Lecture 10
The Use of Articles in English
The article is a function word, which means it has no lexical
meaning and has denotative function. Semantically the article can
be viewed as a significator, i.e. a linguistic unit representing some
conceptual content without naming it. If analyzed in its relation to
the conceptual reality, the article proves to be an operator, i.e. a
marker of some cognitive operation, like identification,
classification, and the like.
It is not a secret that articles often turn into problems for students of
English, especially for those whose first language does not have articles.
Different language types represent different mentalities. Therefore, one
of the ways to learn to use articles correctly is developing the
necessary communicative skills through countless repetition,
which can only be achieved in a corresponding language
environment. Another way is trying to develop a system of rules
governing the use of articles in the language by understanding
the basic principles of their functioning. A language student needs
both theory and practice.
As you know, there are two articles in English: the definite
article “the” and the indefinite one “a”. It has become a
tradition to also single out the so-called “zero” article, which is
found in the contexts where neither the definite nor the
indefinite article is used. We speak of zero units in situations where
the grammatical meaning needs to be made explicit.
The answer to the question “what do we need articles for?”
can’t be too simple. We might have to enumerate quite a few
functions articles can be used in. Some of them are common for
all the three articles, others are only characteristic of individual
function words.
The Use of Articles as Determiners
The invariant function of all the articles (i.e. the function all of
them are used in) is that of determination. Any human language
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has a system of devices used to determine words as parts of
speech. In analytical languages the article is the basic noun
determiner. Determiners are used to identify things in further
detail. To take the dictionary definition, they are modifying
words that determine the kind of reference a noun or noun
group has. They are used in front of nouns to indicate whether
you are referring to something specific or something of a
particular type.
Determiners include:
the articles : a / an / the
demonstratives : this / that / these / those
possessives (aka possessive adjectives): my / your /his / her / its / our /
your / their
More general determiners are quantifiers:
few
a few
fewer
a little both neither
less
each no
all little
either other
another many
enough several
more
any every some
most
much
Numbers act as determiners too, they show how many things or people
there are: 1, 2, 3...
e.g. Read the poem and comment on determiners:
Twas brilling, and the slithy toves Варкалось, хливкие шорьки
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe. Пырялись по наве.
All mimsy were the borogoves, И хрюкотали зелюки,
And the mome raths outgrabe. Как мюмзики в мове.
The Use of Articles as the Theme-and-Rheme
Markers
The second function the articles can be used in is that of the
theme-and rheme markers. As you know, the theme is the
information already known, and the rheme is the semantic focus
of the utterance, the new idea that is being introduced. An
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utterance where there is only the rheme can’t be understood. For
example, if I entered the room and said something like that to you, “What about a wedding
dress for Jane?” you would not understand anything, for there are three rhematic pieces of
information in this utterance:
1. Jane (you don’t know who she is).
2. Jane’s forthcoming marriage.
3. You have to take care of Jane’s wedding dress.
In languages like Ukrainian or Russian the final position of the word in the
sentence is rhematic, and the initial position is thematic. In English the same function
is performed by the indefinite and the definite articles correspondingly. It is important
to remember this principle when you translate something into English, for example:
A man entered the room.
The man entered the room.
The Use of Articles as Generalizers
The object denoted by the word is called the “referent”. Referents can be concrete, if
something is said about a concrete object or phenomenon, and general, if what we say
is true for the whole class of objects.
e.g. I have a dog at home (a concrete dog).
The dog is man’s friend (any dog).
In the second sentence the definite article is used as a generalizer. The generalizing
function can be performed by both the definite, the indefinite and the zero article. The
zero article is used in the plural or with uncountable nouns, for example:
e.g. Conscience and cowardice are really the same things.
Iron is metal.
When concrete nouns are used in generic sense, they are usually preceded by the
definite article. The indefinite article may be used when two classes of objects are
compared, for example:
A dog is stronger than a cat.
The Use of Articles as Concretizers
The generalizing function of articles is opposed to that of concretization. The latter is
realized through some specific functions which are different for definite, indefinite and
zero articles.
FUNCTIONS OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE
The indefinite article can be used in four functions:
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1. The classifying function
2. The indefinitizing function
3. The introductory function
4. The quantifying function
Each of them is realized under specific contextual conditions.
1. The classifying function of the indefinite article is realized in the so-called
classifying utterances. Their invariant sentence pattern is: N + V + N1. Those
are:
a)structures with the verb “to be”, for example: This is a computer.
b)exclamatory sentences beginning with “what” or such.
e.g. What a long story! He is such a nuisance!
c) sentences including an adverbial modifier of manner or comparison, for example:
e.g. You look like a rose! She works as a teacher.
2. The indefinitizing function is realized when the referent of the noun is not a real
thing, but it exists in the speaker’s imagination only. Those are sentences
containing modal verbs or verbs with modal meaning, forms of the Subjunctive
Mood, Future Tense forms, negative and interrogative sentences.
e.g. I wish I had a home like you do.
Have you ever seen a living tiger?
3. The introductory function. Before sharing some information about the object, we
need to introduce it to the hearer.
e.g. Once upon a time there lived an old man. He had a wife and a daughter. He
lived in a small house.
4. The quantifying function. The indefinite article developed from the numeral
“one”. The meaning of “oneness” is still preserved when the article is used with
nouns denoting measure, like “a minute”, “a year” or “a pound”.
FUNCTIONS OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
The definite article may be used in the following functions:
1. The identifying function. When we speak, we may want to point out to
something that both us and the hearer perceive with our organs of feeling.
There are five different ways of getting the information-We can see it (Do you
like the picture?), hear it (I believe, the music is too loud), feel it (The pillow is
so soft!), smell it (What is the name of the perfume?) or taste it (The soup tastes
bitter).
2. The definitizing function. The object or thing denoted by the noun is presented
as a part of some complex. In modern science the term “frame” is often used.
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The frame is a structurally organized system of images. For example, the frame
“classroom” includes a window, a blackboard and a door. So if both the
speaker and the hearer know what classroom they are speaking of, the
constituents of the classroom don’t need any special concretization, and the
indefinite article will be used.
e.g. I want to talk to the rector (even if you have never met the man).
3. The individualizing function. The object in question may be presented as a
unique thing with the hearer’s attention focused on its distinguishing features,
which are represented with the help of a particularizing attribute. The object is
singled out from the class it belongs to. The particularizing attribute can be
expressed by:
a) adjectives in the superlative degree
e.g. This is the easiest way out.
b) ordinal numerals
e.g. I have forgotten the first word.
c) attributive relative restrictive clauses
e.g. I need the book I bought yesterday.
FUNCTIONS OF THE ZERO ARTICLE
In most cases the zero article performs the same functions as the indefinite one. The
difference is that the zero article combines with uncountable nouns and countable
nouns in the plural.
e.g. It was a large room with many windows.
The toasts were in champagne.
Still there are situations where the zero article is used in its specific functions which
are different from those of the indefinite article. When used with the zero article, the
noun loses its general grammatical meaning of thingness to a certain degree and
acquires the meaning of qualitativeness. For example, the nouns “day” and “night”
used with the zero article stand for “light” and “darkness” rather than time units.
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