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NAME OF PHASE NAME OF SANCTION
ILLOCUTION LABEL PHASE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
PPS EPI ALG IPU RFU REB THR EXV AXM
CTX Contextual
t t’ th l tr tl tř tw ty
ASSERTIVE
ASR PCT Punctual
k k’ kh x kr kl kř kw ky
ITR Iterative
p p’ ph vv pr pl př pw py
REP Repetitive
q q’ qh ř qr ql xr qw xl
ITM Intermittent
b v vr vl br bl bř bw by
RCT Recurrent
d dh ż żż dr dl dř dw dy
FRE Frequentative
g xh j jj gr gl gř gw gy
FRG Fragmentative
m mm r rr mr ml mř mw my
FLC Fluctuative
n nn ddh ll nr nl nř nw ny
NAME OF PHASE NAME OF SANCTION
ILLOCUTION LABEL PHASE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
PPS EPI ALG IPU RFU REB THR EXV AXM
CTX Contextual
s ss sm sn sr sl sř sw sy
INTERROGATIVE
PCT Punctual
š šš šm šn šr šl šř šw šy
IRG
ITR Iterative
ç çç çm çn çl çr çř çw ly
REP Repetitive
c cc cm cn cr cl cř cw cy
ITM Intermittent
č čč čm čn čr čl čř čw čy
RCT Recurrent
z zz zm zn zr zl zř zw zy
FRE Frequentative
ž žž žm žn žr žl žř žw žy
FRG Fragmentative
f ff fw fy fr fl fř vw vy
FLC Fluctuative
ţ ţţ ţw ţy ţr ţl ţř dhw dhy
NAME OF PHASE NAME OF SANCTION
ILLOCUTION LABEL PHASE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
PPS EPI ALG IPU RFU REB THR EXV AXM
CTX Contextual
sk sk’ skh zg skr skl skř skw sky
DIRECTIVE
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DIR PCT Punctual st st’ sth zd str stl stř stw sty
ITR Iterative
sp sp’ sph zb spr spl spř spw spy
REP Repetitive
sq sq’ sqh xx sqr sql xw sqw řř
ITM Intermittent
šk šk’ škh žg škr škl škř škw šky
RCT Recurrent
št št’ šth žd štr štl štř štw šty
FRE Frequentative
šp šp’ šph žb špr špl špř špw špy
FRG Fragmentative
šq šq’ šqh xxh šqr šql xhw šqw řw
FLC Fluctuative
ň ňň rw ry ňr ňl ňř ňw řy
NAME OF PHASE NAME OF SANCTION
ILLOCUTION LABEL PHASE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
PPS EPI ALG IPU RFU REB THR EXV AXM
CTX Contextual
ks kss ksm ksn ksr ksl ksř ksw ksy
ADMONITIVE
ADM PCT Punctual
kš kšš kšm kšn kšr kšl kšř kšw kšy
ITR Iterative
ps pss psm psn psr psl psř psw psy
REP Repetitive
pš pšš pšm pšn pšr pšl pšř pšw pšy
ITM Intermittent
gz gzz gzm gzn gzr gzl gzř gzw gzy
RCT Recurrent
gž gžž gžm gžn gžr gžl gžř gžw gžy
FRE Frequentative
bz bzz bzm bzn bzr bzl bzř bzw bzy
FRG Fragmentative
bž bžž bžm bžn bžr bžl bžř bžw bžy
FLC Fluctuative
sx sxh šx šxh zgr zgl zgř zgw zgy
NAME OF PHASE NAME OF SANCTION
ILLOCUTION LABEL PHASE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
PPS EPI ALG IPU RFU REB THR EXV AXM
CTX Contextual
çt çt’ çth sţ çtr çtl çtř çtw çty
HORTATIVE
HOR PCT Punctual
çk çk’ çkh šţ çkr çkl çkř çkw çky
ITR Iterative
çp çp’ çph sf çpr çpl çpř çpw çpy
REP Repetitive
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çq çq’ çqh šf çqr çql çqř çqw çč
ITM Intermittent
kt kt’ kth gd ktr ktl ktř ktw kty
RCT Recurrent
pt pt’ pth bd ptr ptl ptř ptw pty
FRE Frequentative
qt qt’ qth tk qtr qtl qtř qtw qty
FRG Fragmentative
sc sc’ sch db żr żl żř żw ży
FLC Fluctuative
šč šč’ ščh dg jr jl jř jw jy
NAME OF PHASE NAME OF SANCTION
ILLOCUTION LABEL PHASE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
PPS EPI ALG IPU RFU REB THR EXV AXM
CTX Contextual
ct ct’ cth tm ctr ctl ctř ctw cty
DECLARATIVE
DEC PCT Punctual
ck ck’ ckh km ckr ckl ckř ckw cky
ITR Iterative
cp cp’ cph pm cpr cpl cpř cpw cpy
REP Repetitive
cq cq’ cqh qm cqr cql gm cqw xm
ITM Intermittent
čt čt’ čth tn čtr čtl čtř čtw čty
RCT Recurrent
čk čk’ čkh kn čkr čkl čkř čkw čky
FRE Frequentative
čp čp’ čph pn čpr čpl čpř čpw čpy
FRG Fragmentative
čq čq’ čqh qn čqr čql gn čqw xn
FLC Fluctuative
xt xt’ xth pk xtr xtl xtř xtw xty
The nine phases are explained in the following sections. The Category of Sanction is explained in Section 5.6.
5.5.1 CTX The Contextual
The CONTEXTUAL is the default phase, describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not instantaneous),
single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can
be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., —
5.5.2 PUN The Punctual
The PUNCTUAL describes an act, condition, or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as an
explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking
of a lock, etc. It can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., •
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5.5.3 ITR The Iterative
The ITERATIVE refers to a momentary or instantaneous event, like the PUNCTUAL above, which repeats itself in a rapid, on/off,
staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, the
whole comprising a single CONTEXTUAL event.
Visual representation: • • • •
5.5.4 REP The Repetitive
The REPETITIVE refers to a relatively brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the CONTEXTUAL phase
above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic
machine press. Visual representation: — — ——
5.5.5 ITM The Intermittent
The INTERMITTENT is similar to the ITERATIVE above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a PUNCTUAL event, however,
unlike the ITERATIVE, the duration of time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would be used in
describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a
faucet, etc.
Visual representation: — • — • — • — •
5.5.6 RCT The Recurrent
The RECURRENT is to the REPETITIVE as the INTERMITTENT is to the ITERATIVE. It indicates a slow repetition of a
CONTEXTUAL event, where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. Exemplified by the
sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl.
Visual representation: —— ——— ——— ——— —
5.5.7 FRE The Frequentative
The FREQUENTATIVE indicates an iterative occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, the
whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event. Examples would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the
repeated short bursts of a jackhammer.
Visual representation: ——• • •— • • •— • • •— • • •
5.5.8 FRG The Fragmentative
The FRAGMENTATIVE indicates a random pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL
event.
Visual representation: ——• •— • • • ——• • —• • • • •—— • —• •
5.5.9 FLC The Fluctuative
The FLUCTUATIVE indicates a random pattern of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” of a
lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of birds in the wild, etc.
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Visual representation:—— • • —— • — • •— ——• • — • • • —• •— —— • — • •
5.5.10 Examples of Phase in Use
Hwe’maklás. (OR Hweklàsürn.)
INF-STA-ASR/FRG/PPS-‘rain’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML
It may be raining.
Ia’qantas altaelgôn.
DYN-ASR/REP/PPS-MNO-‘sound’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘inscribe’-OGN-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-AGC2/7-IFL
The sound coming from the banks of printers keeps on steadily repeating.
Ilarburn êļnuļ.
DYN-‘voice’-NRM/PRX/U/VAR/AGG-FLC-IFL STA-‘bird’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL
Birds are chirping, tweeting, and calling.
5.6 SANCTION
The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness
the listener should ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance is a neutral proposition or assertion, an
allegation, a rebuttable presumption, a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.
There are nine sanctions: the PROPOSITIONAL, EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE,
THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE, and AXIOMATIC. Sanction is shown by the Cv affix to a formative, depending on the phase (and
potentially the illocution) of the verb (discussed in Sections 5.5 and 5.3 respectively). The Cv affix is normally placed in Slot V of
the formative’s morphological structure, unless the formative contains an incorporated root (see Section 6.4), in which case Cv is
placed in Slot I. (In Section 6.3.3 we will see that Cv can also be placed within a vebal adjunct.)
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV
(((Cv) VL) Cg/Cs) Vr (Cx/Cv Vp/VL) Cr Vc Ci +Vi Ca VxC (Vf (’Cb)) [tone] [stress]
Valence Validation Pattern + [Link] Pattern + Stem + Root Case Illocution Essence + Deriv. Context + Bias Version Designa-
Phase + OR Stem + OR Designation of Incorp. + Extension + Suffix Format tion +
Sanction Aspect (+ Function Phase + Root Mood Perspective + Relation
(+ Illocution) Mood) Sanction OR Configuration +
(+ Illocution) Valence Affiliation
As previously noted in the section on Phase, the presence of a Cv infix entails several other morpho-phonological structural
requirements potentially affecting Slots IV, VI and IX. See Section 5.5 above for details of these requirements.
Each sanction is explained in the sections below.
5.6.1 PPS The Propositional
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The PROPOSITIONAL sanction is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents a neutral proposition or assertion of
ontologically objective fact, i.e., a statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. Example of such
statements would be That is a mountain, or I’m hungry.
5.6.2 EPI The Epistemic
The EPISTEMIC sanction identifies an utterance as being a statement of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology
is human convention (i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human knowledge. An example
would be That mountain is Mount Fuji or The U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World.
5.6.3 ALG The Allegative
The ALLEGATIVE sanction identifies an utterance as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition
expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge or refutation. Examples would be That mountain is beautiful or
No one in the United States goes hungry.
5.6.4 IPU The Imputative
The IMPUTATIVE sanction identifies an utterance as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective or
by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples
would be He knows how to drive [e.g., because he owns a car] or She can’t be hungry now [e.g., because I saw her come out of the
restaurant].
5.6.5 RFU The Refutative
The REFUTATIVE sanction identifies an utterance as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation
or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as
opposed to ontologically objective fact.
5.6.6 REB The Rebuttative
The REBUTTATIVE sanction identifies an utterance as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation
or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective
opinion, belief, or interpretation.
5.6.7 THR The Theoretical
The THEORETICAL sanction identifies an utterance as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.
5.6.8 EXV The Expatiative
The EXPATIATIVE sanction identifies an utterance as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.
5.6.9 AXM The Axiomatic
The AXIOMATIC sanction identifies an utterance as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-
experiential fact not open to rational argument or refutation. Examples would be Gravity is ubiquitous, or Hunger is caused by not
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consuming enough food.
5.6.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use
Them-mphâmnas osmuil.
ASR/CTX/ALG-PRL-PRS/COU-STA-‘awe’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
The valley would've been awe-inspiring to you, too [i.e., if you had seen/visited/been to it].
Tlan-nsachas ômmil.
ASR/CTX/REB-MNO-CNT-STA-‘sadness’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘[Link]’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
On the contrary, the girl is still sad.
Pšei’ùlûrţ lên-nsa hwaixtasár öqeil.
STA-‘incident’-PCR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT1/6-FML IPU-CPC-CNT INF-DYN-‘job/employment task’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5-FML
STA-‘man’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
After an incident like that, it's a fair guess the man won’t be able to work any longer. LISTEN
5.7 VALENCE
In Ithkuil, the term Valence is used to refer to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given verb, i.e.,
participation by one party automatically implies participation by another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel,
corollary, or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs of world languages and is the province of
what is known as “co-active” verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ithkuil explicitly shows this dual
participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of
sentences:
1a) I found an old man. → 1b) I found an empty can.
2a) I threw the ball at Sam. → 2b) I threw the ball at the window.
3a) I performed in front of her. → 3b) I performed in front of the wall.
Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate object of the verb (an old man, Sam, and her), while the second
member of each pair has an inanimate object (an empty can, the window, and the wall). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the
similar set below:
1c) I met an old man. → 1d) * I met an empty can.
2c) I threw Sam the ball. → 2d) * I threw the window the ball.
3c) I entertained her. → 3d) * I entertained the wall.
The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why? The second
set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except that the verbs find, throw at, and perform have been replaced by the semantically
similar meet, throw, and entertain. Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears unacceptable. The
reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way,
whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus,
while I can find an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even being aware of it, I cannot meet an old man without
the old man also meeting me. I can throw a ball at Sam without Sam noticing, but if I throw Sam a ball it implies that he is expected
to participate by catching it. Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless
they are participating in the situation by observing me. The participatory relationship involving the second party of a co-active verb
differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English
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