tuose
• H#gle tembetcatue in enine eused by ororheating
.
or
in adaqte cooling, ean ineronse dne lixeliheod of detonaton
• I4 ye Spatk pluy too eatly in the comtoession stoKe, 1t
Can cause the ate
frs
fu' mintute to tynite pre matey and
Bkessive Cattbon depoats on e Combughon wals
ehambett
ean become ,
and caue þrer igni ton leading to
hot Shots
dotomtin

Deonationis hammfu to an engône be cawse îr genecates ertemely

higa fresSuus and tenptcatutes that can damge pistons, Connecfng
Tod, yalns, and othet. erngihe contonents, Gntncusly dotonaton ean
segult tne engine fat fa
m
nat add resod oontty.
uef
To brerent o
vedueed oto mabon

higlsr ocdone rasngfu

2 Most modetn engines are
Aetect ne
vìbrahnc eaied by detonaton.
hdvaneed engine manmgment systems monitor patamateas,
like 1ntaKe ute tempeteaturey coolant +empatatute cnd tyrotte
vtins
po
ehon to optmite lgnit5an merg and .
delvaty ful
en gutee duat tne engine oberrotes wtnin
tne Aenercture ange
de&ire seding tne chmeg
as
fdetot,
5. Kegar maimenone, Such leanng catcbom defotit fom
he conbutfon chambu, helfs brorent hot sfot tht
Cont but to datonaon
 E-3|

u a fechmique usd to imereaçe tne pwettGutpnt

forting noe aitt the combuston
an ntepn com buehon engine by 9 int
rentegs
he engine eylindrcs, resuing 1n a highe den hty (nact) and
alaueing mefu to buttn dueing ieach combution
trotesg tne mereagingy mass
In þeol enyine, l+is the f
aie fuel miutut and -for jesel engine or Combressiy 1gihon
Angjne

ar nly ie

(s ne chaniie
a diee hat
"The
by tne
Saehar
trm engines CyanKshntt ung belt or ehain, By
dmn incens tne þessue'and
Compresîny he at, he sneehaget
density
, lanae mass f air o enterc Oye eyinducs.
Ruing aa latse
enpnes, as tna mas
raft engines,
eraft
4is widely used in ai vey high alttude
at vey
Suerad in he engne eylindete, deTRaee ute
This happens beeuse atmospheteîe
brass decrrnsee wtn the
1m reaSee im aitude
Follsuin3 ate the objects
nete ehatgng
mass sf ne engine pere bo
brare þ

• In
firett engine, to rede by the engone:
. engine, to redue
spaee tesied hinh -attude
ln Marine þwere at .
Air eratt ergne, mantain
o
In ory en awilable -foo Conbugfon
where lecs
ess is
In raeing car, to ncrease he þower gutputof an enye when
geatr bwe is reqd T
is also tho afeeted for otners
engine also

Suterchatiny
r ffcant & þruste
tan þrsvide but îtaso gns,
imodueas adional cone6dettahonS. The imeren sed aure bressuta ans
tenbtratura ean lead to niglte hermay Gade on tme enne Comþonets
Fe-asgeek To miigte mis, tne engine may raqura angeficnbon4
Suchas ehome þiefoos, veinor ed connecing rods end mpvored Gooliny
Sy stems.
Lelonition Systm The iqmion in a þeol enines is done by Sforex
plug at the end of dne compressjon stoKe Voltrge g2quired to foodued
SparK ts 6Go0 to l6000 Voltg 0 6-o K) lovolts
Igniten systewt 3 tyes

a. Batacy lomihon system (otl tgniton systern

Magmeto tqrition sy sten:
C Electonîe lgniton system

# Bdieny lonition system (il lynten Sysem

|. fn mduehon Coil are used syctem
2- -The indueton coil consist of
ths
coilk (Arinany
col| tro
iron
2 Setondary (i
Soft
Primay coil is Conneetod to tye
tniton eth Guoiteh, ammeter
and 6y batety n one am the othe s a
end condençerc k Con-tae

oil is co meefod to a diefbutr Cina multi-elinder

Seeondary
engine) uitn uith the centa tesmin
4dne SpaK(ng pfuY and
tutee
temins
Comeeted
ate tye Sparcking þlugr a
eath ed toethc and
tme to enine b dy

6. The alue of tae vo

|tage dabends wbor dne mwnbete
fe turns each

RloTES
Candemsete istonneted aeeras" aerose te corntae rensens
a IH þrevents spatcKing aeross
braretfor betoü
tne gnb betwen the þoints
b t Causes a moe apid breoK f tne
hrgherc
fmy ring
yoltege
in the se Condary etirteuit
Dses. This type f igmitron system massve use
has in the dae
medium and heay SharcK
1qmiton enyines. sueh as cars, bgt truus,
buses ete.
#*
Mogneto lgnition system +

Same as
bathetry
colignithon systen ¢xeept +thtno
is requited,as the magneto aets as ids Gwn generotori
 E-32
H
Coneistr ethere Tottngy mgmets isfixed eoil or otatngy coils n
fixad magnats .
untent þrsdred by the magneto flowe to the
The
inducion col, whieh oorKS (ike that of the batetoy lqnithion
system
Oses - is type (gnition system is used im Small
Th
SparK- 1gmion
ennes, Such as eosfar, Motor epeles and
S , mo
Smaly mo tor boatenggiyes.
tyeles, and Smal

# Eleckonie lmition Systm

H uses mechanica contact broyet s very impfe.
s
h cuglh
it ic *
ne
Some lmitaon
(he heawy euUT ent has in tye contaet breakerc point
hande, resalt in gu
btn
sarzricing and Settings.
cotaet olts. So,
it reguiree periodi

2 At higa speeol,
Im tne coil to
he doeu
time foo bulding uo the etarent
its maainun valu i low Thus the Spatek &frngih
be redued

# Compatce Betweon battery and Magneto lomitn Syetem

Batterey lmition Magneto lqmition
• Batate .
requicement is must No baety needed
Batery sntpiies urent in þ Magnedo
promy eteuit þrdues tne renuircad
urent or iay eru
t good spateK is aral arniate Duing steriny tne qyusty
at louw
Sped dso

•
Oenfes nre Spaeei Veyy mu
eh Camtaet.
• Keehagng is a mugt in a
• No eueh att atrcangement reguee
ase
batay gut disehargd
Mostly
empoyod cat and Used
bus -fox whieh
is mo-treyeles, sesotere
it
to eranK tne engne
is reeetead

bntey martenane
ns
forb|
 ne aitt tued has am impovfant on dne engin þrwa,ofieiny and
onsThe
emicsiong Taho ( ai to fy n
he ombu
miuteit a
Key deign porzamete
mìxture tyat has
fr Sparrk- iqmîhon éngines, tn
ait -fuel
eXaty enough ar to buen the ful, wits nthet
Ore, S
Stoichionetne and Mas a

more
Minte wit

high tn an I•0
than ate îs rih, wim at tualsaho (D)
less tnan l0
Some Imr ant toints

men
tee îs a
þrouen cabon menoxide

to
the toi ehio mejrne
a
Tao tyen thee is poroduehn ¢
unburned hy dro earbom and
CArcbon 0rxe
•Erine uiny lean mDxtutus ae maoe
fftientthan those
uñny tîehiomeme mxtutie

Theorete nlly csneet aire fue' air -pjot| mtua is iS:|.

Stoieh io matie raho is l441
 E-35

O
Purfose of Inceoton coll,Didri bnterc and

# Inducton Coil conist ofarimaty uinding,

The ignihon coil maimly
a
seconday winding and an v09 tore. Wher tne utren traugh due þrimany
uendingmaKes arnd braKes reßeatelly by Contaet baKels
yetuy niga vo ltages it induee
in he secondayy wnding (abqut sooov 7ooov), This
high vottye fom dme seeondary winding is
amgfard
Spay wihin dhe ylinde.
Meain Pats –
lynion Coi)
he yatoue maio þatet of dhe (qmihon coîl are
Piny ind îng 2 Seendaay Winding 3 bon Core:
1-
frimary Windngl+s made u
f hiex cþpetr wute hauing
2o0 to "2oD tuens inglated fom each othett
l+ is mode
Secendaty Wind ing
21600
f nin coþþete uue having a
larye numbat efturens about tutns.
Scendany wwnding mçndted fom eneh other by e enamel on tne
3 lbon Core +
coneîstr laminated
(amimted tron Core H
is used to store
enetuy is tne form
fa magaetr field

Working lniton Coil

: When dne tgnihby euiteAg
the þrimany windiny startt to ftaw
sts is N; tne rentthrough
tn ie crents manetie ftald i the

2 A
cortaet bea breaKs 1m the contactF
breaker, tye fnotuy
unnent collapses. This aso collapses tue masmehe
ftled im core. the
-tnî sudden broaKing
the mgmehe feld mdues arey high
Yrtag aeros the seconday wunding *
indued is be aboutbo000 volt The magmitude oftne
voltnge

+rough tne ignîton dietsbtor to

frt boroduee Sparee frr he (gmitm
sonday winding

Primiy winding
 #
Disfobty # The
seondary ca l is Coyneeted to a deobutor
wito the
A
enta termina of tne fateKing pfugs.
• distobtor is aa (omþonent in a SpaK
1yniton system that
+
ehannel high votagy t pses from
tne 1gniton to tye sþarex
plugs eol
typicaiy drien y the eanKehaft, urtuieh
waich causes
dyem to otate at exaetty one hat ne
me
spud ofthe ermnKehatt
"Thic reige tg
+o tpotk
is ushat
erch SpttK u at
aos a
dismbutor to torideolHase
tne (orect ime and in the fobet
Sequene whish is motnîng
butnefring odc.
# SparckK lug ShartK plug is an eleciCN deiee that
A

is ued in
febol engine (ic engire) to ignites Cumtyoecsad fuel
uing an eleetrie <patck
The ele coica! omponente is highly uçed þeteform meehanica-johe
îs
For inetanee, we have þehel wtieh is hrgdy
Hanmnble and also aie,
dnaterld eue an
eploson mì[Link] pfug is
to tne csm
tressed gas.
like Iigkting fe
A s patek pfuy dhas two maj
Pebol
funeons in
enine
Iomiing fuel
air mixute: oas eleetne eny
is trangnitad thovgh
fhe com þanent, ft 1gmitec tne aic miture yn tne corm bufon chom be
Removing of heat i Spatek piug cAnnot oente
het, ton tney an snly
be usd to remore
hthe tem þetcotue oftne tnd eftne þlugs
iingy end mut be lo engug to
brerent he- imihon butehoud
be high enogh to þrerentfulings.
Sptk blugs
het eehange
enercgy fbon
by elimnatng the umuante ual unwAnted tnema
the combu&fon eham bel
The hent is
to me engmes
coolîng sy fem. the tbonefemad
Mam eatte Ingdator, TRrminnl,
h Ring kfatking
aher, haKet, eentete
hung eantar eht (stem), alass oal, Eleehos itn
Taserced
eleetsd, gooore
cnt 9roUd aleesod
U
ground eleetde, Fafa
e .
 DIESE L ENNE
e-37

4
dese ome wor
on the totie
onie brinble ¢
the
ffoue frotesses dnose ate did eyol ongds

I. Sueton Shoke
CGmjoession Shoke OR 2-froces- 2[enbopie (om þresion
3. Er hongion shoke
(1-2)
Exhaust shoke 3. Heat Addrton
(ongntksessue
Proease- 2 (2-3)
{ lsentoþie Expansion-froess-4
Consant lrescuru
3
()
Tempercate
&in
Weut

Heat rjeekad
in at Conslant Yolume

volume Enhopy (<)

T-S Diagam

Rrous -fSuehon stroke]-(o-):

For tne Gueton t auc tHe engine
þrston noves
(deuon
wad ehoKe), tk t mores donward, the
entering he engine ylindr from tne at tresh
atmoefhnu.
ar
•
Durinthis borocesJ, the eh austvae renains dored, an d tne
Sueton yave opens

Prouc 2 lsenkopie (omfresr rn (-2)+

Aftec suehon, tye sueson valve cloces and the breon mores up
TDe)
Duing tne tompyecs ion rouss the temperctu ftne ae
Inegenses fom T to T the vaume red es pom V, to V
and
Rrecsuee ises fom to
• Houð ev
during thi< whsle proed, thee is mo
change i
• This troess ie Knoonas eth
lsentsobie beeausetheree îs ran no change

• m
tsenthoþie Comþress ion , the aue îs wmbresled n to sueh high temparaktaa
tempetcauea and þressuta
s thattne ait tuel matue ignites teott
itself, ond it does n't meed ay eortra
edern h entsue on
Sfatx þlug

boeess 3 Heat Addiion at Constont Rrestwre

(2-3)+
When hiahly eombaessed t aute reachis t point 2(as <hron
<hron n
the
Py and Ts a
digam), fuel injecr in)ee diesel fud into tne ylindre,
whieh
• As the diege)
mìxes
ut
tne comþoe csed att.
tuel touehes the com þrzssad aite ,
mixtue imites due to the compre csim ¢ theairc-fu
þrouss adds
hia ar• This nitn
hent to the com pressad urc- fue) mixtre!
nes Concfant,
Duing this þroesse, the piston beeomes and press ute adso
Tenains onstant (e= Pa ouwete enthaty imcreases
fom S, tos,,
tempettature Creses fom1 T
to 13 and aso yo}ume inrenses
fon

-> roeess 4 lSentopie Expangion

(3-:
lm tnis þoocess, the mirtue entonds imto
the ylindate
•Due to the erpan ejem,the heat
f tne igmited aire
the picton and forus it to oneve deuon, -fuel
worKS Gn mixtutee
the cronKshaft, This rotaton whieh ootates
Ca
eranKhaft otne
furthere moves the

ring this uhole þro tus, the foesrue cf mixtue falls fom
I3 to
Pu, Volume incseases frm Vs to Vy, and tembuc atue also reduise
from T3 to Tu, Ho evee, en w
troy doesn't change Sy S2-
Rsocss 5 Conskant Vslume Hant Rejechon
(u-):
ter tne eþan gjon brO Cess, the prston moves dronworcd to vemove
tne wa ste hent fom eylinde the
 E-3

n
• In tnis tao eses, entopy fals fom to Si,temþercatute
Sy
to Ti,
,
þoescute falls fuete to i, tHe wevett vol ume,remains uneha1ged (te Vqv).
•Aftex emoval
the of
al wast hent, the þiston agn sucKs ur,and
He whole frotess reaats .

#Parcd f Diesel Engne

4 Cm þyass ion iqniton (e) engne diesed enine has beloio gien

Fut system, (ooling sysem, Ful system ftre oler Fud in)echr,
co

Csanktagk, Tucbochakger, Camshaft, anxshaft, Cmeng sod

Fud syoktm - The fud sy sfem hos a sefakater,igecir fed pun,fum

tuel raids tuel press ue regulahr, fuel

ineion pumt, and nay other
units. his systen adso fuel ilters used to filter tne fuel and make
tt fee dust ánd other dit The mam funehon of he fuey syfem
[s to ens ute tue fuat deirtey to the combusffon chambuc

Fuul Aters
They impurcities and tontaminants from the fual bafrait
enters tye combushon han bett•

Ful In)ecto
-The ful'njeetns is
the motvitad partt of the diesel engne.
one ¢

lt to ensures the proþer Supþly fu tothe engine. (4 worKS in

way
Sueh a tnat ut inject tue tnto tue combuion chambete as tne
Com þresred aure
enters dye chabe.
=}Tucbo ehorer
Atu A
tutcbochartgr all owe tne engne to cueK more aut into tne
om bustion chanbert and imerensee ne horeprwec of tne engine .

ftere- Coolere
+
is ui i2ed to deereases the mtake ue,tempeatae.
We
hne alrendy diceusted abeut tne Pibn roncchat, eamshaft,
eronKshatt, Coneehns ród ( the bakELLE2,63.
\1Q -Types of Diesel Enyine
The dieçel enone has tewo majoY types tnat ate
|: 4-stroKe diesel engine
2
2- shroKe die engine

4- Steke Engine eyele

Prescur

voluhe

tne Pv diagram repesent Ane

enne A foyte - sro Ke engine Com etes
woeKina cyele
oe y-stoKe

followiny stegf
# lsobaru Rrocass (o to i): oftne woboatie foo ugt, ne prston moves
drunuward/and generates a vacekim in de tne ynbufion ehom bet
,
Duiny yawum erenhon, ereahon aa ofscut difesene génercate
gknecatec betwen tne
atonosßec boescuta and tne pham be's inner precsutu ut
De to
thà prest uta dfeseney the ntare valve opens,

We hare dready dis used absut 4-thoKe and 2-htke nyine

,
com ested in tne Com Presto
In tiis metnod of fuel mjeeton the auc ts

to vey high byecsuta and

then gijected tnough tye fuel nole into
tne engtne eylindsrc (beth fue and ain ) The tate
te be contolled by vateying-he þrecsutu sfu admisin cam figecon áic
autr bo Htes ushieh ate tres Storage
dhe engin Swbly the nigh-oectutu' eut
Advantages
• t yoro v ides
betatt atooni sadson
and drgtibuon defued.
• t
he comteeEion Com bughon is more compfete, the Braxe Mean
EBeere Prestute (BME)is nigar than witn otnere type
<y stem:: -igeehon
 E-4

Disadvantags
a . latye mumbe
high Prescue
muti-stage Com þreccion A

patctr , the intereooleto ete. make tme system Com pftcated and
ehentve
Due to tne compreccion and ne IinKage tue bulk ofthe enine 1nrenses.
Thà also resus in re dueed BP due to powet lose i) o þetebny he
comeion and lînkaze

t shxing ffue) vale the systems becomes quite dangaau

due to the presenee high- þaecl ure ate

Solid s is lecs
njechn
bechor of fuel lrecty imto the combusfan ehambere wts at brjnay
tomiatbon is temed ac solid )ectov )+.îs Nso termed as meehanico
Ingechon

Main Com þoments

•Fuel tanK
Fuel fud þunp to cupply the fud fom tne mais fue tann to
tne
injeeton þunp
•Ful filters Io þrerenl dug and abra ive brides tromenteting
tne pump and injeeot
• mjecl-ion þum oad frestuise the fuet tor
In)eelión.
Io melr and

• horettnote (? ensure l'hal the amounl

19 load
offet is aceonrdonu euith
variaion
.Ful pumpíngs and injeelos to axe fuel fron the pump and
dre'but in the comburlion chambat by alomitini in fine
droplels.

2 Sujare Charqare
t smje charyer îs a me chanie ven Comþonen1-which is uçed
dm m

pikton ngnee to
pump þrestuuged
airt in lo mlae maniftld uing ur
compraceoT 03 bl wrc The high
nlenstthe yinder þresure nereates tme Jevel feurt
ducing the n tane ore
Subere elhargete me
lel-
engine more burn moTe fad and do woK
as each inlaxe ezcde f The engine gtr mose [Link] þrwe pomts Coan

mechanichy dmen tne meons

fa gee,betk, shntl, chais cmneald
a
by
the engine't eronKehaf.

( Cenify sntechgrs Koo

ls supae ehangr 3:Tuin- Stsed
Snter chayre.

Torque-convetlar
A
torque Convetlae it a type
ntaling trwett fom the engine
fluid esuing whh is used hon4
foalço mechanje a
efa vehiele to the Foangmi on -Jt lake
eluth in autonnie rangmiscîon 1Ix manfumelon
pfau

it alGwed the (rad to be (solNed om the fut

he mam þoweC Sruree
In belwee the <ngine |-k
and ansmicsion. |4 hac he sane
dtn n
the manw antmiccion
the lu fen sepattaee
Aror
the the enyine
load shen Jo
ob, in the sne Dayiif dsoico[ed the ergine
om the ltnd and Kess the engne unnîng sfn [Link] s oes.
man funehions
Ir
m
shati
2.4 bsves the font pumþ the rongmission
3. 14
iselld tne engîne rom
4:14 mwipe Fh Iorqu
he load shen tye vohiele
is saonay.
trongmîcsîon.
tu ene ans toontmil
i o
the
tt atnost dowoles the rputdon toe

Ina this method, a löraue - ChaseL, peCIOX and teor' turetne munted
a com
n
nle ghat is used to nereaçe me ind et ur
dunity.
gnee
dve
The thaut hm the tngine haing Sattieientenrgy to
netutine
 E-42y

Comtake beldean Snperehatgere and ub Turcbo ehareger

Sube r chaee
Tucbo ehayet
4 is deefly dmn by the enn 14 s
through abelt drire den by tne eehaut gas
oftne

enoine to dra the (omae scor.

ezhaut (waste þewst) gosesto
uges dmre tna comþreslor
B.
Beeaue it ugeta þwer f
engine so decreaçes the enine
uses
exhut
dmve tne combressor, resuiny in
faeny în (reage d effriene
4. Snteteehage s Connected by the
4 Tutebsehatyer gaces
usod echaugt
Crankshaft, so
it strt wKing
Suddenly ae tne engine statuts.
So does ot work

Safrecngr is a
unitthali botf
bofted tthe engine and mected to a
wti with a
beltdve betwen snptehoyer, eapt
ithas
he eronKchaft and he an exhaut
Snpeehotg belt dre, and uns by a
echaurt
gaes.
6- l+ ineRAges
the
eine þrwe by
6. |4 alço mereagee etue
enihe prwete
by
abiSo to 6,
t When we
consdeted detim
adoþt Ca
in the becauye it turcbo ehatyer is comþae and
eeupîes latye shaee eAly dated i the cares .
cosly than a
B lt ? tess costly.
turto ohatyec
|: +ts not esse to uye an
mte-q. Becue tcboehayees wogK
loo coelee i a
Suporehatyer witn ehoust

mere me
içe, (0 J4 genatcate less noise becaue
 E-4g
Cooling sysfem
ef infermal (ombnsfion (ic) Enyine
+s pee the
cngnes,the hent produed by the combuttrom fuy ne
engine eytind 1s n6f cunverted into uçet wonxs Prwer
CanKshntt combleely and typrendy at tne
is as follews dittri butron engogy
ofut
• Uef work at the csanKehatt = A57.
• Lesc in ahauyt gses = 3{7,
•The loce to the eylindes
• Locs
walls 30
due to
tnon
4
t4e hent is mot e
ylindrs iF wrald rasnt

Requiemonts f Gooling syetensin lc Enmine

• When
the enyine is yety hot, t should notto RmOred the
heat
atast ate
at
o Maintaini the temþercatur beleno cotctan limik by
hsipaing
enUst heat from tye eylindr walls
balro an
Cboling belno An
obtimun limit may mat
as
t wiA decreaseoþmum
oretall
mot. be recommended
ffteieny
14 too mueh emaa

uto 20, nly

Types f (ooling Sysken in lG Engine

• Air Cool ing Sy
stem
• Water Coolingy
System

"The ba sie ivelved tnis method u

to hawe a eurren
foll enoing contnuausly
oere dye heated metl from ustaee the
het s to be remoed Stae
The hent dksipated depende wpon
tye folloung faetos
The demfetealure ditfrne bafween tye heated crefae
aic
 .The satfae
•The condueltvi ly of-the meta
be
Tne Sutctaee the whichis in contae ith the aûc chdd
me

inereased fr offchre cooling and thit ean be dne by uging fns ovet
dme
battcels
These ins atAre either east as an Intagra þat the eylinder
.
o
finmed barre's insettes ovete -tie eylinde batere)
ae uçed somebmes to inereased the Contaet átcea
futhere becaue st thur betere therma cnduel-ivily, the ucnge

and sfel aloys hac also been made to in prore the heat
tranher.

Aighte beeau ftne absene of the

radinothe coslant, and the cooling AeKets.

Air coolimn sy stems atee tottad o}etated 1 eateme
climtes
whetre tiet
s a
chanee of water to be fogen
• Maintenanee is cause the þoob{em
ensie be
tleava
dhete
The att -oooled engine ic an advartme iy ertu aceas,
a
where thete Seeity tf cooling walee
=
Disad vantrqes E
Air- (odling Byetem in 1G Ergine
• The
fnn abeesbs a (ongiAeratfe torfon fthe emine prwerc
(abont S%) to drdve t an îe vety bwky.
• Becaue Pf
the absenee ofooling vctt wntet, Air-Coole
«engnes atee mo
îgierc
tne coffieienl- t heat s thansfer for watee is mesa

than hat t att y there less een- Coo|ing in this case.

 E-vg

Watrr Cooligy Syeem in Ie Eqine

watu? the wte cooingrsysfem.
m

-Tne coolíng med used in is

coGTOUn dd by wtt gneketr thyouyh
in tnts anine eytindares ate . ws foom tne eylini
whien me coolint watere flaws Hent flo ylinue wnls
goes
oto the wntete uheh to tye allalos whetu t loces it head
awnere
To aveid tne togen im the engine duriny lhe wintte seAo),
.
onli frege is added to the walac
By adding anifee, tie ratere aid not su and ciceudae

Anlikege Coslant

w/ater caaling
syims ate
Thermosy hon Systeo
2

=) Thecnosy phon Sy lem:

Paete Therne sy phon Sy tem

Radiaas
Eryine

Advontayes
Cimpliaty

Disndvanlages
. Ae the eircendalTy foolantir main uned sy nalrred
Coveetien only, Ihe cool îng sathe sous
 As there a latoge
quaotty ff wlat in Ihe system and due
i
too the gomy the prestutte in the coolanti Jese and il
lare moe (ime for he enyne ta reneh he o
percatig
tempeteafte
Alutays a mini mum level otob laniis to be mainfained i the
syeten ale t leads
Io the teuu sf the syslim by the hol

} fump Cirewaien syetem

a cooling syetem a
It is tha woKK witn þanp.
Prets of Ganp cirewadhon Syelem
Emine (uütn eylinde)
Looliny Fan
Thercmorfa Valve
Radinas

• Watrare Pump

Centigad Pump is used to eircedate the anlie trsough ou tne

syslemtn high brestute so
thal the hot coo[anl- cools
table l
aa
ID Com ponenl
f Eryne Coolingy
Belno ote the com þormentr ofthe
System:
an tn terna Comlurien
Cooling system m

tmine and treir funeions

=) Rodiaes- This enyine cooling prts
and etrips i mnde ffauminiumtbes
ffows
thaleigy belwen Iabes. Itigh- Tempealute uid
mde the
Fanffatrsd ftm raior Irouyh a hee.hìs heded
the to tube to the tuid s
au thes
ceAmy which îs
blmon away then
to the atnogshere
= (oelingy
Fon- The
Caotiy fn
fm iis locaed a ittete tne ndan,
ushiieh îs closest to
the engne . This
to proleel-fngee and dirceel þatei daged desigmed
tocooo Ihe holfuid ireftou l¥ blowe aite to'me rador
whe the engne is unming,So the fan helps
 E-4
ts coot doubn the temperzatate ¢
the radinlor
A moderen eleelne fam is contolled by
the vehieles ombe.
Thea is a tempercate sengoot
thmoni lors the enghe emþetcaute an
Serds Ihe infoonin l the Ecu.

=} freseue Cap aund Reserve TonK Radinor

uùth þreccate crt so hat estarige coolan ( ftono out s ieapands.
Thus, the funetion cnp is to main Tan presrutu în the Coolingsy shem

tormee
he prunds bere Squate imeh (prî).if the prestu is up
highete ha han the set pressute pojntz
et csol
ohens and a
Gnal ameun
anibled off.
IranKis aA reseeveir thal- colle elz the cablant bled
Resercve
fom the þe st wtiged [Link] fank e tobically made
with blasie,
ot
and ean imdical
it aS empettaute of ti coolan

engghe
Walar funt - wa þump ano the
cooant cool ingr syslen. 4k mounld
imþenlcon bonen)-an
engine and it Kets eieilalng the caolant
onthe fron ot the
[Link] the engne is
wHSKirga The þarc- i made
inþllere blade Ihpump the cool cnl
ion r ca-
Cactuminum and an
= Thetcrno stal A
thrmo&al 6imbly a vodve thal- Senge o
menkutes Ihe lemþeteaute of the engine coolan-. 1 the caolan
ythatenouyh Hie
Thermo emains loe,
the coolarml-
temberce me
enches Some bla
speeife l2mperatate,ttobens
Soon as
and nllowt the coo lan ftoo tiroug ndinbo he
= Henr lore -
Hoi- coolanta betern putfoses fro Hhe
lotce
(ate inlert ior wmen requted .To ashire aehiere th is the coolinysyetem
a
dumed with heete
com þenen
Cora lhal mamy looK
likzs uith the
[Link] Coneeted
olleet and elen' the coo\onl-from uina þatr of rubbett noces to
. the wnterc pump ( the (o6
Ike engine a
Thee Ts fn plowet that tolow the hened core
whehnen snpb{ies heat from the hott coolan ta the cate infrior
->Hoses complete eicenaion of CoolanF fom the vadal
The
inletna þat t the engihe baeK to the rad
ACCD
etne umonen rat achived b hoses, an he man hoes
 They te brych and ttd wrdet
Compate with othbre
wo
By Pass System he compon ents wosKE when the cosont
to ensugh to open the thertmo tadt. Thus, ih
th ailons the canlanl toþasr the
by
ndintis
aircecfy te ae inbbt
to
engine so the coolan I tempertate can be blomcad.
\tt ofen arnae ho
e) bul-some
Anfacta
=} eylinde head hasxet: ond Intake Monifold harkets
Th Com þonenl3 also helps fhe enne
too|ing sy em nl- seccaly
Coolanl- and oi feaKoge ón
of theemine or into the Combuon
ehanbee Even ag as
the
mating Surefaes ata þre cisely maehined ant
eapfoyad.
=
hete Plugs Thie ic a
þatt in the nqine thamanfckied
wùth Spee a Sand adong uith mol ken
t the oo
lan l- þastages in he engíne
melaIt moulded (o the ehoe
boex. Coolan -f ue
the coolan- uel þoure ghi- o ele
 TRAS MISSION SYSTEM T-|

The mechanitn thd- aantmits the prwet develo þad by the emgine of
aulomabil e to the engine (o he dmivirg s Called the
vhs17anêmicon

•he gete box

• fofaller shajt
Umiversal ioin
• Reate
ale
• Whet
•Tyres

= Requiemndi Trangemiscion Syeero

Prerde meons { connecl:ion and diseone ol ion fenge mith
raf
. Rrovideavarje leratcogp boleen the ang'ne and the drire whede.
Porid
•Enase onwet ronsnmî sgîan a
varad agfes and vaed engfs.
•Enale shaed redueion
bawn enghe an the drve whuls in
5:|

Eneirerron
•Roovide mare fa
qed ohen reqitsd.
dre the dririnywhels ard ad ifeen
•Beny the Hft toraye
renein, droring frartond bay

=} Main ¢
ilz Tranpmist ion Syelem
• fina Orve

Tron Ca
Twqys Tube
Rans whe)
and Univerced Joinde
 Type ot Tangmision System
|
|. Manu Trangnicsion
Senuenliad
2
Intigen Manund Tronsision (IM) 1: Torqe Conerdae
S. Automated Manu Troncmissim
4 (AM) oTip tonic
Awomie Tranemi ssiun
(A)
s. Conlinatly Variable Tranenicsion
6• Semi- (cv)
onalie Trongni seion

=} Manud Tsanemi ien

lranmission is a syrem
manuo
A

mananlly saleel
tharguire the dreivet to

Changegeote This lzanmissies

syefem is CongtKs
ofa
Advan ages

•Thic

• Aoevertyone Can dmre

Hrqhere leattnere cteve
wos
These ate Tegue durcing dràring

at
Simby
(nllligeManual Tron
tni ction:
and te acly ptt the Intalligd Manua
Trmgnicsîoy is a
o
tfhe manual getbox,1 has genre and geat lever The drivecs
an awtomatie caC ne the
dmetl
almogt
Iie tMT doeet have a
duteh padel bal jurta boaKe and an acelecaar pedad
Adran lags

qest
Yau Can hae
You cote
is 1n and you wou
d'not have ( toflwake
• The cot o an (MT à also clos to
manu rongmission
thad--a regular
 Disadranlaye
gae ara ns tmath
eate shiftr
• (MT,
In shttr
eluteh which has to be modu lated
othe
by an
cyfem relis
aetular
on
=} Auloneted Manud Trantmisçi
ox madifie vaton
An Anlomd Manua Tran pmi stion is an enhaneed
¢
nond Fanemicaîen thadhag limin the need to engg the
duteh beha utn ehiftiny geate.l is alamort imi lat o a manud
tankmiscion bu- in this syslem, the senser and
actuaoss aeas

t ifianladvan lage of the tMT orr the rned frortmiten

t ift comvenienee belause
the drire.' taSK , Co redues faligue

the uhes than aufomaie antniscioy

• You Can drive w
heudevere yorw wan
whieh ment me
come mamua mod
eqwtpa
AMT eqmhþa cat a
dso wîth the
Dicrdvonlases
Howevet, Sne - AMTS defend on þredelarominad ReM laeds;
AMTŠ desend lovels;
thay can cause unplanned ehan
duig ovelaKiny which
Can be aoblesome
amamuay
weiht han
rongmíss fon

Aonie
a
Tronsmi<tion

I- is mnt- shud (rons miesion wlized in vehielec hat do

nl
tuattens
a and a
torque converlEr.
 shmn
bfy Con ve nienl- and easy t5
ate
and factargpes
.
• they provide comfertate drriny for the dtie
• AT; hove more þowete than any enuivaenmonua
'nahutlly have
|Fontisin.
Drcadvanays mamy ilems tom
compler sysleim wheru difeenl
.4 ia
Vey open öive

rongmisSion

(on fin uoney Vari nlle Toamemi sibn

These me þlly-based sanémisîom ordmarly usedl

vohi eles uith Sna ete enaines end they can charge qars seamlcay
throngh a conglan qeat
ratio, he t obþoeilo (6 othet rontmitins
Ihdoffett (ini fad numbt of at ralios
a mber ctayes tnfred
hdvanlases
con þrovide you a be eause w
They smooteslde elihina

{fruientiy.
ean gore you a reeporng ta
lt fnee ehonge
in drev ingy constivs
Dread on
las coneiduned con
suitnble in off-ond candilions

Thera is mo engone brnKiny

Cataility
manua rorbmîsio

Semi- auomale Trangmission -

a
whetce þatele of ats oþarealion îe anomie ba regtesmamuay.
driras
inbu tö gocs
dvo' the vehiele fom sfop and ehonge
 T-S

iü combinon of mmanw
andaomaie Fsanrmi crn
Advon ges -
"hey om foovide you to manua fronmicsio n.
• Semi- noutpmie anganiscie hac
fewe inefiienes in
meane

Dradranlas
Comple sy slems meane
•These at
ohib thalobjecd-s

to manud sonmissfo)

eflae
=} D
u- en Tons mi
srin
Thic onsmì em so oys [w sehateale elnehe fos odd and
even geae
selt which alow for erpecialy quicK chayts The dem
Aher recbeelire clatahes are wîthin a houtihy, ns
and obeae
Single untt.

and bellar þarfoemane tiag

ntomatfe honeicsîons
Sine they shift smeo Hhly
and with aa hogti- dagee f
ateutay they ate ofle
drring
Drcadvanlas
They ste enten sike,thic dndan layes is cempoonokd by thdr
Comþlail «hieh lende to wyre feqenl and coxtly epaircs
 • When drdving at toN Spodsy such as o on the
þariig lo|-

monn you l5 seleed flher the

A
sequeni 5aniscion alows
nexl- geat (tig. Shifliny fom fivt gcare se cond geat) or the
lo
trerious get (e-g. sof thg fom hird
4hangh oleelonie
qatT Seond geat) oferad
þedas mouned on he reat of the sfering
whel
Adontays
• The seruna liansmicon is eai
• You con inerense or decrease youre Speed w
tw withonsfopþi

6
This meehan iCm is maned be eause you ean
cequne
Drsadvan lags -
Vou
cart 'Sxiþ
the. ehift-I·e. ehany gent mon- seauen
liay.
• Geingaain aflin a bonie Slap eon
bi-
con be a bi
afiettas they
donot to shrft ensly wlile sfappm
lie
-} Torque- (onveler Tanemisrien -
This îs one of theoldest tyees of antomaie lonimi [Link]
find lorque convelers wetca devimed or ony
nt co-of borcfmn
fonie and atee for áty or higoy drving
tdvan lae
mximum
a
rqu as con
Com þatud (o a
ehiele
equifped with elul
to &rirng by a avoidiny
• l+ Can þrovîde driiny Con fort (o
for
changig gees manuely
 remove the maxe
•They eluh sd þedal and dreviny eaiere

Disad van age

The forque convelr ianmi scion ate lecs feel effiten
Cemjatted b manua soan¢mi
cràn
"hece type 4 Trnsmierien syclem
reuie hiqkar cogf is

Tnp Ronie Fransmistion

The ap
lanie lngctio Syclem s similatt an anatomie
|Tonsmiscion syslem in thatr the driver can eil-auomele md)
md use tke poddles l5 shiff u dnon Iike a manua
rartmissioy
The Iany onî lFán fmics on is aso Knton as
Stastonre langmicsien

tdyanlage
• Deñvînya uth mblFonîe lsns mistion alosr you
you mose
con
lsl wher you ehange geate
• drnviny ub or dron a
When
eatee
sfap hill, yru manualy ehane
(o allos fos aa Smoother and Gefe safe ide
•
Auomie shifiry in mua mode elso
asrlz the dosver
y daeloying the ngne
i eae fof doon- shift failte
Drsadianlagu
The Faiplaonie syslem Mses a lormue convelue n indaad of
(he reglae clulen meehanikm, thic can
Yernllm Some
•
EO chife es,
Sine i manua modty he a
here t stight
dlay
dun the shift ohten be comec eridenlo in
.
moe
agrestire driving
 The elu is housec belween the enine and Faontmissi
hu i -
þroids a meehanicay cenpling
beien the angone't flyohu ans
the franemikin np shat The eldeh îs by Iinkoge
thal exnde fom
the fuctenger temþon tornpad tonhatnen
the egine fom the drien a velhi ele is
gesteg
dhls' hen' ehangdy

Drenyginyg the euden seaicale tne fiyatied, the ladeh

pale and the frecntu þl-e frm eaeh othz The fly ohe)'cc ballal
t the end f the ençhaff and |ae awith e. The
cdlh
sfinad
When the brecsnta î readensed by
the depracsing thecluten
þeda, the ermxehatt

Requiemenls
fa
mct
Cluden
The cuh n
•Piex d lond smoð Aly milhadgab os clatfer.
•
Hea driven dusK ice of los momen-of inetla l5
ensy
etil chifTg
Dan o any vîbaion f he coaKcehast (6 herentgerc
cCatter
 T-9

ypiead
clh aelualed by a mnubte ol sbrings on a pitsl4
f¢ coil
neates tye þei phery Š shoon The drcien shat wieh
eurrele

Snproed at e fon a| beatng in a

end im hole i%the cene
ftywhel web, hieh is spigel-ound llad on lo a flarg
the cranxehaft,
he eat end
f the pe crae plaz forwaKdK
In this elweh .the coî) sþìngs
fre
Us elanp the drcien
þle belüeen d and the rea -faee of the
tyaske! Thae lage eadénd reat wntelk from perelheny ffreccuba

nflz wcth the resl- acr

the drtren plafe sf
emly. The
assembly
sþlined onls the chaft, theu ate bedaen three
alease lerats bresting the coi ) <þny - he outer end the ingen
endi
Con be
ofMosed
the leveres þecting thett
mem
stingattne tet end.
tsrie foowakd by
grngnite ond slide adongy the eteh shaft ten clueh pedal
datresred . Tie driron plalz bel a een
nad tytud and besttea

Worning
When the dueh ic
the tyohel and frestntee plal2. he Greeion linings ate on

"Hme hue engine bowe tranermitted ( tne cuteh shot. When

acled the frescuu pala
be csons
ae moves
baw
tree befoen ttyaska)
ayainst
and eladh plae
 Thus y whe renms long
he eluteh is said e be i agged cddoh shattgu nduu
vedues
slauly and 4tnaty it ciaat
atnd wilh
dulhPtala
Rywhad triclion linin saring
Prescue
briig
Shat

Single fiaeelueh
-
=) M
Wtbfae culeh
The madp{ ldoh s an
he mbn
umbet
umbet t 4reion and th med
ate iercen sed
The inesense in the mumbar
lee
4rîelon sntface obrisuey inereae eabaily

(brque sansnissien ac a
sane heay tõans
löanc bor vehielec, i ehreyelie qurcbops

this 4hde
tind abblicoisne i cae se seaðlae s
ef and ma
loeyoes ,wohere
Shaee avaade limilad

sn fa
Exlen y
whufi
nunbet ¢
a dreuen,
dreun, when
sueh
n

thine metd blais

t nnak cietwnfoane
ont
Thase mut

Inteleaved with tmese ates

tlarr pl

Splinod (o an imet dtwm whh Cubfed lationaMy 6

geneb shadl. Frilion liningy

Pll atached wiE
iven hafl
Sring
driving
Driven Su

Flyttud t-Fricliay Pla

Culeh
Mli-de
 T-|

a on
he web ¢ tmat drum and see in inn atu daum
i a sory ce)

tnnete drum
The elueh is dis emaged by pull irg innert drwm riglagantt

kfrthe with mela!

or one sel-
con
may tined witha
b2 be
taet fnbicon i esenind and
no so c
maes
is

meKethe pl doag hen

oluon i tengaed'ond so
Ssme mem shodd be þrovi ded(5 avoid tmic daag

•Flywkul
•Frtion Dice

Sprñng
• Ruease levetcs
•
Ceh
• Lingg
elease beonng

Flywheel
The twheel s used l5 ire enety when eru t exuse

Frodion Dse
Fiion rovîdes the neeesaty abililg lo change the direetin
6f tne druriny and driren shg,
 The þuro
se
Ihal- uld ne-as a d'ns belwem the engine
and

Spring and Relene leets

The sSprony
bong uçad are dinbhaagn
Spry
(erats
The released eretc on
wil li'grthe 4re uhih is hel

Ie sping when the elaeh is disengaged

and <alf- ceafariny iT tomp ensalo Bos

ligmmond yaruntiens in

luoh Lingye
•A d
linKase meeh omisn uses
leete and0de a

padal is þresed,
ke tu ehecd uil þuh tte
and
-
rereses the toruatd moremen bel Cane
The be anK Îs connee- the þeda.
o
th
(te denserd.
he eleak od lsngs the bel eranK marenend

elueh tres plae

 T-13

vehieles amd are eommony

Damþezs atze used in
ineon idh in the autamile aulom
fre indatrynsa
Shocx Absorber.
lrm Rolay damþee ate
•Vehiele dampots deetpl disrihaT enerY, whegeot iros and

Jexy stanl

• Free pedal playin ie slax þravidd Lafere tihe aclin

cduteh ohettaioy slatt
The diean u
till shech amy ons fres the eluo þed

is calkd
clen pedo tre play.
abuo mm in CAres

le Funelion ie Rlet Cspil) Bearng -

is a smal beatiny lstated in eener
langmicctonr Iie the Bfyelhe2) n man
inbshot eited tt
vehieles. main tteneltoy ie (7
ond trovid asmorth and snoofthe
¢ he (roncmianon

oiw hen the duden is engaged cnden

ae
Hers is tke im þodam tunelioy a þilof beandg

liomenl-The bilet bearing help t alimthe th tancmiaiy

inbushatt with thu engine eonKchaft, ensurgs
þro þatly l|- that e
dice and 4R
unerad oli
and th ontoh
whe. This ignn is csuiaN to smot th and
engagemem
•Redcng biehoy heþilet bearing redues balwen the
oainy tyuwhel ond the salionnty Iäonsmíaion
By
boîdin aa lono brüefion mrtte,w los he
minimig fny weat on
meehanim fie lueh lence
ond Ironsnîcîon (mbonenls .
• Vibanion am punâny
The damben
vibsoon and hatmonîes mal

Iye chan es

• Lubrieaion- In som cnses, tye

is labðcalad mith grenge
filt beting is lwild
ond Tedee fmetio
ex eessive .Tis
headbuldn ad
sabieioy
went n
the
helje (7 aeien
the beriny Sutefau.
 T-i

M
Causes and Remedies o elulih owblee
Here (one tomen eluteh þabbl ems and heire bofen
olin
is

in MOdiec
ues ia «nd

Cause Over ime lime, (4e elh diee can weatdoon ,lendng
and veducoe engaoemen, this can
elnt
Remady The emedy 4r
a nea one•IE recommanded l5 eplnce the enre chueh
aste mbly . ineludiny tme restnte þlae nd glese beariglo
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dwteh cable or pobene with the hydrdie syclin CctlTh
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duteh malfunttous.

cates ne escay. In hydruie syslns

eluen checingrto
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iere ae amy damaged omþonenlr , Pey hould be veporad
or e reßland accordingy
Ai
in the thydsanie Syslem
tme
Couse
Ar budes bntbles hydrahe syslm Can lead (6a
m

spongy
sttor
engagemen or eyagemenl
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de tie cweh
Renoly Mesding he hydsaad? syslam remOYe
the ssoluton. Thii the bl eedte valve on
mvlvee obening
(he awe ylindr oY culen relence
eyin kr and alaoing
eseaba w ohile Kubig the marten
eylindt re seteriore bllad with nthroriala tud. te
 y
Fulty dwe Macare eylindurt orslave Cylindere
Cauuye
t mtanelioning daeh maela eylin der or
sloe eylindaz
Can
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RemedyI{ the eylinder ans raflaud.
Enge Hhal the al ylindrS ate
amy
nie and aehive smab the aeh oþrcio
or lmboar adjuand

Cruse
dem-raed roblemg.
Remedy

Seheiteaions ean
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i lhe icswe, Me eluteh acte maly may nud
I6 be insteeled md

Worn os Damaged Fly ushed

CaueA orn nr emoge Blywha

enggemanlslinr oluleh chatlac
cetiyrakting).
Remedy Resafoainy or replocing the tyoha may be neearaty
duyending on
the Sererul fhe wear or dlemay,
l fat fapse t the geac hok, geatt a
rlios and Gunefon slidingmech
gar- box.
A
duie mnbe anthri (5 emnde the engine exaxghebtlo d

rosale
Speud
ala relliely hizhere <pud, slide the okele täton
Thie is Sutr ounded by a mela bia called
aa sewse

a gearcbox, The
aeatbox for cess
is the d toansmHing ensrgy n a mechanicod egne
engine

Palt dcore'ueion heatebo

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an shayt
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tme veliede ndueing tne engine <pa a

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4 hsay vehieles Ke
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.
lorries

riremen?.
hearbor bsodens bsoalens bo he dimia
th
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belwen tne emine

dtring w
kaele tö be varded

NoTE:
hente boy s þlaed batuwem Ihe claoh and Asox joinl
 beat Ralo calenlalion invdles delat mi
iny the rais the rlaliona)

te gedon his bedween ne siyes and mumbet 4

laeth on the gars,
enjnuee lo denn systems with Aesired shacd or laoque
.The sgeate rao eatdaia caleualion is escenlia
VUaS aPi eafion incledinyad anlomlive loancnicrisme and
indueriad machinaty
+
rafio tan be dined as the ralo 4 he nwmben df vatations
qeare

olaliena spade 4 the lioo maing genes l•a, Dsove. and Oronen
geate. The gean vnto arminec cpeed ond torgae relationshi
the
belaen e ars in a meehamical <yslem: A
gea
nigh gRA rnio wild

The dettnaon qente cwm

valio be 4 theu types whieh ate deþerdan

ow dt hearing s\ the comn on nooma a the foind

the
Conlaetbsen a fare (eath must awonys ase thsough
the þiloh
þoind.

The fcfose & ear vafos in a vabie't faamiciny <yslem is (o opimiy

he powett and tosquedlivery om thengine to lhe wheds. By proviiy
dittercen gott saliot he foncmiscion allos Me delint to eleol
the
Airing coi ion s. Herre stu the mawn

•
Aeedeion and Gower ioc (nam erdeady
wghet) toovide forque maipliion,alring the vahicle
15 oeeoerlt quiely Grom sladcttll or duriny lawspe maqeuvars
a
lKe oimbiny hills as lowiny heawy londs. These lawe getes amity
he engine's þow,enaoling the vehile
and genetcaz mre qrres a lö over (ome resñefane
ihe Oheele
 T-19

These gcatc all ono the

enine (o opucal (ouer RpM (rellions þore
Higher
qeat ate
7os
man ainîng a
aleo bent tfci or nighumy
drrihg, whr
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tfois
di rale
•Spud Rang
cnables the vehicle (5 oþatraa wida sheed range.
a
otti enty droc
can genns to malen the
The drret
a
shikt chesd roguwremalt and
aehieve the degired balance belwen þoret and otteieny
doad
HondlingDrerorl geare
ralc help in handing
vatyiry land torndilins lowet geats
the raliele or when encaunleiny slap
im creased torque (5
ineline, Fhay buovidee
ovat Come
Caitalle Ax Tighlonde or eilane. Hihere
when lravelling on
q2ars ate moe
qf lain,
Mechaniel Advanlak - Aene provide a meehanica
Rdyanla by a
rios
faning the raldionelik bolwan tme njins

dower qeatk ralioe m

py (he enghe's (rue dherans highe

a lybe gent
In a matu (TanGmigsroy geat bot, Hu sing mech
ais

gents lo aehieret tae dess red psd and (örgne reiremenl. The
4unedion 4 the stikiny mesh in a geate box oan
be exblaimeo as fad los
 geans
The <lilhy mesh mechamitm
a and geatt Talios
ent4a
, Each r
Set wih ditheed si-
by
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engy
the druiae celecl a farieare
When
geaty the slidony mech me ehaiem movzs tie destirad qearins
wiith me inpsht tme sancmistin.
The gort lalth theseleeled
the
4rom the enne
Synchranitliün He geats, the
hing mth
mechauit
.
meg
imJT"r
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a
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minimiges
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thiblz
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l5 Me whuts hrugh he
qeacbon, The engaged geore ralio delacminee e sheed and
Iiqye chanariies 4 the vehiele. Fr etley cample,
a
lowet more
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geote ters higher <he at lowstt enine RPM
Grebtiein

mesh meehanigm ditengyes täe curtreen

lgeae
mn
by viny

Shals
 T-2)

heat box. Comon ronblee ond remediec.

(ons anMeshhent Box
Consanl Mesh gar bor ic uso tor the smo} d an audo
wkiy moile.
They ae
by a veduclien in Syed manu
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enrt sylem can be
4
Irancmi ccî[Link] invehioy
\Faced bax l he ninelnth
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lõonys and chud salio . Atory witn
wilh this,
his, the
fhe everLse mechanikm aso s
also baesen l-. Thi monna
lancmics iem hiehau daveloped reont,
In
lch ic
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, onan-Mech heareby em be deined
ms

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gotes

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owatlable l5 he main shal mouh the qeats om he
This îs done
conle halst
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is
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d
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qor smsoth
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The comclan |- Mech hsar lbor is nsed in vehiles beeause

• In his damasyes does nol occu (ö geat whel sinely id

only atteels the dog elulen.

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Flue 4 yeat

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e
foom nýne ha l Ihe mansha whereas me Conan l
Mesh heat bo uses
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 T-2

synehromes h heabex
synchamoch goatbox is a lF pe 4 manua laarsmicrion sysle
im wheh
The

Farsmišsion changes seeute belwen geatc onyl the sama spu.

In Ihis tye & gänby, the geatS on the lay shalatee Gized ts
Wand he geats on the main ha dt either reely ou
nen or be locçd on tie
when disenjag egigd. lyd- shoohen
Ras 4 synelyomesh Qeacbox
Genebox
4
elwh shi is nsed as an in badsnnttasi
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.
genibox I|- is also
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in þul gore s mownaJ on he cluen
called
Shay.
the inpul [Link]
Loyshatl

CNes on the inpud and

cutpu shatts
ran
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Trasters powet brom he qeare

gea brx e
vehies
&rire meehanibm.
Caries (he

hearns
Vanious sies and unfig uedins proride Aitenen-Spud
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e
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ypes
vmelude sw helicn qoats.

Synohroniyae Aesemies
Congig t thsee mem
sere, ond tings. þare: the Synchigen hub,
 T- 23

Dey
o
Lalid en the syneheniet stens.
wuidth
Engge

Soid meclh aniea comeelin tor hower

i Forks

ttache l6 the utl- leree meh omicn

More the syneh TLomiger Hers (5 eng
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eates.

I the vehiele's caloin.

me
Atls driret l6 saleel- gearu
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heae Seleli mechain

Co
nnecli the huitl- leren (s ne
titI- forke.
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enl f tme
preciš

Eneoses and þolecls all imleenal comjonend.

Ty pically made of duminum

ard WeeurC.
 T-24

loning frinete
the Cemes inlo cornlacl wilh me
qeate lone, malehing tneir Cpea
a When the gae , the
drre sitls dutlfoon
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a Comes
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Advanlages

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Symohomegh geaebrec are
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vahieles whre'G oolh and que ifting ie ecreli
Important things with all important points Selection: Choose a blade with higher TPI for harder
materials and finer cuts. Lower TPI blades are better for
1. Hacksaw Frames softer materials and faster, rougher cuts.

Types: Installation and Usage:

• Adjustable Frame: Can hold different blade lengths • Install with teeth facing forward for standard
(commonly 10 and 12 inches). cutting.
• Fixed Frame: Designed for a specific blade length. • Ensure blade is properly tensioned in the frame.
• Use with appropriate cutting lubricant for metals.

Care and Maintenance:

• Store blades in a dry place to prevent rust.

• Replace blades that are bent, broken, or have dull
teeth.
Construction:
• Avoid using excessive force to prolong blade life.
• Material: Typically made from steel or aluminium
Safety:
for durability.
• Handle: Usually a pistol grip or a straight handle for • Wear safety glasses to protect eyes from flying
user comfort. particles.
• Pins: Used to secure the blade at each end of the • Use gloves to protect hands from sharp edges.
frame.

Features:
3. Surface Gauge
• Tension Adjustment: Allows tightening or loosening
of the blade for optimal cutting. A surface gauge is a precision tool used in metalworking for
• Blade Positioning: Some frames allow blades to be scribing lines and measuring flatness or alignment on
positioned at different angles for versatile cutting. workpieces.

Use: Purpose and Use:

• Suitable for cutting various materials like metal, • Used for marking and measuring in metalworking.
plastic, and wood. • Assists in scribing lines on workpieces, typically in
• Commonly used in metalworking, plumbing, and layout work.
DIY projects. • Helps in checking the flatness or alignment of
workpieces on surface plates.
Care and Maintenance:

• Regularly check and adjust blade tension.

• Clean and lubricate the frame to prevent rust.
• Replace worn or damaged parts like pins or handles.

2. Hacksaw Blades Components:

Material: Most commonly made from high-speed steel (HSS) • Base: Heavy and rigid, usually made of cast iron for
for strength and durability. Some blades have a bimetal stability.
construction, combining HSS teeth with a flexible steel back. • Column (or Upright): Vertical member, often with
adjustable height.
Types and Sizes: • Scriber (or Scribing Tool): Hardened steel rod for
marking; adjustable in height and angle.
• Length: Commonly 10 to 12 inches.
• Clamping Mechanism: To secure the scriber at
• Teeth Per Inch (TPI): Varies based on material to be
desired position.
cut (14 to 32 TPI are common).
• Type: Regular for straight cuts; Wavy for smoother Types:
cuts in thin materials.
• Simple Surface Gauge: Basic design with limited
features.
 • Universal Surface Gauge: More versatile with
additional adjustments.

Construction:

• Precision-engineered for accuracy.

Purpose: Used for holding cylindrical workpieces during
• Base may have a V-groove to facilitate use on inspection, layout, and machining.
cylindrical surfaces.
• Durable materials to resist wear and maintain Construction: Made of hardened steel, cast iron, or other
accuracy. durable materials. Shaped like a "V" to cradle cylindrical
objects.
Usage Guidelines:
Types:
• Place on a clean, flat surface plate for accurate
measurements. • Solid: One-piece construction.
• Adjust scriber to required height and lock in place. • Adjustable: Two-piece design for versatility.
• Use light, even pressure to scribe lines.
Sizes and Capacity: Available in various sizes to
• Can be used with a dial indicator for more precise
accommodate different diameters of workpieces.
measurements.
Accuracy: Precision-ground for high accuracy in alignment
Maintenance:
and dimension.
• Regularly clean to remove debris and prevent rust.
Accessories: Often used with clamps for secure holding.
• Check for wear and accuracy, especially on the
Magnetic bases for easy attachment to metal surfaces.
scriber point.
• Store in a dry, protected place when not in use. Maintenance: Keep clean and rust-free. Store properly to
avoid damage.
Safety Tips:
Applications:
• Handle with care to avoid damaging the precision
surfaces. • Widely used in metalworking, machining, and
• Keep fingers away from the scriber point to prevent toolmaking.
injury. • Ideal for round or cylindrical parts.

Applications: Advantages:

• Common in machine shops and tool rooms. • Ensures stable and accurate positioning of
• Essential for toolmaking, machining, and inspection workpieces.
processes. • Facilitates precise machining operations.

Advantages:

• Provides a precise and reliable method for marking 5. Marking Off Table
and measuring.
• Versatile tool compatible with various workpiece A marking off table is a precision-machined, flat surface used
sizes and shapes. for accurate layout and marking in metalworking and
fabrication.
Limitations:
Purpose: Used for accurate layout and marking of
• Requires a stable and flat reference surface. workpieces in metalworking.
• Manual operation; less efficient for large-scale
Construction: Flat, rigid surface, typically made of cast iron.
production.
Precision-machined for flatness and smoothness.

Size: Available in various sizes to accommodate different

4. V-Blocks project needs.

V-Blocks are precision tools for securely holding cylindrical Features:

objects during machining, inspection, and layout in
• Often features T-slots or holes for securing
metalworking and toolmaking.
workpieces or tools.
• Surface may be treated to resist rust and wear.
Accuracy: Designed for high precision in layout and • Engineer's Vice: Heavy-duty, for metalworking.
measurement tasks. • Woodworker's Vice: Designed for woodworking
tasks.
Maintenance: Regularly cleaned to maintain surface
• Swivel Base Vice: Allows rotation for flexible
accuracy. Protected from corrosion and physical damage.
positioning.
Usage:
Mounting: Bolted onto a workbench for stability.
• Used in conjunction with measuring tools like
Jaw Material: Jaws may be hardened steel, or equipped with
calipers, height gauges.
wood or plastic covers to protect workpieces.
• Ideal for layout work in toolmaking, machining, and
fabrication. Size: Various sizes available, chosen based on workpiece
dimensions.

Maintenance:
6. Engineer's Square
• Regular lubrication of screw and moving parts.
An engineer's square is a precision tool for checking • Keep clean from debris and rust.
squareness and right angles in metalworking and
woodworking applications. Applications:

Purpose: Used for checking squareness and right angles in • Common in workshops, garages, and
metalworking and woodworking. manufacturing settings.

Construction: Comprises a steel blade and a stock (handle), Advantages:

usually made of steel or cast iron. Blade and stock are
• Provides a stable and secure grip on workpieces.
precisely joined at a right angle.
• Enhances safety and precision in various tasks.
Accuracy: Precision-ground for high accuracy. Checked
against a master square for ensuring right angles.

Sizes: Available in various sizes to suit different project 8. Vice Clamp

requirements.
Vice clamps are versatile tools for securely holding objects,
Maintenance: Keep clean and rust-free. Store in a protective essential in woodworking, metalworking, and various DIY
case to maintain accuracy. projects.

Usage: Purpose: Designed for temporarily securing objects during

tasks like gluing, cutting, or drilling.
• Essential for layout work, tool setup, and machine
setup. Used to check the squareness of materials Construction: Typically consists of two jaws (one fixed, one
and tools. movable), a screw mechanism, and a handle.

Advantages: Materials: Often made from steel or cast iron for durability.
Some models have plastic or rubber coatings on jaws to
• Provides accurate and reliable measurements. protect workpieces.
• Durable and long-lasting with proper care.
Types:

• Hand Vice Clamp: Portable, operated by hand.

7. Bench Vice • Bench Vice Clamp: Larger, mounted on a
workbench.
A bench vice is a versatile clamping tool, essential for
securely holding workpieces during machining and assembly Size: Available in various sizes to accommodate different
tasks. project needs.

Purpose: Secures workpieces for machining, sawing, drilling, Adjustability: Screw mechanism allows for adjustable jaw
or filing. width to fit various object sizes.

Construction: Typically made from cast iron or steel. Applications:

Comprises a fixed jaw, movable jaw, screw mechanism, and
handle. • Widely used in woodworking, metalworking, and
DIY projects.
Types:
Maintenance: Regular cleaning and lubrication of the screw Materials:
mechanism. Inspect for wear and damage.
• Blades typically made of high-carbon steel or alloy
Advantages: steel.
• Handles constructed from wood, plastic, or metal.
• Provides a firm and adjustable grip.
• Enhances precision and safety in work. Types:

• Flat, Round, Half-Round, Triangular, Square, and

Needle Files.
9. Chisels • Specialized types like Diamond Files for harder
Chisels are hand tools with a shaped cutting edge for carving materials.
or cutting hard materials like wood, metal, or stone. Size:
Purpose: Used for carving, shaping, and cutting materials. • Varies from small needle files to large hand files.
Essential for woodworking, masonry, and metalworking. • Size choice depends on the precision and scope of
Construction: Comprises a blade with a sharp cutting edge work.
and a handle. Blade and handle are securely joined. Length: Ranges from a few inches for needle files to over 12
Materials: Blades typically made from steel (carbon or high- inches for larger files.
speed steel). Handles made from wood, plastic, or metal, Grade: Rough, Bastard, Second Cut, Smooth, and Dead
often with a protective cap. Smooth, indicating coarseness.
Types: Cut: Single Cut (one set of parallel teeth) or Double Cut (two
• Wood Chisels: For woodworking, with various blade sets of teeth crisscrossing).
shapes. Section: The cross-sectional shape of the file, like flat, round,
• Cold Chisels: For metalworking, with a tougher or square.
edge.
• Masonry Chisels: For stone and concrete, with a Applications:
wide, heavy blade.
• Metalworking: For shaping and finishing metal
• Carving Chisels: For detailed carving work in wood
parts.
or stone.
• Woodworking: For fine shaping and smoothing
Size and Capacity: Sizes vary, ranging from small, fine chisels wood.
for detailed work to large chisels for rough shaping. Blade • Jewellery Making: Detailed and precision filing.
width and shape determine the specific application. • Plastic Working: Smoothing and shaping plastic
components.
Applications:
Care of Files:
• Woodworking: Creating joints, shaping, and
detailing. • Keep files clean; use a file card or brush to remove
• Metalworking: Cutting and shaping metal. debris.
• Masonry: Shaping stone and concrete. • Store separately to prevent teeth from damaging
• Sculpture: Detailed carving in wood or stone. each other.
• Avoid exposure to moisture to prevent rust.
• Do not use files as pry bars or screwdrivers to
maintain integrity.
10. Files
• Lubricate occasionally with light oil for smoother
Files are tools with abrasive surfaces for shaping, smoothing, operation and rust prevention.
and finishing materials like metal, wood, and plastic.

Purpose:
11. File Card
• Used for cutting, shaping, deburring, and finishing
materials. File Cards are essential workshop tools used for cleaning and
• Essential for precision material removal and surface maintaining files, ensuring their longevity and effectiveness
preparation. in metalworking and woodworking tasks.

Construction: Comprised of a tapered blade with a series of Uses of File Card in Workshop:
ridges or teeth and a handle.
 • Cleaning Files: Primarily used for removing metal or • Improved Control: It can offer better control over
wood shavings that clog file teeth. the filing process, allowing for smoother, more
• Maintenance: Regular use extends the life and consistent strokes and reducing the likelihood of
efficiency of metal and wood files. digging into the workpiece.
• Improving Precision: Keeps files sharp for accurate • Versatility: A file with convex teeth can be used
and precise work. more effectively on a variety of surfaces and
• Versatile: Suitable for various types of files materials.
including flat, half-round, and round.
• Safety: Prevents accidents by maintaining a clean
and effective tool. 13. Proper speed for steady and accurate filing
• Cost-Effective: Reduces the need for frequent file
replacements. To ensure steady and accurate filing in a workshop, it's
• Easy to Use: Simple, manual operation without the important to maintain an appropriate speed and properly
need for additional power sources. attach the file handle. Here are the details:
• Enhancing Performance: Ensures optimal
• Proper Speed for Steady and Accurate Filing
performance of files for smoother, cleaner cuts.
General Speed Guideline: The ideal speed for filing
• Time-Saving: Quickly cleans files, reducing
is typically around 40 to 60 strokes per minute. This
downtime in workshop tasks.
can vary depending on the material and the
• Compact Design: Easily stored and accessible in a specifics of the task.
workshop environment.
• Consistent Motion: Maintain a steady, rhythmic
motion. Apply pressure on the forward stroke and
ease off on the return stroke.
12. Convexity of Files • Adjust Based on Material: Harder materials may
require slower, more controlled strokes, while
The term "Convexity of a File" in the context of a workshop
softer materials might be worked on slightly faster.
can refer to two different aspects: the physical shape of the
• Pressure and Control: Ensure even pressure is
file itself (a file with a convex cutting surface) or the concept
applied during the forward stroke for effective
of 'edge convexity', which is a characteristic of the teeth or
material removal. The return stroke should be
the cutting edge of many files. Let's explore both:
lighter, without pressure.
Physical Shape of the File (Convex Cutting Surface): • Listen to the File: The sound of the file can indicate
if you're at the right speed and pressure – a smooth,
• Design: Some files have a convex shape, meaning even sound is ideal.
the cutting surface bulges outward. This is in
contrast to flat or concave files.
• Purpose: The convex shape allows for specific filing
14. Right method of fixing file handle
actions, such as smoothing or rounding inside
curves, grooves, or hollows where a flat file would • Select Appropriate Handle: Choose a handle that
be inefficient or too aggressive. fits the tang of the file snugly. Handles come in
• Material Removal: The convex design can enable various sizes and materials, like wood or plastic.
more controlled and gradual material removal, • Inserting the Tang: Align the tang (the tapered end
which is crucial for delicate or precision work. of the file) with the hole in the handle. The fit
Edge Convexity (Convexity of the Teeth or Cutting Edge): should be tight.
• Securing the File: If the handle has a set screw, use
• Design: Many files, even flat ones, might have a it to secure the file. Otherwise, gently tap the
slight convexity in their cutting teeth. This means handle's end (not the file's end) on a firm surface to
the teeth are not perfectly flat but have a subtle wedge the tang inside the handle more securely.
outward curve. • Safety Check: Ensure the file is firmly attached to
the handle. A loose file can lead to accidents or
Reason for Convexity:
inefficient filing.
• Strength and Durability: The convexity can make • Regular Inspection: Regularly check the handle’s fit.
the edges stronger and less prone to chipping or Over time, the tang may become loose, requiring
becoming dull. This enhances the file's longevity. readjustment or replacement of the handle.
• Reduced Clogging: A slightly convex edge can help • Use of a Hammer: If necessary, use a hammer to
prevent the file from becoming clogged with gently tap the end of the handle to secure the file –
material, as the shavings are more likely to fall away but do so cautiously to avoid damaging the handle
from the curved surface. or file.
 Uses in Marking Out Practice:

15. Angle Plates • Providing a stable and parallel base for accurate
marking.
Angle plates are precision-ground, right-angled metal tools • Aligning workpieces for precise scribing and
used for holding workpieces in a fixed position during measurement.
machining.

17. Surface Plate

Surface plates are flat, rigid platforms used for precise
inspection, marking, and layout of workpieces in machining
processes.

Construction: Construction:

• Made of cast iron, steel, or aluminium. • Made from granite, cast iron, or steel.
• Designed with a 90-degree angle. • Precision-ground or lapped to achieve a flat surface.

Types: Types:

• Slotted: For clamping versatility. • Granite Surface Plates: Non-corrosive, thermally

• Plain: Without slots, for standard uses. stable, and less prone to warping.
• Cast Iron Surface Plates: Durable and may include
Size: Available in various sizes to accommodate different
T-slots for fixturing.
workpieces.
Size: Available in various sizes, from small benchtop to large
Applications:
floor models.
• Holding workpieces at a precise angle for machining
Applications:
or inspection.
• Aiding in the setup of complex machining • Used as a reference plane for inspection and quality
operations. control.
• Essential for precise measurement, layout, and
Uses in Marking Out Practice:
gauging tasks.
• Ensuring accurate right angles during layout. • Commonly used for assembling and calibrating
• Supporting workpieces for precise marking. machinery and tools.
• Serves as a base for other precision tools and
16. Parallel Blocks equipment.

Parallel blocks are precision tools used for achieving

accurate parallel positioning of workpieces in machining
operations. 18. C Clamps

Construction: C clamps are versatile tools with a C-shaped frame used for
holding workpieces securely in place during operations.
• Typically made from hardened steel.
• Precision-ground for parallelism and flatness. Construction:

Types: • Consists of a stationary jaw, a movable jaw, a screw

mechanism, and a handle.
• Adjustable: For various thicknesses. • Typically made from cast iron or steel.
• Standard: Fixed dimensions.
Size: Available in various sizes to accommodate different
Size: Come in pairs, with dimensions standardized for thicknesses of workpieces.
different applications.
Application:
Application:
• Commonly used for clamping materials during
• Elevating or supporting workpieces in machine cutting, drilling, welding, and assembly.
tools. • Handy for temporary fixation of workpieces.
• Ensuring precise and parallel alignment during
machining. Parallel Clamps
Parallel clamps are designed to apply even pressure across • Analog: 0.02 mm (0.001 inches).
workpieces, ensuring alignment and stability during • Digital: 0.01 mm (0.0005 inches).
woodworking and metalworking.
Applications:
Construction:
• Used for precise measurement of parts in
• Features two parallel jaws, a sliding mechanism for machining, metalworking, and mechanical design.
adjustment, and a tightening mechanism. • Essential for quality control and ensuring
• Constructed from steel or other durable materials. adherence to specified dimensions.

Size: Comes in a range of lengths to suit various project sizes. Vernier Height Gauge

Applications: Vernier height gauges are precision measuring tools used for
determining heights or vertical distances in manufacturing
• Ideal for tasks requiring precise pressure without
and engineering.
warping, such as gluing or assembling large pieces.
• Used in cabinetry, woodworking, and metalworking Construction:
for precise alignment.
• Comprises a vertical column mounted on a flat
base.
• Includes a sliding head with a Vernier scale.
19. Vernier Calliper
Materials: Typically made from hardened stainless steel for
Vernier callipers are precision instruments for measuring durability and accuracy.
internal, external dimensions, and depths with high accuracy
in engineering. Types:

Construction: • Analog Vernier Height Gauges: Feature a Vernier

scale for measurement.
• Comprises a main scale and a sliding Vernier scale. • Digital Vernier Height Gauges: Equipped with a
• Includes upper jaws (for internal measurements), digital readout for ease of use.
lower jaws (for external measurements), and a
depth rod. Size: Common sizes range from 6 inches (150 mm) to 24
inches (600 mm).

Measurement Range: Usually ranges from 0 to 300 mm (12

inches) up to 0 to 600 mm (24 inches).

Accuracy:
Materials:
• Analog gauges: Accuracy typically within 0.02 mm
• Generally made of stainless steel or hardened steel. (0.001 inches).
• Digital models may include electronic components • Digital gauges: Accuracy can be up to 0.01 mm
and an LCD display. (0.0005 inches).

Types: Resolution:

• Analog: Features a Vernier scale for reading. • Analog: 0.02 mm (0.001 inches).
• Digital: Displays measurements on an LCD. • Digital: 0.01 mm (0.0005 inches).

Size: Common lengths: 6 inches (150 mm), 8 inches (200 Applications:

mm), 12 inches (300 mm).
• Used for precise height measurements in tool-
Measurement Range: Typically, 0 to 150 mm (6 inches), with making, machining, and inspection tasks.
larger models extending to 300 mm (12 inches) or more. • Essential for setting and verifying heights of jigs,
fixtures, and machine components.
Accuracy:

• Analog callipers: Accuracy up to 0.02 mm (0.001

inches). 20. Principle of Least Count
• Digital callipers: Accuracy up to 0.01 mm (0.0005
inches). The principle of least count refers to the smallest
measurement that can be accurately read or measured on a
Resolution:
measuring instrument, indicating its precision and • Consists of a number of drill heads placed side by
resolution. side.
• Allows simultaneous drilling of several holes in one
Definition: Least count is the smallest value that can be
workpiece.
measured with an instrument, representing the limit of
• Efficient for mass production.
precision.
Multiple Drilling Machine:
Calculation: Determined by dividing the smallest main scale
reading by the number of divisions on the Vernier scale. • Equipped with a number of drill spindles.
• Can drill several holes at the same time.
• Significance in Measurements: Indicates the
• Ideal for repetitive work on large-scale production.
precision level of the instrument.
• Crucial for accuracy in scientific and engineering Determination of Tap Drill Size
measurements.
• The tap drill size is crucial for creating internal
Examples: threads to accommodate a screw or bolt.
• The correct size depends on a few factors:
• Vernier Calliper: With a main scale division of 1 mm
and 50 Vernier scale divisions, the least count is 1 Thread Size: The outer diameter of the threads.
mm / 50 = 0.02 mm.
• Micrometre Screw Gauge: If one complete rotation Thread Pitch: The distance between threads for metric
moves 0.5 mm and there are 50 divisions, the least system, or the number of threads per inch for the imperial
count is 0.5 mm / 50 = 0.01 mm. system.

Importance in Instrument Selection: Material: Softer materials might require a slightly larger tap
drill size.
• Determines the suitability of an instrument for a
given measurement task. Drill Teeth:
• Essential for choosing the right tool in precision Materials: High-Speed Steel (HSS), Cobalt, Carbide.
engineering and quality control.
Point Angles:

• General purpose: 118°.

21. Drilling Machines • Hard materials: 135°.
• Special materials: 90°-140°.
Drilling machines, also known as drill presses, are used to cut
holes into or through metal, wood, or other materials. They Flute Types:
come in various types, each suited for specific applications.
• Standard (two flutes): Most materials.
Common Types of Drilling Machines • Parabolic: Better chip removal.
Bench Type Drilling Machine: Helix Angle:
• These are small in size and mounted on a bench. • Standard: 30°-40°.
• Ideal for drilling small holes in light jobs. • Hard materials: Lower angle.
• Typically used in workshops and garages. • Soft materials: Higher angle.
Pillar Type Drilling Machine: Coatings: Titanium Nitride (TiN), Titanium Aluminum Nitride
• Larger than the bench type. Mounted on a floor (TiAlN).
stand or on a pillar. Used for drilling medium to Web Thickness: Affects drill strength; thicker for harder
large and heavy workpieces. materials.
Radial Drilling Machine: Lip Relief Angle: Varies based on material hardness; greater
for softer materials.
• Features a radial arm along which the drill head can
be positioned. Drill Diameter: Common range: 0.5 mm to 75 mm.
• Suitable for heavy workpieces and large holes.
• Offers a high degree of flexibility in terms of Chisel Edge Angle: Typically, around 120° to 135°.
movement and operation. Cutting Edge Length: Proportional to drill diameter; longer
Specialized Drilling Machines for deeper holes.

Gang Drilling Machine:

Speed Range: Typically, 100-3000 RPM, varies with machine Usage:
type.
• Versatile for marking out, checking, and setting
Spindle Travel: Generally, 50 mm to 250 mm. angles on a job.
• Common in metalworking, carpentry, and
Materials Capable: Metal, wood, plastic, composites.
fabrication.
Importance of Coolant in Drilling

1. Heat Reduction: Essential for minimizing heat

generated from friction during drilling, preventing
23. Taps
overheating of the drill bit and workpiece. Taps:
2. Extended Tool Life: Coolants help maintain the
sharpness and structure of drill bits, reducing the • Tools for cutting internal threads.
frequency of replacements due to overheating • Types include taper, plug, and bottoming taps.
damage.
Size of Tap:
3. Enhanced Cutting Efficiency: By lubricating the
cutting surface, coolants reduce friction, leading to • Sized by thread diameter and pitch.
smoother and faster drilling. • Standard sizes: metric (M2 to M30) and imperial
4. Improved Surface Finish: Helps achieve a finer (No. 0 to 3 inches).
finish on drilled holes by flushing away chips and
debris from the cutting zone. Tapping:
5. Effective Chip Removal: Crucial for preventing
• Process of cutting internal threads in a hole.
clogging of the drill bit, ensuring continuous and
• Requires lubrication for smoother cutting and
efficient drilling.
reduced wear.
6. Prevention of Material Deformation: Maintains
lower temperatures, reducing the risk of warping or Tapping of Blind Hole:
distortion of the material being drilled.
7. Corrosion Prevention: Certain coolants have • Done using a spiral flute tap.
properties that protect both the workpiece and the • Necessary to avoid chip clogging.
drill bit from rust and corrosion.
Reasons for Broken Taps:
8. Safety Enhancement: Reduces the risk of burns and
accidents, making the drilling process safer overall. • Incorrect size or type of tap.
• Excessive feed rate or inadequate lubrication.
• Misalignment or uneven pressure.
22. Combination Set Angles:
Components: Ruler, Square head, Protractor head and
• Tap cutting face angle typically around 5° to 7°.
Center head.
• Angle critical for thread cutting efficiency.
Material: Generally made of hardened steel.

Ruler: Typically 12 inches (300mm), marked in inches and

millimeters.
24. External Threading

Square Head: External threading involves creating helical grooves on a

cylindrical or conical object, typically using taps and dies,
• For 90° and 45° angles. essential in manufacturing for bolt and screw fabrication.
• Includes spirit level and scriber.
Purpose: To produce external screw threads on rods, pipes,
• Used for marking out right angles and straight lines.
or fasteners.
Protractor Head:
Methods:
• Adjustable; measures angles between 0° to 180°.
• Cutting Threads: Using dies or thread cutting tools
• Used for finding and setting various angles.
on lathes.
Center Head: • Rolling Threads: Deforming the material using
thread rolling machines.
• Finds centers of circles and cylinders.
• Essential for circular layouts Tools Used:

Accuracy: Generally within ±1 minute of arc. • Hand Dies: For manual threading. Lathe Tools:
 • For precision threading on a lathe. • Unified Thread Standard (UTS): Also has a 60-
• Thread Rolling Machines: For high-volume degree angle.
production. • British Standard Pipe (BSP): Features a 55-degree
thread angle.
Thread Standards:
Sizes: Range from small diameters (e.g., M2 for metric) to
• Metric (ISO): Commonly uses a 60-degree thread larger sizes (e.g., 2 inches in UTS).
angle.
• Unified Thread Standard (UTS): Typically 60-degree Materials: Usually made of high-speed steel, carbon steel, or
angle. alloy steel.
• British Standard Pipe (BSP): 55-degree thread angle.
Thread Pitch: The distance between thread peaks, varies
Sizes: Range from small (e.g., M2 in metric) to large (e.g., 2 based on thread standard and size.
inches in UTS).
Applications:
Thread Pitch: Distance between threads, critical for
• Used in machine shops for threading rods and bolts.
compatibility with internal threads.
• Essential in manufacturing for creating custom
Material Considerations: fasteners.

• Harder materials require more robust tools and Die Stock: The tool holder for hand-operated dies, providing
techniques. leverage and control.
• Softer materials are easier to thread but less
Lubrication: Cutting fluid is often used to reduce friction and
durable.
heat during the threading process.
Accuracy and Precision: Essential for ensuring compatibility
Maintenance:
with mating parts.
• Regular cleaning and proper storage to prevent
Lubrication: Cutting fluids are used to reduce friction and
rust.
heat.
• Sharpening or replacing when teeth become dull.
Applications:

• Creating bolts, screws, and custom threaded

components. 26. Types of Stocks and Handles
• Used in mechanical assemblies, construction, and Die Stocks:
automotive industries.
• Straight Die Stock: Traditional handle for hand-
operated dies, with a straight bar that provides
leverage for turning.
25. Dies
• T-Handle Die Stock: Features a T-shaped handle,
Dies are specialized tools used in manufacturing to cut or offering a comfortable grip and better control,
form material, especially for creating threads, with various especially for smaller dies.
types, sizes, and thread standards. • Ratchet Die Stock: Includes a ratcheting
mechanism, allowing for easier and more efficient
Purpose: Primarily used for cutting threads on the external
threading, particularly in confined spaces.
surface of rods, pipes, or bolts.
Tap Handles (Tap Wrenches):
Types:
• T-Handle Tap Wrench: Common design for manual
• Cutting Dies: For thread cutting, including solid and
tapping, offering good leverage and control, ideal
adjustable (split) dies.
for smaller taps.
• Forming Dies: Used in metal forming, like bending
• Straight Tap Wrench: Resembles a screwdriver,
or shaping.
suitable for larger taps where more torque is
• Tapping Dies: Specifically for creating internal needed.
threads.
• Ratchet Tap Wrench: Provides a ratcheting action,
Thread Standards: useful for threading in tight spaces or when needing
to frequently change direction.
• Metric (ISO): Typically uses a 60-degree thread • Adjustable Tap Wrench: Features an adjustable
angle. jaw/chuck to accommodate various tap sizes,
versatile for different tapping tasks.
File Handles: • Initial alignment is crucial for thread straightness.

• Screw-On File Handle: A handle that screws onto Cutting Process:

the end of the file, providing a secure grip.
• Apply even, steady pressure while turning the die
• Slip-On File Handle: Easily slips onto the file tang,
stock.
suitable for quick changes but less secure than
screw-on types. • Start slowly, then increase speed as the die cuts into
the material.
• Wooden File Handle: Traditional and comfortable,
typically used with slip-on or screw-on • Periodically reverse to break chips and avoid
attachments. clogging.
• Plastic File Handle: Offers durability and often an Thread Checking: Use a thread gauge to periodically check
ergonomic design for comfort during extended use. the thread depth and accuracy.
Chisel Handles: Finishing: Remove burrs or sharp edges with a file or
deburring tool after cutting.
• Wooden Chisel Handle: Traditional, provides a
comfortable grip and can absorb impact well. Maintenance: Clean the die and stock after use to prevent
• Plastic or Composite Handle: More durable than rust and maintain sharpness.
wood, often with ergonomic designs and shock-
absorbing properties. Thread Specifications:
• Metal Handle: Extremely durable, used for heavy- • Common thread angles: 60 degrees for metric and
duty chisels and applications. UTS (Unified Thread Standard), 55 degrees for BSP
Screwdriver Handles: (British Standard Pipe).
• Thread sizes can range widely depending on the die
• Standard Handle: Typical handle, usually plastic or used.
rubber for grip.
• Ratcheting Handle: Allows the screwdriver bit to Choosing the Right Lubricant:
turn in one direction without needing to reposition • Steel and iron work well with traditional cutting oils.
the tool.
• Aluminium may require a lighter, synthetic
• T-Handle: Offers extra leverage and control, ideal lubricant.
for high-torque applications.
• Plastics may need a specialized lubricant to prevent
• Precision Screwdriver Handle: Smaller, designed for sticking or material damage.
electronics and fine mechanical work.
Consider factors like lubricant viscosity, material
compatibility, and clean-up requirements.
27. Method of Threading with Stock and Die
Threading with a stock and die involves creating precise 28. Outside Micrometre
external threads on rods or bolts using a hand-operated tool,
requiring correct alignment and steady pressure. Outside micrometres are precision measuring instruments
used to accurately measure the external dimensions of
Preparation: objects with high precision, featuring a calibrated screw
• Chamfer the end of the workpiece for easier die mechanism.
starting. Construction:
• Clean the workpiece to remove debris or oil.
• Comprises a C-shaped frame, anvil, spindle,
Die and Stock Selection: thimble, and sleeve (scale).
• Choose a die matching the desired thread size and • Typically includes a ratchet stop for consistent
pitch. measuring force.
• Ensure compatibility of the die with the die stock. Materials:
Lubrication: Apply cutting fluid to the workpiece and die for • Frame usually made of hardened steel or cast iron.
smoother cutting and to reduce heat. • Spindle and anvil are typically made of hardened,
Alignment: ground steel for accuracy and wear resistance.

• Position the die perpendicular to the workpiece for Measuring Range:

accurate threading.
 • Common ranges: 0-25 mm, 25-50 mm, 50-75 mm, • Generally, provides accuracy within 0.01 mm
etc. (0.0001 inches).
• Incremental increases usually in 25 mm segments. • Higher precision models can achieve accuracies of
0.001 mm (0.00001 inches).
Accuracy:
Resolution: Common resolution is 0.01 mm (0.0001 inches).
• Standard micrometres offer accuracy up to 0.01
mm (0.0001 inches). Use:
• Higher precision models can measure to accuracies
• Select appropriate size rod for the measurement.
of 0.001 mm (0.00001 inches).
• Insert into the bore or internal space.
Resolution: Typically, 0.01 mm (0.0001 inches) for most • Expand the micrometre by turning the thimble until
models. it contacts the internal surfaces.
• Read measurement from the thimble and rod scale.
Thimble Scale: Graduated scale on the thimble for fine
adjustments and readings. Applications:

Applications: • Widely used in mechanical engineering and

manufacturing for measuring the internal diameter
• Used in mechanical engineering, metalworking, and
of cylinders, pipes, and other hollow objects.
quality control.
• Essential for precision measurement of shafts,
bolts, and mechanical parts.
30. Depth Gauge
Usage:
Depth gauges are measuring instruments used to determine
• Place the object between the spindle and anvil. the depth of holes, slots, and recesses, featuring a graduated
• Turn the thimble until the object is securely scale and a sliding probe for precise measurements.
contacted.
Types:
• Use the ratchet stop to apply consistent force.
• Read the measurement from the scales. • Vernier Depth Gauge: Precision tool with a Vernier
scale.
• Digital Depth Gauge: Features an electronic display
29. Inside Micrometre for easy reading.
• Dial Depth Gauge: Uses a dial indicator for
Inside micrometres are precision instruments designed for measurements.
measuring the internal dimensions of objects, featuring a
calibrated screw and interchangeable rods for various size Construction:
ranges.
• Comprises a base that rests on the reference
Construction: surface and a perpendicular probe that measures
depth.
• Consists of a cylindrical body, a thimble, a spindle, • Made from hardened steel or stainless steel for
and interchangeable measuring rods or extensions. durability.
• Includes a ratchet mechanism for consistent force
application. Measuring Range: Common ranges include 0-150 mm, 0-300
mm, with larger sizes available for industrial applications.
Materials:
Accuracy:
• Made from high-quality, hardened steel for
durability and accuracy. • Vernier and Dial Gauges: Typically, accurate to 0.01
• Precision-ground measuring faces for reliable mm (0.0001 inches).
measurements. • Digital Gauges: Can offer accuracies down to 0.001
mm (0.00001 inches).
Measuring Range:
Resolution:
• Standard ranges: 5-30 mm, 25-50 mm, 50-75 mm,
etc. • Vernier and Dial: Generally, 0.01 mm (0.0001
• Usually available in sets covering a wide range of inches).
sizes. • Digital: As fine as 0.001 mm (0.00001 inches).

Accuracy: Use:
 • Place the base of the gauge on a reference surface. Advantages:
• Extend the probe into the depth to be measured.
• Provides high precision and sensitivity for surface
• Read the measurement from the scale, dial, or
inspections.
digital display.
• Versatile for use in machining, toolmaking, and
Applications: quality control.

• Essential in metalworking, engineering, and

manufacturing for checking the depth of slots,
holes, and recesses. 32. Use of Small-Bore Gauge in Measuring Small
• Also used in quality control and inspection. Bore in Cylinder
Selection of Gauge: Choose a bore gauge with a range
suitable for the cylinder size, commonly within 0.5 mm to
31. Dial Test Indicator 100 mm for small bores.

Checking the Truth of Flat and Round Surfaces Overview: Dial Calibration:
test indicators are precision measuring tools used to detect
small deviations from flatness and roundness in surfaces. • Calibrate against a standard (ring gauge or
micrometre) close to the expected cylinder
Construction: diameter.
• Typical calibration standards might be within the
• Features a dial face, measuring needle, and a swivel
range of the cylinder's diameter, e.g., 30 mm, 40
or pivoting arm.
mm, etc.
• Typically made from hardened steel or other
durable materials. Measurement Process:

Measuring Range and Resolution: • Insert the collapsed gauge into the cylinder bore.
• Gently expand until contact with the bore walls is
• Common measuring range: 0.01 mm to 10 mm.
firm.
• Resolution usually ranges from 0.01 mm, 0.001 mm
• For telescoping gauges, lock the position once
to 0.0001 inches for high precision.
contact is made.
Checking Flatness:
Reading the Measurement:
• Used to detect surface irregularities by measuring
• Dial or digital bore gauges give direct readings,
variations from a known flat reference surface.
often with a resolution of 0.001 mm for precision.
• The indicator needle movement shows deviations,
• Telescoping gauges require external measurement
indicating high or low spots on the surface.
with a micrometre, commonly with a resolution of
Checking Roundness: 0.01 mm.

• Suitable for assessing the roundness or Measuring Different Points:

concentricity of cylindrical surfaces.
• Measure at various depths and angles (e.g., top,
• By taking measurements at different points along
middle, bottom of the cylinder) to check for
the circular path, the uniformity of the roundness
uniformity.
can be evaluated.
• Cylinder bore should be measured in at least two
Types: directions: perpendicular (to check diameter) and
parallel (to check ovality).
• Lever Type: Ideal for confined spaces with a
pivoting lever arm. Importance in Engine Work: Accurate bore measurements
• Plunger Type: Direct linear motion, suitable for are critical for engine rebuilding or machining, ensuring
vertical measurements. components like pistons and rings fit precisely.

Application Technique:

• Ensure the indicator is properly mounted and 33. Mild Steel:

calibrated.
• A carbon steel with a low carbon content (typically
• The probe should lightly contact the surface
about 0.05–0.25% carbon).
without excessive force.
• Good weldability, machinability, and high strength.
• Rotate the surface or move the indicator around
the surface to take measurements.
 • Commonly used in construction, automotive, and • Power Shears: Electric or pneumatic shears for
manufacturing industries. heavy-duty cutting. Ideal for larger projects or
industrial use.
34. Non-Ferrous Metals • Throat less Shears: Allow for complex cuts and
shapes, suitable for intricate work on metal sheets.
• Metals that do not contain iron (e.g., aluminium,
copper, brass). • Bench Shears: Mounted on a bench, designed for
straight or slightly curved cuts. Blade lengths can
• Non-magnetic, more resistant to corrosion than
vary, commonly up to 12 inches or more.
ferrous metals.
• Widely used in electrical wiring, plumbing, and Table Model Shears:
aerospace.
• Designed to be mounted on a work table for
35. Marking and Layout Tools: Divider, Trammels stability.
• Typically used for precise, straight cuts in sheet
Divider (Marking and Layout Tool):
metal.
• A compass-like tool used for scribing circles, arcs, • Common in metal fabrication shops for consistent,
and transferring measurements. repetitive cuts.
• Adjustable points for setting specific distances. • Available in various sizes, depending on the
• Common sizes range from 100 mm to 300 mm in maximum thickness and width of the material they
length. can cut.
• Used on both mild steel and non-ferrous metals for Applications:
precise marking.
• Snips: Used in HVAC, roofing, and metalworking for
Trammels:
cutting metal sheets, ducts, and other thin
• Similar to dividers but used for larger circles or materials.
distances. • Shears: Ideal for larger or thicker materials, and in
• Consist of two adjustable points on a beam or bar. settings where precision and speed are important,
• Beam length varies, with some extending up to 2 such as fabrication and automotive work.
meters or more for larger layouts. • Table Model Shears: Used in industrial applications
• Equipped with fine adjustment mechanisms for for cutting large volumes of sheet metal with high
accurate settings. precision and minimal effort.

36. Various Types of Snips and Shears and Their 37. Sheet Metal Workers - Tools: Bench Vice, Soft
Uses - Table Model Shears Jaw, Clamps, Pliers, Bench Stakes, Holders

Snips and shears are hand tools used for cutting sheet metal, Bench Vice:
with various designs like straight, aviation, and tin snips, • Construction: Made of cast iron or steel, with a
suitable for specific cutting tasks in metalworking and fixed jaw, movable jaw, screw mechanism, and
fabrication. handle.
Snips: • Size: Jaw widths typically range from 4 to 8 inches
(100 to 200 mm).
• Straight Snips: Cut straight lines, suitable for long, • Applications: Used to hold metal sheets for cutting,
straight cuts. Blade lengths typically range from 7 to bending, drilling, and shaping.
14 inches. • Mounting: Bolted onto a workbench for stability.
• Tin Snips: Similar to straight snips but specifically
designed for cutting tin. Ideal for thin metal sheets. Soft Jaw Attachments:
• Aviation Snips: Have compound leverage for easier
• Purpose: Attach to vice jaws to prevent marring or
cutting. Come in left-cutting, right-cutting, and
scratching of the workpiece.
straight-cutting varieties.
• Material: Made of softer materials like rubber,
• Duckbill Snips: Flat, elongated blades for cutting
plastic, or lead.
curves in thin metal. The wide blade design helps in
• Applications: Ideal for delicate or finished metal
cutting tight curves without distortion.
surfaces.
Shears:
Clamps:
 • Types: C-clamps, bar clamps, locking clamps, and • Smooth Cut: Fine finish, less material removal.
sheet metal clamps. • Dead Smooth: Very fine cut, for final finishing work.
• Usage: Used to hold sheet metal pieces in place
Length:
during welding, cutting, or assembly.
• Size: Vary widely to accommodate different • Measured from the tip of the file to the heel,
thicknesses and sizes of metal sheets. excluding the tang.
Pliers: • Common lengths range from 4 inches (100 mm) to
16 inches (400 mm).
• Varieties: Includes locking pliers, needle-nose
Classification:
pliers, and sheet metal pliers.
• Applications: For bending, twisting, cutting, and • Based on shape (flat, round, etc.), cut (single,
holding small or intricate metal parts. double), and cut grade (rough to smooth).
• Features: Often have serrated jaws for a better grip • The number of teeth per inch (TPI) also classifies
on metal. files, with higher TPI for finer cuts.
Bench Stakes: Files for Soft Materials:
• Purpose: Used for shaping, bending, and forming • Softer materials like aluminium or brass require
sheet metal. files with a higher TPI to avoid clogging.
• Types: Include various shapes like anvil, horn, and • Specific types like aluminium files are designed to
swage stakes. prevent clogging when filing soft metals.
• Mounting: Typically mounted on a bench or stake
plate. Special Considerations for Soft Materials:

Holders: • Regularly clear the file’s teeth with a file card to

prevent clogging.
• Function: Used to securely hold tools or metal • Apply gentle pressure to avoid gouging the
pieces. material.
• Types: Include magnetic holders, tool holders, and
work-holding devices.
• Applications: Enhance safety and efficiency by
39. Solder: Use of Fluxes, and Their Effects on
keeping tools and materials in place.
Different Metals
Solder:
38. Files: Various Types, Cut Grade, Length,
• Solder is a fusible metal alloy used to create a
Classification, Files Used for Soft Materials permanent bond between metal workpieces.
Types of Files: • Typically used in electronics, plumbing, and
metalworking.
• Flat File: Rectangular cross-section, for general-
purpose filing. Composition:
• Round File: Circular cross-section, for enlarging
• Commonly composed of tin and lead (e.g., 60/40
holes.
tin/lead) for electronics.
• Half-Round File: Curved on one side and flat on the
• Lead-free solders are increasingly used for health
other, versatile for concave and flat surfaces.
and environmental reasons, often made of tin,
• Triangular File: Three-sided, for filing corners and copper, silver, and other metals.
acute angles.
• Square File: Square cross-section, for filing slots and Melting Point:
keyways.
• Melting point varies based on composition. For
• Needle Files: Small, fine files for precision work in
example, 60/40 tin/lead solder melts around 183-
tight spaces.
190°C (361-374°F).
Cut Grade: • Lead-free solders generally have a higher melting
point than traditional tin-lead solders.
• Rough Cut: Rapid material removal, less finish.
• Bastard Cut: Medium cut for moderate removal Use of Fluxes:
and finishing.
• Second Cut: Finer than bastard, for smoother finish.
 • Flux is a chemical cleaning agent used in soldering Materials: Typically made of steel, aluminium, copper, or
to remove oxides and prevent re-oxidation during brass, chosen based on strength requirements and
soldering. compatibility with the materials being joined.
• Helps improve the flow of solder and enhances the
Sizes:
electrical connection.
• Diameter: Commonly range from 1/16 inch (1.6
Types of Fluxes:
mm) to 3/8 inch (9.5 mm).
• Rosin Flux: Non-corrosive, ideal for electronics. • Length: Chosen based on the thickness of the
• Acid Flux: Used for plumbing; not suitable for materials being joined.
electronics as it can corrode electrical connections.
Uses:
• No-Clean Flux: Leaves minimal residue, reducing
the need for post-soldering clean-up. • Widely used in construction of buildings and
bridges, aircraft manufacturing, and shipbuilding.
Effects on Different Metals:
• Blind rivets are often used in automotive
• Fluxes are crucial for preparing metal surfaces by applications, appliances, and electronic devices.
removing oxides, especially on copper, brass, and
Installation:
stainless steel.
• Ineffective or incorrect flux can lead to poor solder • Solid rivets are installed using a rivet gun or
joints or damage to the metal, particularly sensitive hammer.
in electronics. • Blind rivets are installed with a specialized tool that
pulls the mandrel and expands the rivet body.
Applications:
Advantages:
• Used in electrical soldering for circuit boards and
wiring. • Provides a strong, permanent joint.
• Plumbing for sealing and joining pipes. • Suitable for heavy-duty applications where welding
• Metalworking for joining various metal is not possible or practical.
components.

41. Bellows-Blowers & Their Working

40. Rivet: Types, Riveted Joint, Uses
Bellows:
Rivets are permanent mechanical fasteners consisting of a
smooth cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. • Traditional tools used to manually deliver bursts of
air to stoke fires.
Types of Rivets: • Structure: Consist of a flexible airbag sandwiched
between two rigid boards, with inlet and outlet
1. Solid Rivets: Traditional rivets used in structural
valves.
applications. Requires hammering or pressing to
install. • Operation: Expanding the bag draws air in;
2. Blind Rivets (Pop Rivets): Installed from one side, compressing it forces air out, providing a controlled
commonly used in situations where access to the air blast.
joint is limited. Working of Bellows:
3. Semi-Tubular Rivets: Hollow at the end opposite
the head, requiring less force to apply. • Pulling handles apart expands the airbag, drawing
4. Oscar Rivets: Have a unique multi-grip capability, air in through the inlet valve.
suitable for materials of varying thicknesses. • Pushing handles together compresses the bag,
expelling air through the outlet nozzle into a forge
Riveted Joint: or fire.
1. Lap Joint: Two pieces overlap and are joined with Blowers:
rivets.
2. Butt Joint: Two pieces are placed end-to-end and • Modern mechanical devices designed to provide a
fastened with a rivet through a cover plate. continuous and consistent stream of air.
3. Countersunk Head Rivets: Used where a smooth • Types include electric fans, centrifugal blowers, and
finish is needed, the head sits flush with the surface. positive displacement blowers.

Working of Blowers:
 • Electric Fans: Use spinning blades to move air. • Used for holding, bending, and cutting wires and
• Centrifugal Blowers: Utilize a rotating disk to draw small metal pieces.
air in and push it out radially. • Types include needle-nose, slip-joint, and locking
• Positive Displacement Blowers: Trap air and then pliers.
force it out, providing a steady flow. • Often have insulated handles for electrical work.

Comparison: Wrenches:

• Bellows are manually operated and provide • For turning bolts and nuts.
intermittent air flow. • Types include open-end, box-end, adjustable, and
• Blowers are powered (often electrically) and offer a socket wrenches.
continuous air supply. • Sizes correspond to the size of the bolt or nut,
measured across the flats.
Applications:
Files:
• Bellows: Used in blacksmithing, glassblowing, and
traditional fireplaces. • For smoothing and shaping metal.
• Blowers: Employed in industrial settings for • Available in various shapes (flat, round, half-round)
ventilation, heating, and cooling systems, and in and grades (rough to smooth cut).
metalworking to maintain forge temperatures. • Lengths range from 4 to 18 inches.

Advantages and Limitations: Vice:

• Bellows: Simple and do not require power, but • A clamping tool used to hold work securely.
labour-intensive. • Types include bench vice and machine vice.
• Blowers: More efficient and consistent, but require • Jaw widths vary, typically ranging from 4 to 12
power and more complex maintenance. inches.

Measuring Tools:

42. Anvil and Other Common Hand Tools in • Include calipers, micrometers, rulers, and squares.
Workshop • Essential for precision work to measure dimensions
accurately.
Anvil:
Clamps:
• A heavy, metal block used as a striking surface in
metalworking. • Used to securely hold workpieces in place during
• Typically made of forged or cast steel, extremely operations like welding, cutting, or gluing.
durable. • Types include C-clamps, G-clamps, bar clamps, and
• Has a flat top surface (face), a horn for curved work, quick-release clamps.
and a hardy hole for accessories. • Available in various sizes and clamping forces.
• Sizes vary, commonly ranging from small (100 lbs) Punches:
to large (500 lbs or more).
• Tools for marking or creating small indentations in
Hammer:
metal.
• Essential for shaping and forging metal on the anvil. • Types include center punches, pin punches, and
• Types include ball-peen, sledge, and cross-peen drift punches.
hammers, each serving different purposes. • Useful for starting drill holes or marking
• Weight varies, from light (around 0.5 lbs) for measurement points.
precision work to heavy (over 3 lbs) for forging. Surform Tools:
Chisels:
• Tools with perforated blades, useful for shaping
• Used for cutting or carving metal. softer materials like wood and foam.
• Types include flat, cross-cut, and diamond point. • Ideal for quick material removal and shaping in
• Made of high-carbon steel, hardened and tempered pattern making.
for durability. Spokeshaves:
Pliers: • Hand tools for shaping and smoothing curves in
wooden patterns.
 • Adjustable blades allow for control over the depth • Acetylene: Most commonly used due to its high
of cut. temperature and flame control. Burns at
approximately 3,500°C (6,330°F).
Patternmaker’s Planes:
• Propane and Butane: Used for lower temperature
• Specialized planes for shaping and smoothing large applications.
surfaces of patterns. • Hydrogen: Sometimes used for specialized
• Include various types like block planes and compass applications, such as underwater welding.
planes for curved surfaces.
The Welding Process:
Mallets:
• The metals to be joined are heated by the flame
• Used with chisels and gouges to shape the pattern until they melt and flow together. A filler rod is
material without damaging tools. often used to supply additional metal to the joint.
• Typically made of wood or rubber. • The welder can adjust the flame type (neutral,
carburizing, oxidizing) based on the material being
Core Boxes and Tools: welded.
• Used to create cores that form internal cavities in Types of Flames and Their Uses:
the castings.
• Includes core box planes and scrapers. • Neutral Flame (1:1 ratio of oxygen to acetylene):
Used for welding most metals, including steel, cast
Drafting Equipment: Tools for designing and drawing iron, and copper.
pattern layouts, like compasses, protractors, and drafting • Carburizing Flame (excess acetylene): Ideal for
machines. welding high-carbon steels to avoid oxidation.
• Oxidizing Flame (excess oxygen): Suitable for
Adhesives and Fillers: Used for assembling or repairing
materials like brass and also used in cutting
patterns and for filling imperfections.
operations.
Tongs:

• Used to hold and manipulate hot metal.

• Come in various shapes and sizes, each designed for
a specific purpose or workpiece shape.

43. Gas Welding

Detailed Overview Definition and Basic Concept:

• Gas welding, often referred to as oxy-fuel welding Applications in Various Fields:

or oxyacetylene welding, is a process that uses fuel
gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals. • Extensively used in automotive repairs, plumbing,
• The technique involves creating a flame by burning refrigeration, and industrial fabrication.
a mixture of oxygen and a fuel gas (like acetylene) • Ideal for repair work due to its portability and the
to melt metals at the welding point. ability to cut and weld a variety of metals and
thicknesses.
Key Components:
Advantages of Gas Welding:
• Welding Torch: A tool to control the flame. It mixes
the gases and allows the welder to control the size • Provides flexibility and control over the welding
and intensity of the flame. process.
• Gas Cylinders: Oxygen and fuel gas (acetylene, • Portable equipment makes it suitable for field
propane, etc.) are stored under high pressure in repairs.
separate cylinders. • Capable of both welding and cutting operations.
• Regulators: Attached to gas cylinders, these devices Cutting with Oxy-Fuel Torches:
control the pressure and flow rate of the gases.
• Hoses: Designed to safely transport gases from the • Besides welding, the same setup can be used for
cylinders to the torch. They are color-coded for cutting metals. This involves heating the metal to its
safety (red for acetylene, green for oxygen). ignition temperature and then using a jet of pure
oxygen to create and maintain a continuous cut.
Fuel Gases and Their Characteristics:
44. Brazing 44. Arc Welding
Brazing is a metal-joining process where a filler metal is Arc welding is a type of welding process that uses an
heated above its melting point and distributed between two electric arc to create heat to melt and join metals. It is
or more close-fitting parts by capillary action. one of the most common methods used for welding
Filler Metals: because of its versatility and strength.

• Typically composed of brass, silver, or aluminum- Principle:

silicon alloys.
Arc welding involves creating an electric arc between
• Melting point of filler metals is above 450°C (842°F)
but lower than the melting points of the metals
an electrode and the base material. The intense heat
being joined. from the arc melts the base material and the electrode,
causing them to fuse together upon cooling.
Brazing vs. Soldering:
Electrodes
• Unlike soldering, brazing involves higher
temperatures and provides stronger joints. Types:
• The distinction is often based on the filler metal’s
melting temperature.
Consumable Electrodes: Melt and become part of the
weld. Examples include:
Brazing Process:
• E6010: High cellulose sodium, used for deep
• Parts to be joined are cleaned and flux is applied. penetration.
• Assembled parts are heated, and the filler metal is
• E7018: Low hydrogen potassium, used for
applied.
high-strength welds and reduced hydrogen
• The molten filler metal flows into the joint by
embrittlement.
capillary action and then cools to form a strong
joint. Non-Consumable Electrodes: Do not melt but may add
Heating Methods: filler material. Examples include:

• Torch brazing: Most common, using a gas flame. Tungsten Electrodes: Used in TIG welding.
Furnace brazing:
Coatings:
• For large-scale production or uniform heating of
complex assemblies. • Cellulosic: Provides deep penetration and a
• Induction brazing: For localized, rapid heating. strong arc force.
Flux Usage: • Rutile: Offers smooth weld appearance and
easy slag removal.
• Flux is used to prevent oxidation and clean the
• Basic: Produces high-quality welds with low
metal surfaces during heating.
hydrogen content.
• Types of flux depend on the base metals and
brazing conditions. Current Types
Applications: Direct Current (DC):
• Used for joining dissimilar metals, thin-walled parts,
• DC Electrode Positive (DCEP): Electrode is
and complex assemblies.
positive, and workpiece is negative. Provides
• Common in automotive, aerospace, plumbing, and
electrical industries.
deeper penetration.
• DC Electrode Negative (DCEN): Electrode is
Advantages: negative, and workpiece is positive. Produces a
• Produces stronger joints than soldering. wider and shallower weld pool.
• Does not warp or distort the parts since the whole Alternating Current (AC):
assembly is not heated to a high temperature.
• Suitable for a wide range of metals and alloys. Alternates the polarity, reducing arc blow and allowing
for more uniform heating. Commonly used for welding
magnetic materials.
Current Selection: Welding Parameters

• SMAW: Typically uses DC but can also use AC. Voltage

• GMAW (MIG): Primarily uses DCEP for stable
• Affects the arc length and stability
arc and good penetration.
• Higher voltage increases arc length and width,
• GTAW (TIG): Can use both AC and DC. AC is
while lower voltage decreases them.
used for aluminum and magnesium, while
DCEN is used for other metals. Amperage
Resistance in Arc Welding • Determines the amount of heat generated.
• Higher amperage increases heat input and
Role of Resistance:
penetration.
• Resistance in the welding circuit generates
Travel Speed
heat as current flows through it. This resistance
heating complements the arc's heat to melt • The speed at which the electrode or torch is
the electrode and base metal. moved along the joint.
Factors Affecting Resistance: • Faster speeds reduce heat input and
penetration, while slower speeds increase
• Electrode Diameter: Thicker electrodes have them.
lower resistance.
Electrode Angle
• Base Metal Properties: Different metals have
different resistivity. • Affects the shape and quality of the weld bead.
• Connection Quality: Proper connections • Typically, a 10-15 degree angle from vertical is
reduce unwanted resistance. used for manual welding.
Shielding Gas Common Arc Welding Defects-
Purpose Porosity
Protects the molten weld pool from atmospheric • Gas pockets trapped in the weld.
contamination (oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen). • Causes: Contaminated materials, improper
Types shielding gas flow.

• Inert Gases: Argon, helium (used in TIG and Cracks

MIG welding). • Fissures in the weld metal or HAZ.
• Active Gases: CO2 or argon-CO2 mixtures • Causes: Excessive heat input, rapid cooling,
(used in MIG welding for better penetration high residual stresses.
and stability).
Undercut
Flow Rate
• A groove melted into the base metal adjacent
• The flow rate of the shielding gas is critical and to the weld toe.
varies based on the welding process, material, • Causes: Incorrect welding technique, excessive
and environmental conditions. current.
Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) Inclusions
Definition • Foreign materials trapped in the weld.
The area of the base metal that is not melted but has • Causes: Improper cleaning, inadequate
undergone structural changes due to the welding heat. shielding.

Control Types of Arc Welding and Their Uses -

Preheating and controlled cooling can minimize Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
adverse effects in the HAZ.
Description: Also known as stick welding, SMAW uses Uses:
a consumable electrode coated with flux to lay the
• Heavy equipment manufacturing
weld. The flux coating disintegrates, giving off vapors
that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of • Construction of buildings and bridges
slag, both of which protect the weld area from • Shipbuilding
atmospheric contamination. • Outdoor welding applications due to its
adaptability to windy conditions
Uses:
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
• Construction and structural steel work
• Repair and maintenance jobs Description: SAW involves forming an arc between a
continuously fed consumable solid or tubular (flux-
• Industrial fabrication
cored) electrode and the workpiece. The arc and
• Pipelines and shipbuilding
molten metal are submerged under a blanket of
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW or MIG) granular fusible flux which protects the weld from
contamination.
Description: GMAW, commonly known as MIG (Metal
Inert Gas) welding, employs a continuous solid wire Uses:
electrode fed through a welding gun. An external
• Longitudinal and circumferential seam welding
shielding gas, typically argon or a mixture of argon and
of large pipes
CO2, is used to protect the weld pool from atmospheric
contamination. • Pressure vessels and boilers
• Structural components in bridges and buildings
Uses: • Shipbuilding and large offshore structures
• Automotive industry for bodywork and repairs Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
• Fabrication of thin to medium thickness
materials Description: PAW is similar to GTAW, but the arc is
constricted by a fine-bore copper nozzle, which
• Manufacturing and production environments
increases arc stability and energy density. This allows
• Home and hobbyist projects
for deeper penetration and faster travel speeds.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW or TIG)
Uses:
Description: GTAW, or TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas)
• Aerospace applications for precise and high-
welding, uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to
quality welds
produce the weld. The weld area is protected from
atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas, • Electrical and electronics industry
usually argon. TIG welding can be used with or without • Welding of exotic and high-strength materials
filler material. • Industrial component manufacturing

Uses: Electroslag Welding (ESW)

• Aerospace industry for high-precision work Description: ESW is a highly efficient welding process
• Fabrication of stainless steel and non-ferrous for thick materials. An electric arc is initially struck by
metals like aluminum, magnesium, and copper wire that is fed into the molten slag pool. The molten
alloys slag itself provides the necessary heat to melt the filler
• Artistic and ornamental metalwork wire and the edges of the workpiece.
• Piping systems and food processing equipment Uses:
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) • Welding of thick steel plates in heavy
Description: FCAW is similar to GMAW but uses a wire industries
that is hollow and filled with flux. There are two types: • Large structural components like beams and
self-shielded FCAW (which doesn’t require an external columns
shielding gas) and gas-shielded FCAW (which does • Shipbuilding and heavy machinery
require an external shielding gas). • Pressure vessels and tanks
Electrogas Welding (EGW)

Description: EGW is similar to ESW but includes a gas

shielding process. It uses a continuous electrode to
weld vertically positioned plates.

Uses:

• Vertical welding of thick sections in one pass

• Construction of storage tanks and ships
• Welding of large-diameter pipelines
• Fabrication of heavy steel structures

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages: High weld strength, versatility, cost-

effectiveness.

Disadvantages: Requires skilled operators, potential

for weld defects, high heat input can cause distortions.