22

Distilling Industry
The distillery uses sugar cane molasses, cereal, and other agro
products to
alcoholic beverages. In 2002, global sugar production from sugarcane wasproduce
nearly
100 million tonnes in over 130 countries. The fresh sugarcane input,
by-products
like filter cake and bagasse are released from the sugar production process at a rate
of 3.4% and 25%-30% respectively, on an annual basis. Although there is a mar
ket for bagasse as a fuel, there is no market for filter cake. Currently, the only
option for filter cake utilization is as an organic soil amendment or as landfilL.
Direct incorporation of raw agro-industrial waste into the soil may cause undesir
able effects such as phytotoxicity and soilnitrogen immobilization. Composting is
considered to be one of the most suitable ways of converting organic wastes into
products that are beneficial for plant growth. The concentration of inorganic nitro
gen (N) in compostable material is one of the most important factors in determin
ing agronomic value because, most of the N found in a compost mixture is in the
organic form. IfN availability is low, microbial activity during composting will be
slow. In contrast, ifN is in excess,, it is often lost from the system, as ammonia gas
(NH). The CIN ratio needed for effective composting is between 25 and 40, de
pending on the particular organic substance. The CN ratio of filter cake is ap
proximately 14, but for bagasse it is approximately 100. Therefore, the
composting of filter cake may result in considerable N loss, but N must be added
to promote composting of bagasse.
As already mentioned, sugarcane molasses is a major product being used in
the distilleries, for the production of alcoholic beverages. The production of fer
mented and distilled drinks throughout the world is based on materials that can be
grown locally and which are best suited to prevailing climatic conditions. In the
distillery, molasses are fermented to manufacture ethyl alcohol. The derivation of
molasses is from a sugar-manufacturing unit, which is based either on cane sugar
The
or on beet sugar. The molasses is fermented by yeast after suitable dilution.
unwanted residue after distillation is the stillage, also known as spent wash or
alcohol distillery waste. Distillery waste in the form of 'spent wash' or 'stillage' is
 one ofthe most complex,
Distilling Industry 411
The polluting strength is troublesome
very and strongest
high due to the industrialof organic effluents.
ganic material, such as sugar, lignin, high content
acids.
hemicelluloses, biodegradabl
dextrin, resins e or-
and organic
an4
PROCESSES AND PRODUCTION IN THE
Distilleries different kinds of raw material such as
use
molasses, sugar beet sugar cane
DISTILLERY
evcle of raw materialsmolasses, wine or corn, for the juice, sugar cane
starts from the farm, through a production of alcohol. The
mentation, up todistilling, for production of product formation, and fer
wash. The sugar
manufacturing process
alcoholic beverages, and finally spent
tion and concentration of broadly involves the extraction, clarifica
tallized and dried. The sugarcane juice. Finally, the concentrated juice is crys
press-mud as waste. Themanufacturing
manufacturing
processes produce molasses, bagasse and
process in a distillery
molasses with water, followed by fermentation. The product involves dilution of
is then distilled to
obtain rectified spirit or neutral
alcohol. The distilling process begins with raw
material like grains, which are initially
point the starch is ground in order to make a mash, at which
converted into sugar. Fermentation then undergoes the follow
ing process.

22.1.1 Grinding
The grains are emptied into a rotating brushing
machine, in order to separate them
from the chaff. The grains are then pulverised by the hammer mill and the result
ing flour is blown into 3 hoppers with acapacity of 1.200
kg each. Ingredients for
the malt wine are rye, malt (barley) and maize, while wheat and malt are used for
grain alcohol.
22.1.2 Saccharification of the Starch
The flour is mixed with water in the mash tub which has a capacity 2.900 L. The
mash is brought to boiling point by direct addition of steam, after which it is
cooled down to approximately 69°C. Through the addition of malt - germinated
barley, the saccharification process is induced, and will continue for about I hour
at a temperature of 61°C. The mash is then cooled down to 30°C and pumped into
fermentation tanks.
22.1.3 Fermentation Process
The fermentation chamber contains 4 tanks,each with a capacity of 10,000 L. The
cooled mash, after being pumped into the tanks, is mixed with water to reduce the
Sugar concentration. If the mash is not diluted in this way, the yeast will perish,
because of the high concentration of alcohol, thereby resulting in an incomplete
sOnversion of the sugar into alcohol. Baker's yeast added to this mixture, results
also in
not only in the transformation of sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide, but hours.
the production of other aromatic components. Fermentation lasts about 72
 412 " Environmental Biotechnology
22.1.4 Distillation
The fermented mash is pumped into a
condenser where
reaching the top of the distillation columns. Each of the it is pre-heated
columns is about 6 metres high, and contains as twO copper before
vide for an equal distribution of the mash and themuch as 15 plateaus, distil ation
which
of the pro-
steam. The
mented mash causes the alcohol to evaporate heating
(boiling point 79°C). fer-
volatile The rising
steam, which used to pre-heat the mash, takes with it the
is
which are cooled down in the first condenser. The
second
cools to room temperature. The residue or draff flows from cool water
umns into tanks. This residue is a natural and the bottom of the
component s,
condenser
col-
used as fodder for cattle. The phlegm (first nutritious waste product that will be
ume of alcohol and flows into a distillation) contains about 57% vol.
measurement tank located in a
excise clerks are allowed to unseal this area,
which they do in order sealedto area. Only
the exact quantity of alcohol determine
produced.
tanks, till further processing. Asecond The phlegm is then pumped into storage
phlegm into malt wine through a distillation process is the conversion of the
discontinuous
alcohol through a continuous process in a process in a still pot, or grain
rectification
process for these two products is the same tillthe column. The production
sealed area. Only the grain recipes are different. measurement tank located in the
The fermented solution contains about
ered by distillation. The consumption of molasses6-12% ethyl alcohol, which is recoy
MT (million tonnes) and depends upon the alcoholvaries from 4.53 MT to 6.28
The water consumption shows a very wide produced per KL (kilolitre)
per KL of alcohol. Since the quality of variation from 14.69 KL to 512,88 KL
molasses used
alcohol is also checked on the basis of the quantity of varies, the production of
whose fermentable part (FS) ultimately gets convertedtotal into
reducing sugar, (TRS)
is a better criterion for judging the efficiency. The alcohol and, therefore,
luted effluents in the form of spent wash during thedistilleries generate highly pol
process of alcohol
which is the main concern from the environmental point of production,
view, in this industry.
The spent wash generated per KL of alcohol varies from 10.87 KL to 38.34 KL
against the prescribed norm of 12 KL/KL of alcohol.
In India, 285 distilleries generate 40 billion
litres of effluent in a year. The
distillery wastewater has the potential to produce 1100 million cubic metres
biogas. The wastewater can be used for irrigation of agricultural crops and of
produce more than 80,000 tonnes of biomass annually. can

22.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTE AND

EFFLUENT
The distillery wastewater known as spent wash, is
characterized by its colour, highn
temperature, low pH, and high ash content. It contains a high percentage
solved organic and inorganic matter, of which 50% may be present as of dis
reducing
sugars. The spent wash is produced as a result of fermentation and distillation of
molasses. It is acidicin nature, having very high BOD (40,000 - 50,000 mg/l) and
 Distil ing Industry 413
(10,000-125,000 nol). Dry spent wash contains water
(2-20%) and protein (10-11%). (90-939%). solids
sugar
inspent wash are Fe (348 mg/l), Mn (12.7 mg/l), Za
COD
7106), present
Cr(0.64 mg/l), Cd (0.48 mg/l) and Co (0.08 mgl) (4.61
metals
The mg/l), with
Cu (3.65 therange ofi15-23 dS m. The
mg). conductivity in colour of spent wash
clectrical molasses usedfor fermentation, anthocyanins and tannins, and
duetothe
importantly.
be caramels, melanoidines, and decomposition products such as
may
methyl furfural. Organic compounds extracted from spent wash using
humicin nature, andIsimilar tothose found in the soil, except
most
hydroxyl
reagentsare acid.
over humic
alkaline acidI predominates
fulvic
that
22.2.1 Melanoidins
in juices do not lead to any colour formation reac-
compounds presentmonosaccharides
and other carbonyl compounds
Theamino the presence of
and browning products
tion,
butin
them, the Maillard reaction takes placepolymerisation reactions of
formed from the result of
of melanoidinsis the Maillardreaction. Awide range
The formation
appear. intermediates, formned during
reactive
including cyclisations, dehydrations, retroaldolisations,
highly place, tothe for-
reactions takeisomerisations and further condensations, which lead
of melanoidins.
rearrangements,
nitrogenous polymers and copolymers, known as proceeds.
mation of brown increases as browning
weight off coloured compounds
Thee
molecular
Degradation Products of Hexose
22.2.2 Alkaline products, together with the melonidins, are
alkaline degradation juices. Monosaccharidesin aque
The hexose sugar beet
responsible for upto 80% of colourin reversible and irreversible transformations.
alkaline solutions undergo both mutarotation, enolisation and isomerisation,
ous reactions, ionisation, generallyconsideredcom
The reversible anions which are
in the formation of the enediolreactions of monosaccharides. Enediol species
result monosaccharides as well
intermediates in isomerisation isomerisation of
mon in the
considered to be intermediates degradation reactions.
are intermediates in the alkaline
as starting
Caramnels They are
colloidal com-
22.2.3 products of sugar. surface,affecting
thermal degradation onthe crystal
Caramels are temperatures
remain preferentially sucrose syrups at requires
pounds with a tendency to concentrated caramelisation
Heating in
the quality of white sugar.
The
generationof structures, shouldfirst undergo
colour
above 210°C forms caramels. monosaccharide temperature, yellow or
that Sugars, which are normallyDepending on thetimeandreactions, osuloses are
intramolecular rearrangements.
sugar
degradationcaramelisation. Osuloses
the the colour and caramel
brown solutions are obtained. Inbe intermediates ofcaramel
formed, which are consideredto Components of
lead to the formation of typical
 414 Environmental Biotechnology

the formation ofthree typical 0-heterocyclic

involvedin
flavour. The osuloses
are
hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), hydroxydimethylfuranone (HDE)
compounds: thermallyinduced caramelisation, transglycosidation
andthe for-
glucose. During polymerisation are important.
mation of oligomers by
Grains and Slop
22.2.4 Distiller liquid, unfermented grain particles known
of the
After the settling and decanting
left as residue. The decantedIliquid|is known as "thin
grains, are as part of
as wet distiller's Distilleries produce huge amounts of slop
slop" orwet distiller's soluble. slop is high in BOD and usually very dark
process. The raw
the alcohol production
in colour.
stringent standards imposed on effluent quality,the untreated or par
Despite
effluents very often find access to water bodies. The spreading of the
tially treated distilleries, is a common sight. The
effluents along the marginal land surrounding drying ditches is respon
retention of effluents in open anaerobic lagoons and solarpollution of air, water and
sible for the odour. Distilleries are responsible for the
do not allow its discharge
land surrounding it. The characteristics of spent wash
into a water body, hence it requires treatment. This is particularly true in the sugar
cane distillery sector, where factories have been threatened with closure if they do
not stop dumping their slop wastes into rivers.

22.3 TREATMENT OF DISTILLING INDUSTRY EFFLUENTS

Most of the distilleries are facing the environmental isSsue of treatment and dis
posal of its spent wash. A wide range of technologies have been tried for the treat
ment of spent wash, however, none of these methods have been found to be
effective and economically viable, in order to achieve the standard norms set by
the Central Pollution Control Board, Government of India.

22.3.1 Primary Treatment

Primary treatment methods selectively remove materials, which could interfere
with the physical operation and subsequent treatment processes. The processes are
based on exploitation of the physical properties of the contaminants, and are gen
erally used at the initial stages of effluent treatment. It helps in improving the
treatment efficiencies by reduction of surface area. Screening, flow equalization,
comminution, mixing, flotation, flocculation and sedimentation are the methous
used during the initial stages of effluent treatment. Chemicals are also Use
conjugation with physical treatment, in which sedimentation is performed, bytthe
addition of coagulants and other additives such as alum, lime, ferric chloride, acti-
vated charcoal etc. Different chemical treatment methods were investigated, based
on chemical properties of the pollutants, and as a result, chemical treatment with
as
Fe(lI) and anionic polymer, followed by H,0, +Fenton was selected
the best option because of its performance and viability. reagent
 Distilling Industry 415
Strong Oxidants like ozone and hydrogen
peroxide were used. Though they
result in decolourisation, they are not accepted at
reasons. Tt has been observed that
present, because of economic
inorganic
chlorideand aluminium sulfate do aid the flocculantsof such as iron sulfate, iron
cOone combined with hydrogen peroxide separation colouring matter. Oxida-
is found to be very effective in
the degradation of some aromatics present in wastewater and
removal of colour.
Due to generationof sludge, accumulation of metals, cost, and related contami
nants, chemical methods are not successful.
22.3.2 Secondary Treatment
Secondary treatment is also known as biological treatment, in which soluble and
colloidal form of organic matter is removed. Both aerobic and anaerobic microor
ganism is used in secondary treatment. Anaerobic digestion is the most suitable
option for the treatment of high strength organic effluents. The presence of biode
gradable components in the effluents, coupled with the advantages of the anaero
bic process over other treatment methods, makes it an attractive option. In
addition, a modification in the existing reactor designs for improving the effi
ciency of digestion has also been suggested.
Anaerobic and aerobic treatment systems can remove most of the biologically
removable organics, CODs and colour. Biologically treated distillery wastewater
from different alcohol
is non-biodegradable. Anaerobic treatment of effluents COD
most of the
producing industries over a long-term period is performed. Since
is non-biodegradable,
and colour in biologically treated distillery wastewater methods area neces
identification and optimisation of biotechnologicaltreatment
sity today.
Aerobic treatment
alcohol distilleries contain brown coloured
The wastewaters of molasses-based pollutants. Melanoidins have
melanoidin pigments which are one of the major
microorganisms in wastewater treat
antioxidant properties and are toxic to manymicroorganisms, which have the abil
ment. Many researchers have tried to isolate effluents. A
remove pollutants and decolourise melanoidins from distillery
ity to has
variety of microorganisms have been implicated in decolourisation. It
wide
sp. No. 20, Aspergillus fumigatus G-2-6,
been reported that fungi Coriolus
Rhizoctonia sp. D-90, and bacteria, including Lac
oryzae Y-2-32 and
Aspergillus
hilgardi, showed melanoidin-decolourizing activity. While the potential
clear,
tobacillus melanoidin from wastewater (MWW) is
remove
of these microorganisms to and maintenance of colour removal activity is
stability
their actualuse in genetic chrysosporium ATCC 24728, which, used for
not known. Phanerochaetereduction in colour after 8-10 days. Trametes
decolourisation, indicated
and COD (77%), Coriolus hirsultus pellets
Versicolour removed colour (82%) medium, produced extracellular H,O;culture upto
melanoidins-containing decolourization. The
8rown in a role of enzyme in
43mM and indicated the possible
 416 Environmental Biotechnology

fluid contained two extra cellular peroxidases which helped in decolourisation.

Geotrichum candidum decolourised molasses after 12 days. Decolourisation in
intensely brown colour molasses spent wash (MSW) by Flavodon flavus, a white
rot basidiomycete fungus isolated from a marine habitat, has been reported. Bacil
lus smithi decolourizes 33.5% molasses pigments. Bacillus cereus,
Bacillus
Subtilis and Aeromonas sp. have been reported for decolourisation of industrial
effluent of distilleries. Most of the studies reported so far indicated the efficient
removal of colour from post-methanation tank of the distillery effluent.
Decolourisation by microorganisms is strongly influenced by culture condi
tions. The major culture parameters affecting decolourisation are growth sub
strate, nitrogen availability, oxygen concentration and mode of cultivation of
biomass. The efficiency of colour removal has not been proved successfulwithout
proper optimisation of culture parameters. The rotating biological contactor
(RBC)is a proven technology for large-scale wastewater treatment applications,
offering several advantages: low-shear environment, easy scale-up, high surface
area per unit volume, low maintenance costs, low energy requirements, simple
construction and operation. The use of polyurethane foam (PUF) was found to be
an emerging technology for biological wastewater treatment by the US Environ
mental Protection Agency (US EPA). A rotating biological contactor (RBC) con
taining P chrysosporium immobilized on PUF disks was operated with optimised
decolourisation medium in continuous mode, with a retention time of 3 days.
Decolourisation of molasses wastewater in a bubbling column reactor with
Coriolus versicolor immobilized within Ca-alginate gel, and decolourisation of
melanoidin present in an effluent, using a bioreactor with Coriolus hirsutus immo
bilized onto polyurethane foam cubes has also been reported.
Anaerobic treatment
Modifications in the existing reactor designs for improving the efficiency of diges
tion have been suggested. An improvement in the efficiency of anaerobic diges
tion can be brought about by either suitably modifying the existing digester
design, or by incorporating appropriate advanced operating techniques. Various
anaerobic treatment devices have been used viz. anaerobic 1agoon, anaerobic
digester, anaerobic contact reactor, anaerobic filter, up flow anaerobic sludge
blanket reactor (UASB) and anaerobic fluidised and expanded bed reactors. A
plug flow reactor or UASB reactor is found to be superior to the conventional
process. Another common problem encountered in the industrial anaerobic plants
is biomass washout. This can be addressed, for instance, by the use of membranes
coupled with the anaerobic digester for biomass retention. Atempts to overcome
the inherent disadvantages, or to meet varying needs of industrial effluent treat
ment have also playeda key role in the development of various types of anaerobic
processes.
All modern high rate biomethanation processes are based on the concept of
retaining high viable biomass by some mode of bacterial sludge immobilization.
 Distiling Industry 417
Theseare achieved byformation of highly settle able sludge aggregates combined
with gasseparation and sludge settling, e.g. up flow anaerobic sludge blanket
reactorandanaerobic baffled reactor, bacterial attachment to high density particu-
late carrier materials,, e.g. fluidised bed reactors and anaerobic expanded bed reac-
tors, and entrapment of sludge aggregates between packing material supplied to
thereactor, e.g. down flow anaerobic filter and up flow anaerobic filter.
FixedFilm Reactors. In stationary fixed film reactors, the reactor has a biofilm
Supporttstructure (media) such as activated carbon, PVC (polyvinyl chloride) sup-
norts, hard rock particles or ceramic rings for biomass immobilization. The waste
water is distributed from above/below the media. Fixed film reactors offer the
advantages of simplicity of construction, elimination of mechanical mixing, better
stability at higher loading rates, and capability to withstand large toxic shock loads
and organicshock loads. The reactors can recover very quickly after a period of
starvation. The main limitation of this design is that the reactor volume is rela
tively high, when compared to other high rate processes, because of the volume
occupied by the media. Another constraint is the clogging of the reactor due to an
increase in biofilm thickness and/or high suspended solids concentration in the
wastewater.

Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB). UASB technology is

being used extensively for effluents from different sources such as distilleries,
active biomass in
food processing units, tanneries and municipal wastewater. The
the form of sludge granules is retained in the reactor by direct settling, for achiev
ing high MCRT, thereby achieving highly cost-effective designs. Amajor advan
when
tage is that the technology has comparatively less investment requirements disad
compared to an anaerobic filter or a fluidised bed system. Among notable
sufficient
vantages, it has a long start-up period along with the requirement for a washout
amount of granular seed sludge for faster start up. Moreover, significant
reactor needs
of sludge during the initial phase of the process is likely, and the
skilled operation.
A UASB reactor essentially consists of gas-solids separator (to retain the
anaerobic sludge within the reactor), an influent distribution system and effluent
draw- off facilities. Effluent recycle (to fluidise the sludge bed) is not necessary, as
sufficient contact between wastewater and sludge is guaranteed even at low
organic loads with the influent distribution system. Also, significantly higher load
ingrates can be accommodated in granular sludge UASB reactors as compared to
flocculent sludge bed reactors. In the latter, the presence of poorly degraded or
non-biodegradable suspended matter in the wastewater, results in an irreversible
sharp drop in the specific methanogenic activity, because the dispersed solids are
trapped in the sludge. Despite expected toxicity problems arising from the high
concentration of COD, sulfide and salts, anaerobic treatmentwith the UASB (up
flow anaerobic sludge blanket) process proved to be successful in treating distill
ery effluents only up to a limited extent.
418 " Environmental Biotechnology

Anaerobic Fluidised Bed Reactor. In the anaerobic fluidised bed, the media for
bacterial attachment and growth is kept in the fluidised state by drag forces ex
erted by the up flowing wastewater. The media used are smallparticle size sand,
activated carbon, etc. Under fluidised state, each media provides a large surface
area for biofilm formation and growth. It enables the attainment of high reactor
biomass hold-up and pronmotes system efficiency and stability. This provides an
opportunity for higher onganic loading rates and greater resistance to inhibitors.
Fluidised bed technology is more effective than anaerobic filter technology as it
favours the transport of microbial cells from the bulk to the surface, and thus
enhances the contact between the microorganisms and the substrate. These reac
tors have several advantages over anaerobic filters, such as elimination of bed
clogging, a low hydraulic head loss combined with better hydraulic circulation.
and a greater surface area per unit of reactor volume. Finally, the capital cost is
lower, due to reduced reactor volumes. However, the recycling of effluent may be
necessary to achieve bed expansion as in the case of expanded bed reactor. In the
expanded bed design, microorganisms are attached to an inert support medium
such as sand, gravel or plastic as in a fluidised bed reactor. However, the diameter
of the particles is slightly bigger as compared to that used in fluidised beds. The
principle used for the expansion is also similar to that for the fluidised bed, i.e. by
a high up flow velocity and recycling.
The anaerobic digestion process is affected significantly by operating condi
tions. As the process involves the formation of volatile acids, it is important that
the rate of reaction be such that there is no accumulation of acids, which would
result in the failure of the digester. It is now widely recognized that microbiologi
cal processes involved in anaerobic digestion centre around methanogenic bacte
ria, and differ significantly from acid forming bacteria in terms of physiology,
nutritional requirements and sensitivity. Adiphasic fixed film reactor with support
media has been used for treatment of distillery spent wash. Such a diphasic pro
cesses, it is possible to provide optimum environmental conditions for these bacte
rial groups, thereby enhancing overall efficiency. To operate such a system,
conditions in the first reactor must be made sufficiently unfavourable to methane
formers, in order to force them to grow only in the second reactor. This is achieved
by the application of chemical or kinetic controls. Dialysis techniques can also
achieve physical separation of microbial groups. The methane forming bacteria
could effectively be sheltered by close monitoring of acid fermentation reactor
effluent, and eliminating the potential problems before the methane forming bac
teria is subjected to stress. Various applications of the diphasic process of different
typzs of industrial wastes including high strength soluble wastes, have been
applied.

22.3.3 Tertiary or Alternative Treatment

A variety of treatment methods and strategies, like thermal pre-treatment,wet air
oxidation, concentration-incineration, anaerobic treatment, etc., have been
 Distiling Industry 419
SUggested or tested
for the treatment of
distillery [Link],As there
schemes,these are either incomplete, impractical or unviable. individual
is an
scheeed to assess the possibiity of combining the available partial -treatment
schemes,forthe complete treatment.
Chemicaloxidation
Colourremoval from biologically pre-treated molasses wastewater, by means of
chemical oxidation with OZone, has been investigated. Batch experiments have
been performedin order to analyse the influence of OZone dosage and reaction
time on colour removal, molecular weight distribution and decolourisation
kinetics. Depending on the applied ozone dosage, colour removal from 71% to
93%, and COD reduction from 15% to 25% was reached after a 30 min reaction
fime. TOC values remained constant throughout ozonation. Under the same
experimental conditions, 0ZOnation of synthetic melanoidin provided similar
colour removal efficiency.
Cavitation
One method that remains unexplored for distillery wastewater treatment, is the use
of cavitations chemistry by ultrasound. Chemical oxidation employs the use of
ultrasound, resulting in the cavitation phenomena. This is defined as the phenom
ena of the formation, growth, and subsequent collapse of micro bubbles or cavi
ties, that occur in extremely small intervals of time (microseconds), releasing large
magnitudes of energy, at millions of such locations in the reactor. Ultrasound ira
diation effectively destructs the contaminants in water, because of localized high
concentrations of oxidizing species such as hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen perox
ide in the solution, high-localized temperatures and pressures. The combination of
application ofultrasound
the physical and chemical effects of cavitation allows the
in water and effluent treatment.
Membrane separations: ultra filtration
wastewater
Ultra filtration has many industrial uses, including downstream
cleanup, while it also remains a potentially useful process in the removal of patho
has the advan
logical macromolecules from a number of fluid media. This process
lage of being safer than sorption and other methods, is very efficient and holds the
finding useful meth
possibility of reasonable cost. Research has been devoted to understanding
ods to use membranes in bio separations and developing acomplete
so that they can be over
of the problems associated with membrane separations,
pulsing which has been found to
Come more effectively. Transmembrane pressure treatment.
have benefits in ultrafiltration, also has the potential for water
Transmembrane pressure pulsed ultra filtration
in reducing membrane foul
The significance of transmembrane pressure pulsing ultra filtration and in water
ing, and thus, enhancing solvent and solute transport in
treatment, continues to be investigated.
420 Environmental Biotechnology

Membrane bioreactors
a high potential for converting components of
Membrane-based bioreactors have useful products, or non
multi-component carbonaceous waste streams into either
reactors, immobilized enzymes or microorganisms are
toxic substances. In such separation operations. In reactors
containing
and
used in simultaneous conversionculture effectiveness may be hampered by the
immobilized microorganisms,
of the feed streams. Further, the cell packing over a period of
extreme conditions and limits transport of gas
conversion efficiency
time reduces extraction and/or cells.
eous/liquid nutrients to the immobilized
Gel permestion chromatography
This method is corroborated that high molecular weight compounds, responsible
wastewater.
for the brown colour, were present in raw
Electrochemical treatment
electro-oxidation,electroreduction,
Over the years, different techniques including
electrodialysis and electroflocculation have been employed. Electrolysis of distill
electrochemical reactor.
ery effluent was carried out in a static
Flocculation
The removal of molasses-derived melanoidin in alcohol distillery wastes was stud
87 and
ied, using a commercial inorganic flocculant. Decolourisation yields of 32,
94% were obtained for fresh slops and for biodigester and lagooned effluents,
respectively, at a flocculant dosage of 4% v/v. The reduction in total organic car
bon (TOC) was 21% for fresh slops, and averaged to more than 73% for the
biodigester and lagooned effluents.
Emulsion liquid membrane (ELM)
Emulsion liquid membrane (ELM) is ahighly sophisticated but an energy-saving
separation technique. Many studies have been carried out for separation of heavy
metal ions, chemicals, organic acids, etc. by using this technique. In this technol
ogy, solutes are not only removed but also concentrated. The external phase to be
treated is contacted with an emulsion, dispersed in globules. Each emulsion glob
ule consists of droplets of an aqueous internal stripping phase, encapsulated in an
organic membrane phase, containing asurfactant as micelle interfacial layer. Dur
ing this contact, solute transport occurs through the membrane phase into the
internal stripping phase, where it is concentrated. Since extraction and stripping
are done in a single step, ELM technology is preferred to treat effluents.
Photodegradation
This phenomenon is ascribed to active Oxygen species generated by aphoto-iiti
ated electron-transfer reaction. Photodegradation is generally accelerated in the
presence of transition metal ions. In addition, ascorbic acid reacts with O, in the
presence of transition metal ions, giving O,, H,0,, and OH. Since ascorbic acid
and metal ions are common components in manyfoods, it seems that the Cu/O,
 Distilling Industry 421
and ascorbic acid/Cu"/0, systems would be good systems to
nal and food models. It is well known that riboflavin, someuse both for biologi
kinds of essential
amino acids,and proteins in milk,are photodegraded under UV and visible light
Another example is the off-flavour formation in beer which has been exposed to
sunlight. However, there have been few reports on the photodegradation of
melanoidin. Colour intensity of model melanoidin was influenced by manganese
and iron and decolourised by oxygen and light. Some kinds of amino acid were
photodegraded in the presence of melanoidin, playing the role of aphotosensitizer.
Solar energy method
Scientists at Nimbkar Agriculture Research Institute in Phaltan, India have devel
oped a method of treating distillery effluent using suitable chemicals and solar
energy. A laboratory scale reactor set up at the Institute campus, can treat
50 litres of diluted, anaerobically- digested distillery effluent, making it com
pletely colourless and odorless in 2-3 days. The Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD)of the effluent is also reduced to less than 150 ppm. The chemical (2% w/l
w) is mixed with diluted distillery effluent, and the mixture is fed to the reactor.
The break-up of the toxins is the result of photochemical reactions by solar energy.
Wetland method
A field-scale 4-celled, horizontal subsurface constructed wetland (CW) was
installed, to evaluate removal efficiencies of wastewater constituents in an indus
trial distillery effluent. Total and dissolved solids, NH,-N, TKN, P and COD were
measured. This CW design provides four serial cells with synthetic liners and a
river gravel base. The first two unplanted cells provide preliminary treatment.
Specific gravel depths and ensuing biofilm growth provides anaerobic treatment
in Cell 1, and anaerobic treatment in Cell2. Cell 3was planted with Typha latifolia
with an inserted layer of brick rubble (for phosphorus removal). Locally grown
reed, Phragmites karka was planted in Cell 4. COD was reduced from 8420 mg/
3000from Cell 1 to the outlet of Cell 4. Similarly, other parameters like total and
dissolved solids, ammonium and total nitrogen, and total P, indicated declining
trends at the 4-celled CW effluent.
This study reveals how high -strength distillery wastewater strongly impacts
morphology, aeration anatomy in the chiselled plant tissues, reed growth; and
composition of the biofilm in the specialized substratum. The reliability of a CW
for organic and nutrients reduction, in association with a poorly performing con
ventional system is discussed. There is an immense potential for appropriately
designed constructed wetlands to improve high strength wastewaters in India.