Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 1

Chapter 2 :
Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode
2.1 Introduction
We people are most fortunate that we live in such an era of developed engineering and technology
mainly Electrical and Electronics Engineering. In today’s world, people cannot think of his life
without mobile phone, television, computer and other devices that have made our life easy and
enjoyable. Well, these devices are the gift of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. All of them
work based on the flow of charge. Charge is found in electron, a fundamental particle of atom. A
complete path of flowing charge is called circuit. There are two types of circuits – electrical circuits
and electronic circuits.
2.2 Electrical and Electronic Circuits
Electrical Circuits: An electric circuit is a complete path in which charge (i.e. electrons) flows from a
voltage or current source. This type of circuit (electrical circuit) consists of three elements – resistor
(𝑅), capacitor (𝐶) and inductor (𝐿) [Fig.2-1(a)]. They have no processing capability of signals. That is,
a circuit consisting of only 𝑅, 𝐿, and 𝐶 is called electrical circuit.

Load or R L C Load or
Source Source
or R L C Output or Output
Input system Input Other system
D Q Devices
s

(a) Electrical circuit (b) Electronic circuit

Fig.2-1: Electrical and Electronic circuits

Electronic Circuits: An electronic circuit is also a complete path in which charge (i.e. electrons)
flows from a voltage or current source, but here, they have processing capability of signals. That is,
electronic circuits can amplify, rectify or attenuate a signal and so on. Electronic circuits are also
consisting of resistor, capacitor and inductor,but they must have at least one semiconductor
device- like a diode, a transistor etc. [Fig.2-1(b)].
Whether it is electrical circuit or electronic circuit, current flows due to the movement of charge or
electrons. Sir Joseph John Thomson, a British Physicist, discovered the electron in 1897. He found
that the electron has one negative charge (= 1.6021766210−19 Coulombs) and a mass of
9.1093835610−31 kg. We find electron in materials, i.e., in atoms. Atom is the smallest element
that makes the materials. Here, we will discuss the structure of the atoms.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 2

2.3 Atomic Structure

J. J. Thomson, who discovered the electron in 1897, proposed the plum-pudding model of the
atom in 1904 before the discovery of the atomic nucleus. In Thomson’s model, the atom is
composed of electrons surrounded by a positive charge to balance the electrons’ negative charge.
He compared the atomic structure with Christmas pudding. In an atom, the negatively charged
electrons are like the raisins in the pudding and the pudding itself is like the positive charge [Fig.2-
2]. He also compared an atom with a watermelon. The red fleshy part of the melon is like the
positive charge while the electrons
are embedded in the atom like the Thomson’s Atom model Christmas pudding
seeds in the melon [Fig.2-3]. The Electrons Raisins
oppositely charged particles remain
Cake
together by the electrical force of Positive
attraction. Further, the negative and charge
positive charges are equal in number,
making the atom electrically neutral.
Thomson concluded that an atom is
Fig.2-2: Thomson’s Atom Model (Comparison with pudding)
a positively charged sphere and
electrons are set within the sphere.
Later in 1911, Rutherford, along with his assistants, H. Geiger and E. Marsden, performed the
Alpha Particle scattering experiment, which led to the birth of nuclear model of an atom.
They took a thin gold foil having a thickness of 2.1 × 10−7 m and placed it in the centre of a
rotatable detector made of zinc sulfide and a microscope [Fig.2-4]. Then, they directed a beam of
5.5 MeV (Mega electron Volt) alpha particles
(𝛼-particles) emitted from a radioactive Seeds of watermelon
source at the foil. Lead bricks collimated (Negative charge of atom)
these alpha particles as they passed through
Flesh of watermelon
them. [Electron volt (eV) is a unit to measure (Positive charge of atom)
small amount of energy and discussed in
Section.
Fig.2-3: Thomson’s Atom Model
Rutherford had Three Observations (Comparison with watermelon)
 Most of the fast, highly charged alpha
particles went whizzing straight without being deflected. This was the expected result for all of
the particles if the plum-pudding model was correct.
 Some of the alpha particles were deflected back through large angles. Thiswas not expected.
 A very small number of alpha particles were deflected backwards! This was definitely not as
expected. Rutherford later remarked "It was as incredible as if you fired a 15 inch shell at a
piece of tissue paper and it bounce back to you!"
These observations led to many arguments and conclusions which laid down the structure of the
nuclear model of an atom.
The results of this experiment were not in sync with the plum-pudding model of the atom as
suggested by Thomson. Rutherford concluded that, since alpha particles are positively charged, for
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 3

them to be deflected back, they needed a large repelling force. He further argued that for this to
happen, the positive charge of the atom needs to be concentrated in the centre, unlike scattered in
the earlier accepted model of Thomson.
Hence, when the incident alpha particle came very close to the positive mass in the centre of the
atom, it would repel leading to a deflection. On the other hand, if it passes through a fair distance
from this mass, then there would be no deflection and it would simply pass through.
He then suggested the ‘nuclear model of an atom’ wherein the entire positive charge and most of
the mass of the atom is concentrated in the centre of the atom and is called nucleus. Also, the
electrons are moving in orbits around the nucleus similar to the planets around the sun. Further,
Rutherford concluded from his experiments that the size of the nucleus is between 10-15m to 10-14
m.

Reflection from
Rutherford model

Circular
Gold foil
detector

𝛼-particle
source

Slit No reflection from Reflection from

Thomson’s model Rutherford model

Fig.2-4:Rutherford’s 𝛼-particle scattering experiment

According to Kinetic theory, the size of an atom is around 10-10 m or around 10,000 to 100,000
times the size of the nucleus proposed by Rutherford. Hence, the distance of the electrons from
the nucleus should be around 10,000 to 100,000 times the size of the nucleus.
This eventually implies that most of the atom is empty space and explains why most alpha particles
went right through the foil. And, some particles are
deflected or scattered through a large angle on coming close
to the nucleus. Also, the electrons having negligible mass, do
not affect the trajectory of these incident alpha particles.
The trajectory traced by an alpha particle depends on the
impact parameter of the collision. The impact parameter is
simply the perpendicular distance of each alpha particle
from the centre of the nucleus. Since in a beam all alpha
Fig.2-5: Rutherford’s
nuclear model of the atom
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 4

particles have the same kinetic energy, the scattering of these particles depends solely on the
impact parameter.
Hence, the particles with a small impact parameter or the particles closer to the nucleus,
experience large angle of scattering. On the other hand, those with a large impact parameter suffer
no deflection or scattering at all. Finally, those particles having almost zero impact parameter or a
head-on collision with the nucleus bounce back.
Coming to the experiment, Rutherford and his team observed that a really small fraction of the
incident alpha particles was bouncing back. Hence, only a small number of particles were colliding
head-on with the nucleus. This, subsequently, led them to believe that the mass of the atom is
concentrated in a very small volume [Fig.2-5].
In a nutshell, Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom describes it as:
 An atom is a electrically neutral sphere with (equal number of positive and negative charges)
 A small and positively charged nucleus at the centre called nucleus.
 Surrounded by revolving electrons in their dynamically stable orbits but the orbits have no
definite paths.
The centripetal force that keeps the electrons in their orbits, against the centrifugal force, is an
outcome of:
 The electrostatic force of attraction between:
i) The positively charged nucleus and
ii) The negatively charged revolving electrons.
As Rutherford model did not
Orbits Orbits
assume fixed definite orbital paths,
this model failed to explain the Electron Electron
electromagnetic theory, the Proton
Proton
stability of atom and the existence Nutron
of definite lines in hydrogen
spectrum. For these limitations of Nucleus
Nucleus
Rutherford model,Niels Bohr in
1922, proposed a new model (a) (b)
(actually some corrections to
Rutherford’s model) of atom. Fig.2-6: Niels Bohr’s Atom Model:
(a) without neutron, and (b) With neutron
In this model, Bohr mentioned that
the most of the atomic mass lies in the central nucleus that contains protons, and electrons are
arranged in definite energy levels (i.e., fixed definite orbital paths) and revolve around the nucleus
[Fig.2-6]. The model also proposed electronic configuration, which explains the arrangement of
electrons in circular orbits designated as K, L, M, N, etc. Atoms with complete electron
configurations are not active. Electron configuration determines the reactivity of the atom.
Bohr’s model is able to explain the spectrum of the hydrogen atom, but it cannot fully explain the
reactivity of multielectron atoms. Moreover, it has some other problems. In 1932, James Chadwick
discovered the neutron a new elemental particle, having no charge, in the nucleus. Although the
neutron solves some nuclear problems, there have some other limitations of Bohr’s model.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 5

Recently many atomic models come up to overcome these limitations. But to understand the
operation of semiconductor devices, Bohr’s model will be sufficient.
2.3.1 The Atom in a Nutshell
The atom of any material can be thought of as consisting of a central nucleus surrounded by some
orbiting electrons (Fig.2-6). It may be compared to the solar system. Nucleus is as like the sun and
the orbiting electrons are like as the planets. In the solar system, the planets remain in their
corresponding orbit by the gravitational force. Similarly in the atom, the electrons remain in their
orbits by the electrostatic force of attraction between the negatively charged electrons and
positively charged proton.
Each electron has a negative electrical charge of 1.60217662 10−19 Coulombs (C) and a mass of
9.10938356 10−31 kg. Similarly proton has same amount of positive charge but its mass is
1.6726219 10−27 kg. Because unlike charges attract each other, a force of attraction exists
between the oppositely charged electron and nucleus. For the stability of the nucleus, there have
some electrically neutral particles called neutrons. Neutron has same amount of mass as the
proton, but not electrical charge. An atom has same number of electron and proton. So, they are as
a whole electrically neutral. The number of neutrons may differ from that of proton. The number of
protons (or electrons) of an atom is called atomic number and the sum of the number of protons
and neutrons is called mass number.
The paths through which the electrons move are called orbits. According to the Bohr’s model, only
those orbits, with the length of the circumference exactly equal to the integer multiple of the de
Broglie wavelength of the electrons moving in those orbits, are possibly stable orbits. The number
of electrons in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ is given by 2𝑛2, 𝑛 being an integer.
For example: vn
rn
The first orbit contains 2 12 = 2 electrons.
The second orbit contains 2 22 = 8 electrons. Ze n = 1
The third orbit contains 2 32 = 18 electrons and so on.
2.3.2 The Electron at a Glance Fig.2-7:Atom model used to
Since electronics deals with the electrons, these small calculate the energy of an electron
particles require detailed study and memorizing. As
discussed before, an electron is a negatively charged particle having negligible mass. The important
properties of the electrons are:
Charge of an electron, 𝑒 = 1.60210−19 Coulombs (C)
Mass of an electron, 𝑚 = 9.110−31 kg
Radius of an electron, 𝑟 = 1.910−15 m
The charge to mass ratio, 𝑒/𝑚 = 1.761011 C/kg

2.4 Energy of an Electron

An electron revolving around the nucleus possesses two types of energies, likekinetic energy due
to its motion and potential energy due to the charge on the nucleus.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 6

The kinetic energy of an electron in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ orbit is given by:

1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣𝑛 2 (2-1)
2
where, 𝑚 is the mass of electron and 𝑣𝑛 is the velocity of an electron in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ [Link] velocity
of the electron is given by:

𝑍𝑒 2
𝑣𝑛 = √ (2-2)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑚𝑟𝑛

where, Z is the atomic number, e is the charge of an electron and a proton and 𝑟𝑛 is the radius of
the 𝑛𝑡ℎ orbit.
Combining Equ.(2-1) and (2-2) we can find the kinetic energy as:
𝑍𝑒 2
𝐾𝐸 = (2-3)
8𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛
Similarly, potential energy is equal to the potential due to the nucleus at a distance 𝑟𝑛 multiplied by
the charge of the electron. That is:
𝑍𝑒
𝑃𝐸 = (Potenial at a distance of𝑟𝑛 ) × (−𝑒) = × (−𝑒)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛
𝑍𝑒 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑃𝐸 = − (2-4)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛
The total energy of an electron at the 𝑛𝑡ℎ orbit, can be found combining Equ.(2-3) and (2-4) as,
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑍𝑒 2
𝐸𝑛 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = − =− (2-5)
8𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 8𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛
The value of 𝑟𝑛 can be found from Bohr’s postulates as:
𝑛 2 ℎ 2 𝜖0
𝑟𝑛 = (2-6)
𝜋𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
where, h is Plank’s constant and putting the value of 𝑟𝑛 into Equ.(2-5), the total energy of an
electron in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ orbit can be found as,
𝑍𝑒 2 𝜋𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
𝐸𝑛 = − ×
8𝜋𝜖0 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜖0
𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
𝐸𝑛 = − (2-7)
8𝜖0 2 𝑛2 ℎ2
The values of the parameters of the Equ.(2-7) are:
 𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 kg
 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 C
 𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m
 ℎ = 6.62 × 10−34 J ∙ s
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 7

 1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J
Putting all these values into Equ.(2-7) we get:

13.6 𝑍 2
𝐸𝑛 = − eV (2-8)
𝑛2
Thus, the energy of an electron in the hydrogen atom (𝑛 = 1 and 𝑍 = 1) is – 13.6 eV. This is the
minimum energy an electron can possesses in hydrogen atom. The state of this energy is called
ground sate. The energy of an electron increases as its distance from the nucleus increases (as
negative energy decreases). Thus, an electron in the second orbit possesses more energy than the
electron in the first orbit. An electron in the third orbit has even higher energy than in the second
orbit. It is clear that electrons in the last orbit possess very high energy as compared to the
electrons in the inner orbits. These last orbit electrons play an important role in determining the
physical, chemical and electrical properties of a material. These electrons are called valence
electrons. The outer orbit of a material may be completely filled or partially filled up with
electrons.

Example 2-1
The ground state energy of a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV. Calculate the kinetic energy (KE) and
potential energy (PE) of electrons in this energy state.
Solution:
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑒2
Using Equ.(2-3), 𝐾𝐸 = = [∵ for hydrogen, 𝑍 = 1]
8𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 8𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛
The net energy of a hydrogen electron is given by Equ.(2-5) as,
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑒2
𝐸𝑛 = − =− [∵ for hydrogen, 𝑍 = 1] (2-9)
8𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 8𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛
Comparing these two equations, we find that,
𝐾𝐸 = −𝐸𝑛 = −(−13.6 eV) = 13.6 eV [Ans. ]
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑒2
Using Equ.(2-4), 𝑃𝐸 = − =− [𝑍 = 1] (2-10)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛
Comparing Equ.(2-9) and Equ.(2-10), we can easily find that,
𝑃𝐸 = 2𝐸𝑛 = 2 × (−13.6 eV) = −27.2 eV [Ans. ]
Comments: The 𝑃𝐸 is negative, this energy tries to keep the electron bound to the nucleus. The 𝐾𝐸
is positive, i.e., it tries to make electron free from the nucleus. As the net energy is negative, the
electron remains bound to nucleus.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 8

2.5 eV Unit

As mentioned earlier, eV is a unit of energy that is used to measure very small amount of energy. In
electronics eV is frequently used. Hence, let us explain eVa little more.

E =0 eV E =1 eV
=1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
F F
Electron
E=Energy
F=Force
P.D.-> Potential
difference
P.D. = P.D. =
1V 1V
Fig.2-8: 1 eV: An electron is moved (without acceleration) across 1 V potential difference

Well, we know that the electrical power is calculated as: Power (Watt) = Potential difference (Volt)
 Current (Ampere)
or, 𝑊 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 But, 𝐼 = 𝑄/𝑡
𝑄
∴ 𝑊=𝑉× (2-11)
𝑡
Multiplying both sides of Equ.(2-11) by 𝑡, we get,
𝑊𝑡 = 𝑉 × 𝑄
But, we know Powertime = Energy (Joule)
∴ 𝑉×𝑄 =𝐸 (2-12)
The significance of this equation is- we need 𝐸 Joule of energy to move 𝑄 Coulomb charge from
one point to another point having an electric potential difference of V Volt. Now, if we move 1
Coulomb of charge through a potential difference of 1 Volt the required energy (work) is
1 Joule(1 V × 1 C = 1 J). But, instead of moving 1 Coulomb, if we move an electron through a
potential difference of 1 Volt the required energy is called 1 eV.
Thus,
1 eV = (1 V) × (Charge of an electron)J
𝑜𝑟, 1 eV = (1 V) × (1.6022 × 10−19 ) J
∴ 1 eV = (1.6022 × 10−19 )J (2-13)
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 9

The concept of 1 eV is illustrated in Fig.2-8.

Example 2-2
At a certain time, an electron acquires a speed of 106 ms−1. Calculate its energy in eV unit at
that instant of time.
Solution:
The energy of the electron will be,

1 1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = (9.1 × 10−31 kg)(106 ms−1 )2
2 2
1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = (9.1 × 10−31 kg)(1012 m2 s−2 )
2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 4.55 × 10−19 J
From Equ.(2-13), we know, 1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J.
4.55 × 10−19 J
∴ 𝐸= ≈ 2.84 eV [Ans. ]
1.6 × 10−19 J/eV
Comments: The energy of the electron is very small when measured in Joule, but it is a
moderate value when measured in eV. For this reason, the eV unit is used to measure very
small energy.

Table 2-1: A portion of the periodic table

2.6 Valence Electrons 5 6 7
B C N
The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are Boron
10.81
Carbon
12.01
Nitroge
n14.01
known as valence electrons. 13 14 15
Al Si P
Every atom has a tendency to get eight electrons Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus
26.98 28.09 30.97
(Except H2 and He) at its outermost orbit to get the 31 32 33
structure of an inert gas (octet rule). The valence Ga Ge As
electrons determine the physical and chemical Gallium Germaniu Arsenic
69.72 m 72.64 74.92
properties of a material. These electrons determine 49 50 51
whether the material is chemically active or not, metal In Sn Sb
Indium Tin Antimony
or non-metal, or, a gas or solid. These electrons also 114.8 118.7 121.8
determine the electrical properties of a material.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 10

+11 +12 +13

(a) Sodium atom (b) Magnesium atom (c) Aluminium atom

Fig.2-9: Rutherford’s nuclear model of some metal atoms

On the basis of electrical conductivity, materials are generally classified into conductors, insulators
and semi-conductors. As a rough rule, one can determine the electrical behavior of a material from
the number of valence electrons as given below:
(i) When the number of valence electrons of an atom is less than 4 (i.e., half of the maximum eight
electrons), the material is usually a metal and a conductor. Examples are sodium (Na), magnesium
(Mg) and aluminum (Al) which have 1, 2 and 3 valence electrons, respectively (See Fig.2-9).

+5 +16 +10

(a) Nitrogen atom (b) Sulfur atom (c) Neon atom

Fig.2-10: Rutherford’s nuclear model of some gaseous atoms

(ii) When the number of valence electrons of an atom is more than 4, the material is usually a non-
metal and an insulator. Examples are nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), and neon (Ne) which have 5, 6, and 8
valence electrons respectively (See Fig.2-10).

+6 +14 +32

(a) Carbon atom (b) Silicon atom (c) Germanium atom

Fig.2-11: Rutherford’s nuclear model of some semiconductor atoms

(iii) When the number of valence electrons of an atom is exactly 4, (i.e., exactly half of the
maximum eight electrons) the materials have the properties of both the metals and non-metal and
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 11

these materials are called semiconductor. Examples are carbon (C), silicon (Si), and germanium
(Gee) all of which have 4 valence electrons (See Fig.2-11). For reference, a portion of the periodic
table is shown in Table 2-1.

2.7 Energy Levels or States

As described earlier, according to Rutherford’s atom model, electrons cloud can travel in an orbit of
any radius, provided its velocity had the right value. But modern physics, tells this is not possible
due to the continuous radiation of electromagnetic energy. According to Bohr’s atom model, only
some specific orbits are permitted from where electrons do not radiate energy (as described
earlier). For instance, as shown in Fig.2-13(a), electrons can travel in the 1st, 2nd or 3rd orbits, but
they cannot travel in any intermediate orbits. As described in section 1.5, every electron in a
particular orbit will have a certain fixed amount of energy given by Equ.(2-8). The energy levels of
different electrons are shown in Fig.2-13. The 1st orbit represents the 1st energy level; the 2nd orbit
represents the 2nd energy level, and so
on. The larger the orbit of an electron,
r3 3rd Energy level
the higher its energy level or potential rd r3
3 orbit
energy with respect to the nucleus. r2 r
2nd Energy level
2
2nd orbit
st
1st orbit r1 1 Energy level
r1
It takes energy to move an electron Edge of nucleus
Nucleus
from a smaller orbit to a larger orbit,
because work has to be done to Fig.2-12: (a) Orbits of Fig.2-12: (b) Energy
overcome the attraction of the nucleus Bohr’s model levels of orbits
[Fig.2-13(a)]. The energy may come
from external source, like- heat, light, or other radiation. When an electron moves from the lower
energy state to higher energy state, the atom is then said to be in a state of excitation. Similarly
when an electron moves from a higher orbit to a lower orbit it radiates the additional energy in
different form like photon or phonon as shown in Fig.2-13(b).

3rd orbit 3rd orbit

2nd orbit 2nd orbit
E Energy E Energy
absorbed 1st orbit 1storbit
released
Nucleus Nucleus

Fig.2-13: (a)Energy Fig.2-13: (b)Energy

absorbed by an electron released by an electron

2.8 Energy Bands

The energy levels described in Section 2.7 (Fig.2-12) is possible when the atoms are isolated, i.e.,
the atoms are separated from one another. Let us now see what happens to the allowed energy
levels in a system of atoms, arranged periodically in a crystal. The outer electrons of each atom in
the crystal are now affected by the outer electrons of the neighboring atoms. The whole crystal
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 12

becomes a single system in which Pauli Exclusion Principle holds: no two electrons in the
samesystem can have the same quantum state. The discrete energy states of the solitary
atomtherefore split in the crystal to form a virtual band of permitted energy states. Fig.2-13
compares the solution of Schrödinger’s equation for the potential field of a solitary atom and the
same for a hypothetical crystal of four atoms. Fig.2-13(a) shows the three lowest states of an
isolated atom. They are obtained from the wave equation solution to the potential field 𝑉(𝑥) of
that atom only. If, instead of a single atom, we consider a crystal of four atoms in a line, as shown
in Fig.2-13 (b), the resulting potential field is the sum of the contributions of all four atoms and this
must now be used in the wave equation.
The new solutions for the allowed states n = 1 and n = 2 are essentially unchanged, since the form
of 𝑉(𝑥) in their vicinity, very near the nucleus, is not affected by the neighboring atoms. But the
third state n = 3 has an orbit far enough from the nucleus for 𝑉(𝑥) to be strongly influenced by the
potential fields of the neighbors. This state can no longer be thought of as belonging to one specific

V=0 V=0

n=3 }n=3

V(x) n=2 V(x) n=2

n=1 n=1

Nucleus Nucleus
Fig.2-14: (a) Allowed states for a Fig.2-14: (b) Allowed states for a
single isolated atom crystal of four atoms

atom only, but it now belongs to the whole crystal (consisting of four atoms). By Pauli’s exclusion
principle this level must split up into four sublevels, or four states, so that the four electrons in
them, all belonging to the same system, will have different quantum numbers.
In a real crystal, containing many more atoms, that
Energy
third level would have split up into a practically
continuous band of allowed sublevels, and the Conduction band (free
electron energy)
electrons in them belong to the whole crystal and
Energy gap (Eg)
not to this or that atom. Those states are said to be Valence band
unlocalizedand called energy band instead of energy (outer most shell)
state. Thus for a crystal, the energy band diagram Eg
will be like Fig.2-15 instead of Fig.2-14. Among the Third energy band
various energy bands we are interested in the last Eg
energy band which is called valence band. As the Second energy band
electrons of a particular orbit of all atoms of the Nucleus
crystal form an energy band, all of the energy levels
will becompletely filled up by electrons. Similarly the
valence band is also completely filled up by Fig.2-151: Energy band diagram of a crystal
electrons. To explain the operation of electronic
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 13

devices, we frequently use another energy band which is called conduction band. Electrons in this
energy band are no longer bound to the atom, i.e., they act like free electrons. Current flows
through a material with the help of these free electrons. The energy difference between the
conduction band and the valence band is called forbidden energy gap or simply Energy gap (𝐸𝑔 ).

2.9 Insulator Conductor and Semiconductor

As discussed in the previous topic the electrons in the conduction energy band are free electrons
and can carry electrical current. In a material the maximum energy of an electron may be that of
the valence band. That is electrons can exist at most in the valence band. The difference between
the lowest level of conduction band and the highest level of valence band is called Energy gap
(𝑬𝒈). The current carrying capacity of a material depends on the position of the valence band and
the conduction band, i.e., on the value of 𝐸𝑔 of materials. Depending on the current carrying
capacity materials are divided into three categories as described below.
2.9.1 Insulator
The materials that cannot carry electricity at all are called insulator. The energy gaps (𝐸𝑔 ) of these
materials are very high, so no electrons can get sufficient energy from external sources (light,
temperature etc.) to go to the conduction band [Fig.2-16(a)]. Generally the 𝐸𝑔 values of these
materials are greater than 5 eV (electron volt). Examples of insulators are rubber, plastic, glass,
wood, cloths etc. Among these, rubbers and plastics are used as insulating cover of electrical wire.
2.9.2 Conductor
The materials that can carry electrical current easily are called conductors. In these materials there
is no energy gap between the conduction band and the valence band. In fact, there is an overlap
between the conduction band and the valence band [Fig.2-16(b)]. We know that the valence band
is completely filled up by electrons. For the overlap of the conduction band and the valence band,
some electrons of the valence band also possess the energy of the conduction band. These
electrons behave as free electrons and can carry electrical current easily. Examples of conductors
are silver, gold, copper, aluminum etc. There are many conductor materials but their current
carrying capacity is not same. The current carrying capacity of a material is measured by
conductivity. Reciprocal of conductivity is called resistivity. The conductivity of a material depends
on the degree of overlap of the valence band and the conduction band, i.e., the number of free
electrons of that material. The higher the number of free electrons the higher is the conductivity.
The conductivity order of some common materials are: silver (Ag) > copper (Cu) > gold (Au) >
aluminum (Al) > zinc (Zn) > nickel (Ni) > brass > bronze > iron (Fe). Although silver is the best
conductor, in some sophisticated devices like microprocessor’s leads gold coating is used as gold
does not form oxide in any weather condition.
2.9.3 Semiconductor
In between the conductor and the insulator, there are some materials called semiconductor. They
are neither good conductor nor insulator. The materials that have 𝐸𝑔 values less than 5 eV are
called semiconductors[Fig.2-16(c)]. At absolute zero temperature the conduction bands of these
materials are completely empty, i.e., they have no free electrons. Hence, they cannot carry
electrical current. But at room temperature some electrons of valence band can gain sufficient
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 14

Energy Energy Energy

Overlap
Conduction
band (CB) CB CB
Eg> 5 eV Eg< 5 eV
Valence VB
VB
band (VB) Eg2 Electrons Eg2 Electrons
Eg2 Electrons
Values of Eg
Si : 1.11 eV
Ge : 0.67 eV
(a) Energy band diagram (b) Energy band diagram of (c) Energy band diagram of
GaAs : 1.43 eV
of insulator conductor semiconductor
GaP : 2.25 eV
Fig.2-16: Energy band diagrams of different materials

energy to jump to the conduction band. Thus, at room temperature they have some free electrons
and carry electricity, but their resistivity is very high compared to that of conductor. Examples of
semiconductors are: silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), boron (B), phosphorus (P) etc. At room
temperature, the values of energy gaps of some common semiconductors are given in Fig.2-16(c).
Typical resistance values for a 1-cm cubic sample of insulator, conductor and semiconductor are
1014 , 10−6 , and 10 , respectively.
Semiconductor materials are divided into two categories. These are intrinsic semiconductor and
extrinsic semiconductor.

2.10 Intrinsic semiconductor

Semiconductor in its purest form is called intrinsic semiconductor. Semiconductors used for
different purpose have different purity levels. Metallurgical-grade semiconductor has the purity
level of 98 − 99%, whereas the purity level of electronic-grade silicon is as high as 99.9999%. The
impurity level of the electronic-grade semiconductor will be in the order of few hundred ppm (part
per million). As mentioned in the previous topic, at room temperature some electrons can absorb
sufficient amount of thermal energy to move to the conduction band leaving behind a vacancy of
electron which is called hole. Thus, an intrinsic semiconductor has some free electrons in the
conduction band and an equal number of holes in the
Covalent bond
Si
Si Si Si
Si Shared Si
electrons Centre atom

Si Si Si Si Covalent bond
Si
Shared
Adjacent atom electrons
Si
Centre atom Si Si Si
Edge of unit cell
(a): Unit cell of Si crystal (3D view) (b) Si crystal in 2D view

Fig.2-172: Crystalline structure of Silicon (Si)

Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 15

valence band. The intrinsic carrier concentration is the number of electrons in the conduction band
(represented by 𝑛𝑖 ) or the number of holes in the valence band (represented by 𝑝𝑖 ). At room
temperature (300 K), the intrinsic carrier concentration (value of 𝑛𝑖 and 𝑝𝑖 ) per cubic centimeter is
1.51010 for silicon, 2.41013 for germanium and 2.1106for gallium-arsenide. On the other hand,
Cu contains 8.41022free charge carriers (electrons) per cubic centimeter. For intrinsic
semiconductor 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖 .
Moreover, the intrinsic carrier concentration can be calculated using the following equation.

𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 (−𝐸𝑔/2𝑘𝑇) (2-14)

where 𝐵 is a coefficient related to the specific semiconductor material, 𝐸𝑔 isthe bandgap energy (in
eV), 𝑇 is the absolute temperature (K), 𝐾 is Boltzmann’s constant(86 × 10−6 eV/K), and 𝑒, in this
context, represents the exponential [Link] values for 𝐵 and 𝐸𝑔 for several semiconductor
materials are given in Table [Link] bandgap energy 𝐸𝑔 and coefficient 𝐵 are not strong functions
of temperature. Theintrinsic concentration 𝑛𝑖 is a parameter that appears often in the current–
voltageequations for semiconductor devices.
Table 2-2: Energy Gap (𝐸𝑔 ) and Semiconductor Constant of some materials
Material 𝐸𝑔 (eV) 𝐵 (cm−3 K −3/2)
Germanium (Ge) 0.66 1.66 × 1015
Silicon (Si) 1.1 5.23 × 1015
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) 1.4 2.10 × 1014
Gallium phosphide (GaP) 2.26 ?

Example 2-3
Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration in Si at a temperature of 𝑇 = 300 K.
Solution:
The Semiconductor Constant for Si can be found from Table2-2, which is 𝐵 = 5.23 ×
1015 cm−3 K−3/2. The value of intrinsic carrier concentration of a material at any temperature can
be calculated using Equ.(2-14).
−6 )(300)
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 (𝐸𝑔/2𝑘𝑇) = (5.23 × 1015 )(300 )3/2 𝑒 (−1.1)/2×(86×10
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1010 cm−3 [Ans. ]
Comments: The value of intrinsic electron concentration of 1.5 × 1010 cm−3 may appear to
belarge, but it is relatively small compared to the concentration of silicon atoms, whichis 5 ×
1022 cm−3.

2.11 Fermi Level

The name Fermi Level comes from its inventor-Enrico Fermi who was an Italian physicist (1901-
1954). In solid state physics, to explain the energy band diagrams, Fermi Level is commonly used.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 16

The highest energy level that an electron can occupy at the absolute zero temperature is known as
the Fermi Level. The Fermi level lies between the valence band and conduction band because at
absolute zero temperature the electrons reside all in the lowest energy state. Due to the lack of
sufficient energy at 0 Kelvin, the Fermi level can be considered as the sea of electrons (or fermions)
above which no electron exist, that is, at 0Kelvin there exists an energy level such that no electron
will have energy more than this. The Fermi level changes as the solids are warmed and as electrons
are added to or withdrawn from the solid. Fermi level can also be defined as:
The Fermi Level is the energy level in the energy band diagram for which the probability of
occupancy (in other words we can say the presence of majority charge carriers) becomes half.
So according to the Fermi Energy definition, it is the highest occupied energy level of any material
at absolute zero. To be more specific, all the electrons in the material will occupy the energy level
at or below that material's Fermi Level at 0 K.

Fully empty Few electrons in

Conduction band Conduction band
conduction band conduction band
EC EC
Fermi level
EFi EFi
EV EV
Electrons in Few holes in
Valence band valence band Valence band conduction band
(a) (b)
Fig.2-18: Energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor:
(a) at 0 K and (b) at room temperature

The carrier concentration, i.e., the free electron concentration in the conduction band of an
intrinsic semiconductor is given by,
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛𝐶 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 (2-15)
where, 𝑛 is the electron concentration in conduction band, 𝐸𝐶 = the minimum energy in
conduction band, 𝐸𝐹 = Fermi energy, 𝑘 = Boltzmann’s constant, 𝑇 = absolute temperature, and
𝑛𝐶 =effective density of states function in conduction band and is given by,
3 3
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇 2 3
−19 )2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝑘 ′ 𝑇 2 (2-16)
𝑛𝐶 = 2 ( ) × (1.602 × 10 = 2 ( )
ℎ2 ℎ2
Here,
𝑚𝑒 = effective mass of electron in kg = 9.107 × 10−31 kg
𝑘 ′ = Boltzmann constant in J/K = 𝑘 × (1.602 × 10−19 )
For Si and Ge semiconductors, at room temperature (300 K), the values of 𝑛𝐶 are 1.02 × 1025 and
2.8 × 1025, respectively.
Similarly, the concentration of holes in the valence band is given by,
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛𝑉 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑉 )/𝑘𝑇 (2-17)
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 17

Here, 𝑣𝑉 effective density of states function in valence band and is given by,
3
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘 ′ 𝑇 2 (2-18)
𝑛𝑉 = 2 ( )
ℎ2
𝑚ℎ =effective mass of holes in kg = 9.107 × 10−31 kg
The Fermi level of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by,
𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉 𝑘𝑇 𝑛𝐶
𝐸𝐹𝑖 = − ln ( ) (2-19)
2 2 𝑛𝑉
If the effective mass of an electron and a hole are the same, that is, 𝑛𝐶 = 𝑛𝑉 , the above equation
reduces to,
𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉
𝐸𝐹 = (2-20)
2
From this equation, we find that the Fermi Level lies exactly at the centre of forbidden energy gap
(𝐸𝑔 ).

2.12 Extrinsic semiconductor

Well, we all want pure things in our daily life, but to fabricate electronic devices we need impure
semiconductor not pure one. To increase the conductivity of semiconductor, a few amount of
impurity is mixed with the pure semiconductor. A semiconductor when mixed with some suitable
impurity is called extrinsic semiconductor. The process of mixing the impurity is called doping and
the impurity itself is called dopant atom. The order of mixed impurity is 1 to 100 ppm. These
mixed impurity atoms produce some additional energy levels in the energy gap of the
semiconductor and hence decrease the energy gap. Now, at room temperature, more electrons
can go to the conduction band from the added impurity bands. Thus, the conductivity of the
semiconductor increases.
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types- N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor.
According to the Mass Action Law, at thermal equilibrium,at a constant temperature, the product
of the number of electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor material and the number of
holes in the valence band will be constant regardless the level of doping concentration. It is
expressed as,

𝑛𝑒 𝑛ℎ = constant = 𝑛𝑖2 (function of temperature) (2-21)

Example2-4
A Si crystal is doped by arsenic (As) with a doping concentration of 1 ppm. If the crystal contains
5 × 1028 m−3 atoms and 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1016 m−3. Calculate the number of electrons and holes in the
crystal.
Solution:
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 18

The doping concentration of semiconductor material is 1 ppm, means 1 part per million (106).
That is, 1 atom of As is doped in 106 atoms of Si. Therefore, total number of dopant atoms will be,
5 × 1028 m−3
𝑛𝐴𝑠 = = 5 × 1022 m−3
106
We know, one As atom produce one free electron. Thus, the total number of electrons created by
doping is,
𝑛𝑒 = 5 × 1022 m−3 [Ans. ]
Again we know, 𝑛𝑒 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑛𝑖2 (1.5 × 1016 m−3 )2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛ℎ = = = 4.5 × 109 m−3 [Ans. ]
𝑛𝑒 5 × 1022 m−3
Comments: Here, 𝑛𝑒 > 𝑛ℎ . Thus, the type of the semiconductor is N-type.

2.12.1 N-type semiconductor

Both the N-type and P-type semiconductor materials are formed by adding a suitable amount of
impurity atoms into a pure semiconductor like- germanium or silicon. The added impurity is called
the dopants or dopant atoms. The dopant atoms are added during the crystal fabrication process
from the molten semiconductor or are introduced into the already fabricated crystal by the
method of diffusion. The N-type is created by introducing those impurity elements that have five
valence electrons (pentavalent elements), such as phosphorus(P), arsenic(As), antimony(Sb) and so
on. The effect of added impurity elements (phosphorus in silicon crystal) is depicted in Fig.2-19.
Although, a silicon crystal is a three dimensional arrangement of Si atoms as shown in Fig.2-17 (a),
for simplicity it is represented as a two dimensional arrangement of Si atoms [Fig.2-19(a)]. There
are five valence electrons at the outer most shell of phosphorus atoms. Note that the four valence
electrons of phosphorus atom form four covalentbonds with four adjacent silicon atoms. However,
the 5𝑡ℎ electron of the impurity (P) atom remains unused, as it cannot form covalent bond. Every
impurity P atoms added to the Si crystal has such an unused electron. These electrons are loosely
bound to the parent atoms and can jump to the conduction band at room temperature and behave
as free electrons. In this way, by adding suitable amount of pentavalent impurity atoms, the
number of free electrons can be increased to a desired level. Now, as the crystal has many free
electrons, it is called N-type semiconductor. Since the inserted impurity atom has donated a
relatively free electron to the structure:
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 19

Si Si Si Si or Ge crystal
Fifth electron
of phosphorus
3-D view
Si P Si Covalent bond
2-D view
Phosphorus
Majority carrier electrons
impurity
Si Si Si Minority carrier holes
Localized positive
donor ions
(a) Effect of adding
phosphorous in Si crystal (b)3-d and 2-d view of N-type semiconductors

Fig.2-19:Preparation of N-type semiconductor doping with pentavelant impurities

The impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms.
It is important to realize that even though a large number of free carriers have been established in
the N-type material, it is still electrically neutral since ideally the number of positively charged
protons in the nuclei is still equal to the number of free and orbiting negatively charged electrons in
the structure.
Note that a discrete energy level, called the donor level, is developed (in between the conduction
band and the valence band) closed to the conduction band with an 𝐸𝑔𝑑 (energy gap of donor level)
significantly less than that of the intrinsic
material (Eg) as shown in Fig.2-20. Those unused
electrons of the added impurity atoms sit at this Conduction band
energy level and can absorb sufficient thermal EFn EC
energy to move into the conduction band at Egd = 0.05 eV (Si)
Eg as
room temperature. The result is that at room Donor level = 0.01 eV (Ge)
before
temperature, there are a large number of EV
carriers (electrons) in the conduction band and Valence band
the conductivity of the material increases
significantly. Although, electrons are the Fig.2-20: Energy band diagram of
majority charge carriers in N-type N-type semiconductor (at 0 K)
semiconductor, at room temperature some
electrons move from the valence band to the conduction band and produce some holes in the
valence band as in intrinsic semiconductors. These holes are called minority carries. At 300 K, the
majority carrier (electrons) concentration is 1016 cm−3 and that of minority holes is 104 cm−3.
An important relationship between the electron and hole densities in most practical semiconductor
materials is given by Equ.(2-21).
In summary, we can say an N-type semiconductor has electrons as majority carriers, holes as
minority carriers as shown in Fig.2-19(b). As every donor atom donates one electron, electrically it
becomes positive. They cannot move and remain as localized positive ions in the crystal. Fermi
level of the N-type semiconductor lies in between the donor energy level and the lower energy
level of conduction band [Fig.2-20].
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 20

Example 2-5
At 300 K temperature, a sample of intrinsic silicon has electron and hole density each (𝑛𝑖 ) equal to
1.5 × 1010 cm−3. One of every 1.0 × 106 atoms is replaced by a phosphorous atom. Assuming all
the donor electrons are in the conduction band, calculate the ratio of the charge carrier density in
the doped silicon to that for the intrinsic silicon. Given: density of silicon, 𝜌 = 2.3290 g/cm3,
Avogadro’s number,𝑁𝐴 = 6.022 × 1023 mol−1, and Molar mass of Si, 𝑀 = 28.09 g/mol.
Solution:
The number of Si atoms per cm3 can be calculated as,
𝑁𝐴 𝜌 6.022 × 1023 mol−1 × 2.3290 g/cm3
𝑁= = = 499.119 × 1020 cm−3
𝑀 28.09 g/mol
Carriers density added by the phosphorous (𝑃) atoms is,
499.119 × 1020 cm−3
𝑛𝑃𝑒 = = 499.119 × 1014 cm−3
1.0 × 106
The ratio of carrier concentration in doped Si to intrinsic Si will be,
𝑛𝑃𝑒 𝑛𝑃𝑒 499.119 × 1020 cm−3
= = = 3.32746 × 1012 [Ans. ]
𝑛𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 2𝑛𝑖 1.5 × 1010 cm−3
Comments: The very high value of the ratio implies that the conductivity of the extrinsic silicon has
highly increased.

2.12.2 P-type semiconductor

The P-type material is developed in the same process as the N-type semiconductor. This time a
pure germanium or silicon crystal is doped with impurity atoms having three valence electrons. The
elements most frequently used for this purpose are boron (B), gallium (Ga), and indium (In). The
effect of adding boron atoms in a base material of silicon is indicated in Fig.2-21. Here, the three

Si Si Si
Holes (deficiency
Si or Ge crystal
of electron)
Si B Si 3-D view
Boron impurity 2-D view

Covalent bond Majority carrier holes

Si Si Si Minority carrier electrons
Localized negative
acceptor ions
(a) Effect of adding boron in Si crystal (b) 3-d and 2-d view of P-type semiconductors

Fig.2-21: Preparation of P-type semiconductor doping with trivalent impurities

Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 21

electrons of the outer most energy shell of boron form three covalent bonds with three adjacent Si
atoms. But the fourth adjacent Si atom cannot form a complete covalentbond. Here the Si gives an
electron but the B atom has no more electrons to share with the Si atom. Hence, this covalent bond
is incomplete with the deficiency of one electron. This deficiency of electron is called a hole and is
represented by a circle or a plus sign. If any randomly
moving free electrons or even electron from other Conduction band
covalent bonds come close contact to this incomplete
EC
covalent bond, the hole can capture that free electron. Eg as
Acceptor level
Thus, the hole behaves like a positive charge. Every before
Ega
trivalent impurity will produce a hole and will capture EFp
EV
electrons. Since, the trivalentimpurities capture Valence band
(accept) electrons, they are called acceptor. Every
acceptor added in the silicon crystal introduces an Fig.2-22: Energy band diagram of
energy state in the energy band diagram. This energy P-type semiconductor (at 0 K)
level is called acceptor level. The acceptor level is
produced in between the conduction band and the valence band but close to the valence band
[Fig.2-22]. The energy difference between the valence band and the acceptor level is very small and
is represented by 𝐸𝑔𝑎 . At room temperature electrons can easilyabsorb sufficient heat energy to
jump from the valence band to the acceptor level. The electrons that move to the acceptor level
leave behind holes in the valence band. Thus many holes are developed in the valence band. As
holes behave like positive charges, the semiconductor is now called P-type semiconductor. The
holes are the majority charge carriers in P-type semiconductor. As in the case of intrinsic
semiconductors, some electrons will absorb sufficient thermal energy and will jump to the
conduction band. These electrons are called minority charge carriers.
We know the impurity boron atom is electrically neutral. When it accepts an electron it becomes
electrically negative. Thus, in P-type semiconductor the acceptor atoms can be considered as
negatively charge ions. As they cannot move they are called localized positive ions. Although the
acceptors are positive, the whole P-type material is electrically neutral, as the total number of
positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons are same.
In summary, we can say a P-type semiconductor has holes as majority carriers, electrons as
minority carriers and negatively charge localized acceptor ions as shown in Fig.2-21(b). The Fermi
level of the P-type semiconductor lies in between the acceptor energy level and the upper level of
valence band.

Exmple 2-6
In a process of P-type silicon preparation, trivalent impurity atoms have been mixed in such an
amount that its hole density becomes 8.5 × 1021 holes/m3. The intrinsic electron density of silicon
is 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1016 electrons/m3. Find the (minority carrier) electron density of the developed P-
type silicon sample. Also calculate the ratio of minority carrier and majority carriers.
Solution:
We know, 𝑛𝑒 × 𝑛ℎ = (𝑛𝑖 )2
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 22

𝑛𝑖 2 (1.5 × 1016 )2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛𝑒 = = = 2.7 × 1010 electrons/m3 (Ans. )
𝑛ℎ 8.5 × 1021
The ratio of the minority carriers and majority carrier concentration is
2.7 × 1010
𝑛𝑒 : 𝑛ℎ = = 1: (3.15 × 10−11 )(Ans. )
8.5 × 1021
Comments:The concentration of minority carriers is very small compared to majority carriers.

2.13 Drift and Diffusion of Charge Carriers

Diffusion
The movement of charge carriers (in fact any particles) from higher concentration region to lower
concentration region is called diffusion. We know that if a spoon of sugar is dropped into a glass of
water, after a long time the whole water of the glass will be sweet. At first the sugar will be melt
and as the concentration of sugar atom is higher at the bottom of the glass, it will move upward
and gradually the sugar concentration will be same at every point of the glass water. This
movement is due to the concentration gradient. Similarly, if we spray some

Diffusion of electrons Diffusion of holes 𝑛𝑒 , 𝑛ℎ

𝑥
Change of electrons or holes
Direction of current Direction of current concentrations with x
(a) (b) (c)
Fig.2-23:Diffusion of electrons,and holes from lower concentration to higher concentration

perfume at a corner of a closed room, after some time we can smell it at the other corners of the
room. The density of perfume concentration will be higher in the air where we have sprayed it than
the air of other places of the room. Due to this variation of concentration of perfume particles, they
move from higher concentration to the lower concentration region and we can smell it anywhere
of the room. Although, many moveable particles can diffuse, in electronics we are highly concerned
with the diffusion of holes and electrons. When electrons or holes move from one place to another
by the process of diffusion electrical current is [Link] current is called diffusion current.
The conventional current direction will be the same as the direction of holes diffusion. On the other
hand, the conventional current direction will be opposite to the direction of electrons diffusion.
The mechanisms are illustrated in Fig.2-23.
The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of electrons can be written as(for one dimension)
𝑑𝑛𝑒
𝐽𝑒 = 𝑞𝑒 𝐷𝑒 (2-22)
𝑑𝑥
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 23

where 𝑞𝑒 is the magnitude of the electronic charge, 𝑑𝑛𝑒 /𝑑𝑥is the gradientof the electron
concentration, and 𝐷𝑒 is the electrondiffusion coefficientof electron.

Example 2-7
Calculate the diffusion current density for Si semiconductor at T = 300 K. Assume the electron
concentration varies linearlyfrom 𝑛𝑒 = 1012 cm−3 to 𝑛𝑒 = 1015 cm−3 over a distance from 𝑥 = 0 to
𝑥 = 5 μm. Assume that the diffusion constant for electrons is𝐷𝑒 = 30 cm2/s.
Solution:
𝑑𝑛𝑒 1015 − 1012
Using Equ.(2-22), 𝐽𝑒 = 𝑞𝑒 𝐷𝑒 = (1.6 × 10−19 )(30) ( )
𝑑𝑥 5 × 10−4 − 0
𝑜𝑟, 𝐽𝑒 = (48 × 10−19 )(199.8 × 1016 ) ≈ 9.6 A/cm2 [Ans. ]
Comments: All distances have been converted into [Link] current densities can be as high as
few hundred amperes persquare centimeter in semiconductor materials.

The variations of electrons and holes are shown in Fig.2-23(a,b) and Fig.2-23(c) shows the graph of
the concentration variation for both electrons and holes which are functions of distance (𝑥). The
diffusionof holes from a high-concentration region to a low-concentration region produces aflow of
holes in the negative x direction. (Conventional current is in the direction ofthe flow of positive
charge.). The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of holes can be written as (forone
dimension),
𝑑𝑛ℎ
𝐽ℎ = −𝑞ℎ 𝐷ℎ (2-23)
𝑑𝑥
Where,𝑞ℎ is the magnitude of the hole charge (same as electron but +ve), 𝑑𝑛ℎ /𝑑𝑥is the gradient of
thehole concentration, and 𝐷ℎ is the diffusion coefficientof [Link] the change in signbetween
the two diffusion current equations. This change in sign is due to the differencein sign of the
electronic charge between the negatively charged electrons and thepositively charged holes. In
case of holes, the –ve sign indicates that the conventional current flows from higher density to
lower density (−𝑑𝑛ℎ /𝑑𝑥). Similarly, electrons flow from higher density to lower density but the
current flows to the opposite direction.
Drift
The movement of charge carriers (in fact any particles) with the help of any force is called drift. We
know that if a free electron is
placed in an electric field, it Drift of electrons Drift of holes
moves to opposite direction of
the electric field due to the
force exerted by the eclectic Electric Field Electric Field
field on the electron. Similarly, if
a positive charge (E.g., holes) is
Drift current Drift current

V V
Fig.2-24: Drift of electrons and holes due to
the electric field or voltage
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 24

placed in an electric field, it moves to the same direction of the electric field due to the force
produced by the eclectic field on the holes. This type of motion of electrons or holes is called drift
and the current produced by this process is called drift current. There is a relation between the
electric field (𝐸) and the potential difference (𝑣) [potential difference will be sometimes referred
as simply potential]. If the distance between two points in a uniform electric field is 𝑑 and the
𝑣
potential difference between the points is 𝑣 then, 𝐸 = 𝑑 𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝑑 = 𝑣. It means that if a potential
difference (or simply voltage) is applied in a device an electric field will also be applied. Thus, if a
voltage is applied across a material that has free electrons and/or holes, drift current will be
produced due to the motion of the electrons and/or holes. Drift can take place from lower
concentration of carriers to higher concentration region and vice versa.
Although, both electrons and holes can move with the help of applied field, their moving speeds
are not same. The moving speed is represented by mobility and is defined as the distance traveled
by holes or electrons per unit time and unit field-intensity. As the unit of electric field intensity is
m⁄s
V/m, the unit of mobility is = m2 ⁄(V ∙ s). In silicon, the mobility of hole is 𝜇𝑝 =
V⁄m
0.05 m2 ⁄(V ∙ s) and the mobility of electron is 𝜇𝑛 = 0.14 m2 ⁄(V ∙ s). That is, the mobility of
electrons is higher than that of holes. Using this mobility, the drift velocity of electrons and holes
can be represented as,
𝑣𝑑𝑒 = −𝜇𝑒 𝐸 (2-24)
and, 𝑣𝑑ℎ = 𝜇ℎ 𝐸 (2-25)
The –ve sign indicates the movement of electrons to opposite direction of electric field, 𝐸.
Similarly, the +ve sign in Equ.(2-25), indicates that the holes move in the same direction of 𝐸.
The resistivity of semiconductor materials depends on the concentrations of carriers, and their
mobilities. The resistivity (𝜎) can be calculated using the following equation.
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝑞𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝜇ℎ 𝑞ℎ (2-26)
Here, 𝑛𝑒 and 𝑛ℎ is the concentration of electrons and holes, respectively.

2.14 Mechanism of Holes Movement

Electrons are very small particles and we easily understand the movement of electrons. As holes
are not physical entities their movement is not the same as that of electrons. To understand the
movement of holes let us consider a semiconductor material that has higher hole concentration at
the left-hand side as show in the Fig.2-25. Although there are many holes in this semiconductor
slab, for simplicity only one hole is shown at point 𝑥. We know thatthe electrons of the covalent
bonds of materials are not stationary rather they oscillate. With the increase of temperature the
degree of oscillation also increases. Due to this oscillation, if an electron (at point 𝑎) comes close to
the hole at point 𝑥, it will be captured by the hole. But the covalent bond at point 𝑎 will lose an
electron. This incomplete covalent bond will behave as a hole.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 25

x b b b b
x x x x
𝐸̅ 𝐸̅ 𝐸̅ 𝐸̅ 𝐸̅
a a a a y a y
c c c

Electron captured Hole transferred to the Electron movement

by a hole position of the electron Hole movement
Fig.2-25: Mechanism of hole movement

We can say that the hole has moved from point 𝑎 to point 𝑥. Again, the hole can capture an
electron from point 𝑏 and the hole will be transfer to position 𝑏. As shown in the figure the process
will be continued and the hole will move from point 𝑥 to point 𝑦. Since the point 𝑥 is at higher
concentration region of holes and 𝑦 is at lower concentration end, the hole movement will
continue until the density becomes uniform. Here, the movement of holes takes place from left to
right or from higher concentration to the lower concentration. Even in a material having uniform
hole and/electron concentration random movements of holes and/or electrons will occur. But in
this case the net holes and/or electrons transfer will be zero.

Example 2-8
Suppose a silicon bar is made using the P-type silicon sample of Example 2-6. If the mobilities of
electrons and holes are 𝜇𝑒 = 0.14 m2 ⁄(V ∙ s) and 𝜇ℎ = 0.05 m2 ⁄(V ∙ s), respectively, calculate
the conductivity and resistivity of the silicon bar.
Solution:
Conductivity depends on the carrier concentrations and the mobility of carriers. The conductivity of
the P-type silicon can be calculated using Equ.(2-26).
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝑞𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝜇ℎ 𝑞ℎ
𝑜𝑟, 𝜎 = (2.7 × 1010 )(0.14)(1.6 × 10−19 ) + (8.5 × 1021 )(0.05)(1.6 × 10−19 )
𝑜𝑟, 𝜎 = 6.1 × 10−10 + 68 ≈ 68 S/m(Ans. )
The resistivity of this bar will be,
𝑜𝑟, 1 1 100
𝜌= = Ω∙m= Ω ∙ cm = 1.4 Ω ∙ cm (Ans. )
𝜎 68 68
Comments:The resistivity of this Si is very large compared to that of Cu (1.72 µΩ ∙ cm).
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 26

2.15 PN Junction Diode

Direction of hole diffusion
In Section 2-12, we have discussed P-type N-type
how P-type and N-type
semiconductor is developed. What
are inside a P-type and an N-type
semiconductors are shown in Fig.2-19
and Fig.2-21, respectively. Now if one
half of a semiconductor slab is made 3-D view
P-type and the other half is made N- Direction of electron diffusion
type or some portion of a 2-D view
P-type N-type
semiconductor is made P-type and Majority holes Majority electrons
the rest of it is made N-type a PN
Acceptor atoms Donor atoms
junction will be developed (Fig.2-26).
Minority electrons Minority holes
But if we electrically connect a P-type
semiconductor with an N-type
semiconductor PN junction will not Fig.2-26: PN-junction before equilibrium
be produced due to the crystal
mismatch. Some changes take place at the interface of P-type and N-type material and a depletion
layer and a barrier voltage is developed.
2.15.1 Development of Depletion Layer and Barrier Voltage
As shown in Fig.2-26, there are
Barrier voltage
majority of holes in the P-type
P-type VB N-type
semiconductor and majority of
electrons in the N-type
semiconductor. Due to this
concentration variation electrons
diffuse from N-type to P-type and
3-D
holes diffuse to N-type. If an electron
Localized negative Localized viewpositive
comes to P-type material it will acceptor ions
Electric field
donor ions
neutralize a hole, similarly if a hole
Barrier voltage 2-D view
moves to N-type it will neutralize an
electron. In this way, due to the P-type VB N-type
Majority holes Majority electrons
neutralization of holes and electrons
Acceptor atoms Donor atoms
a region will be developed that has
Minority electrons Minority holes
no free carrier as show in Fig.2-27.
This region at the interface of P-type Depletion layer
and N-type material is called
depletion region or depletion layer Fig.2-27: PN-junction at equilibrium (Barrier voltage and
as the region has been depleted off depletion layer have formed by diffusion of carriers)
free charge carriers. This region is also called the space charge region.
Note that there are localized acceptor ions in the depletion layer of P-type and there are localized
donor ions in the N-type material. Since, acceptor ions are negative and the donor ions are positive
an electric field will be developed in the depletion layer and its direction will be from positive to
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 27

negative, i.e., from N-type to P-type as shown in Fig.2-27. The direction of the electric field will be
such that it will oppose the diffusion of majority carriers. At a certain value of electric field strength
the diffusion of the majority carriers will stop and we say that the PN junction has reached to
equilibrium. In other way, we can say that, the
negative ions in the P-type and the positive ions in
the N-type will produce a potential difference. P-type N-type
Actually this potential difference will produce the
electric field. As this potential difference opposes the
flow of majority carriers it is called barrier
voltage(VB). For silicon PN junction, the typical value
of the barrier voltage is 0.7 V and for the germanium VB
PN junction its value is 0.3 V. Barrier voltage

The positively charged region and the negatively Anode Cathode

charged region comprise the space-charge region, or Electrical symbol of PN junction diode
depletion region, of the PN junction, in which there
are essentially no mobile electrons or holes. Because Fig.2-28: PN junction
of the electric field in the spacecharge region, there diode
is a potential difference across that region (Fig.2-28). This potential difference is called the built-in
potential barrier, or built-in voltage, and is given by,
𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑
𝑉𝐵 = ln ( 2 ) = 𝑉𝑇 ln ( 2 ) (2-27)
𝑞𝑒 𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑖
where 𝑉𝑇 ≡ 𝑘𝑇/𝑒, 𝑘 = Boltzmann’s constant, 𝑇 = absolute temperature, 𝑒 = the magnitude of the
electronic charge, and Na and Nd are the net acceptor and donor concentrations in the P- and N-
regions, respectively. The parameter 𝑉𝑇 is called the thermal voltage and is approximately 𝑉𝑇 =
0.026 V at room temperature, 𝑇 = 300 K.
When metal contacts are made to the P-type and N-type semiconductor as shown in Fig.2-28, a PN
junction diode or simply a semiconductor diode is produced. The electrical symbol of a diode is
shown in the same figure. The terminal connected to P-type material is called anode and that
connected to N-type material terminal is called cathode. The arrow head in the symbol indicates
the direction of the conventional current flow as will be described later.

Example 2-9
Calculate the potential barrier of a silicon PN junction, at junction temperature 𝑇 = 300 K.
Consider that the doping concentration in P-type region is𝑁𝑎 = 1016 cm−3 and that in N-type
region is 𝑁𝑑 = 1017 cm−3 and the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon is 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1010 cm−3.
Solution:
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 (1016 cm−3)(1017 cm−3 )
Using Equ.(2-27), 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑇 ln ( 2 ) = 26 × 10−3 V ln [ ]
𝑛𝑖 (1.5 × 1010 cm−3 )2
1013
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝐵 = 26 × 10−3 V ln [ ] ≈ 757.12 × 10−3 V = 0.757 V [Ans. ]
1.5 × 1.5
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 28

Comment:Because of the ln function, the magnitude of 𝑉𝐵 is not a strong functionof the doping
concentrations. Therefore, this calculated value may vary by a small amount (0.1 to 0.2 V).

2.15.2 PN Junction at Equilibrium

When the barrier voltage (VB) of a PN junction becomes 0.7 V (for Si) or 0.3 V (for Ge) the diffusion
of majority carriers stops and the junction comes to an electrical equilibrium condition. However,
at room temperature, the movements of carriers through the junction do not completely stop. We
know that, at room temperature, there are some minority carrier electrons in the P-type
semiconductor and some minority carrier holes in the N-type semiconductor. Although the electric
field, produced by the barrier voltage, opposes the flow of majority carriers, it will force minority
carriers to move through the PN junction.
At room temperature, both the majority and minority carriers produce random motions. Hence, if a
minority carrier electron of P-type semiconductor comes within the depletion region (where the
electric field exists), due to random movement, the electric field will push it to the N-side of the PN
junction. As the electron moves with the force of electric field it is called drift. Similarly the
minority carriers of N-type material drift to the P-side. In this way, two drift currents will be
produced (Fig.2-29). Since, the direction of current is just opposite to the direction of electron flow,
the two drift currents will add up and will produce a resultant drift current as shown by a thicker
arrow in the figure.

Direction of electric field E Hole

P-type N-type Drift Electron
EC
p
P-type Diffusion VB
EF ECn
EV p EF
p N-type n
Minority Ielec Ihole Minority Diffusion
electron drift hole drift
EVn
Resultant drift Depletion region
I drift Drift
current 𝑥
−𝑥𝑝 0 𝑥𝑛
Majority hole Ihole Ielec Majority elec- Potential
diffusion tron diffusion
Resultant I diffusion VB
diffusion current
𝑥
−𝑥𝑝 0 𝑥𝑛
Fig.2-29: Current components of PN
junction in equilibrium Fig.2-30: Energy band diagram
of PN junction

As, due to the drift of minority carriers, the number of majority carriers has increased (both in P-
side and N-side) than that without drift, now the diffusion pressure will increase. Hence, majority
carrier hole will diffuse from P-type material to the N-type material and the majority carrier
electrons will diffuse from N-type material to P-type material. In this way, two diffusion currents
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 29

will be developed. As the direction of current will be opposite to the direction of electron diffusion,
the two diffusion currents will add up and will produce a resultant current which is called diffusion
current. As shown in Fig.2-29, at equilibrium condition, the magnitudes of the drift current and the
diffusion current will be same. As the direction of drift current is just opposite to the direction of
diffusion current, the net current through the PN-junction will be zero at equilibrium.
Thus we can say, in the absence of any applied bias voltage across a semiconductor diode, the net
flow of charge is zero or the net current is zero.
Fig.2-30 shows the energy band diagram and the potential difference graphically. As discussed
before, the Fermi level lies near the conduction band in N-type material, while in P-type material, it
lies near the valence band. But in a PN junction, the Fermi level must lie in the save level. To adjust
the Fermi level in the same energy, the every levels in N-type materials goes down. This bending to
the energy level, results in the barrier voltage.

2.16 I-V Characteristic of PN Junction Diode

We have already discussed the behavior of a PN junction diode with no bias condition (i.e., at
equilibrium). What is biasing? Biasing is the process of applying an external potential (voltage) to a
device. The voltage applied for biasing is called bias voltage. No net current will flow in any
direction of the diode without bias. The I-V characteristic of a diode is described in two conditions.
One is forward biased condition and the other is reverse biased condition.
2.16.1 Characteristics in Reverse Biased Condition
When an external source of potential (i.e., a battery) of 𝑉𝐷 Volts is connected across a PN junction
diode such that the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-type material and the
negative terminal is connected
to the P-type material of the Minority current flow
diode as shown in Fig.2-31, the Iminority Imajority = 0
situation is called reverse bias. Anode Cathode
The number of positive ions in
N-type material of the depletion
region will increase due to the IS IS
P-type N-type
large number of free electrons Wider depletion
drawn by the positive terminal IS
layer
IS -VD
of the applied potential. For -VD (a) Circuit using schematic
similar reasons, the number of symbol of PN junction
(a) Circuit using constructional
negative ions will increase in the
blocks of PN junction
P-type material. The net effect,
therefore, is that the width of Fig.2-31: Reverse biased PN junction diode
the depletion region will
increase. This widening of the depletion region will establish agreater barrier for the majority
carriers to overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to zero, as shown in Fig.2-31.
The drift of the minority carriers, however, will continue. As the number of minority carriers is very
small both in the P-type and N-type materials, the driftcurrent will saturate for a verysmall value
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 30

ID (mA)
10 Forward characteristic

8
6
Ge Si ID (mA)
4 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
- VD (V) -50 VD (V)
2 Knee point 0
- VD (V) -5
0 VD (V) VBR ID = -IS
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
-1 -10
ID = -IS Reverse
-2 Knee voltage characteristic -15
Si 0.7 V (Si)
Ge -3 -20
0.3 V (Ge)
Reverse characteristic -ID
-4
(m
-ID (A) Fig.2-33: Breakdown voltage
A) of
Fig.2-32:I-V Characteristic reverse characteristic
curve of PN junction diode

of reverse biased voltage as shown in Fig.2-32. The current that exists under reverse-bias condition
is called reverse current and is represented by 𝐼𝑅 . Actually, the reverse current is the sum of the
reverse saturation current(𝐼𝑠 )and the surface leakage current (𝐼𝑆𝐿 ). As the value of 𝐼𝑆𝐿 is very
small, in most cases, we approximate 𝐼𝑅 ≈ 𝐼𝑆 . The reverse saturation current increases with the
increase of thermal energy or external light energy. But as the diode consists of a PN junction
covered in a package, the junction of the diode always remains in dark condition. That’s why 𝐼𝑠 is
also called dark saturation current. The value of Is depends on the temperature. At 25 C the value
of alow power diode is typically 1 A. The characteristic curve of the diode under reverse biased
condition is shown on the third quadrant of the graph of Fig.2-32. If we increase the reverse bias
voltage the value of 𝐼𝑠 remains constant. For a very large value of reverse voltage, which is beyond
the tolerance voltage of the diode, the reverse current increases suddenly and if the current is not
controlled the diode may destroy. The value of the reverse bias voltage for which the current
increases rapidly is called reversebreakdown voltage VBR as shown in Fig.2-33. This breakdown
takes place due to a mechanism called Zener breakdown and is described in Zener Diode section.
2.16.2 Characteristics in Forward Biased Condition
A forward bias (or ON condition of diode) is established by applying the positive potential to the P-
type material and the negative potential to the N-type material, i.e., by connecting the positive
terminal of the battery to the anode and the negative terminal to the cathode of the diode as
shown in Fig.2-34. The Majority current flow
application of a forward bias Iminority = 0 Imajority
potential 𝑉𝐷 will pressure Anode Cathode
electrons in the N-type material D
and holes in the P-type material
to recombine with the ions near ID
P-type Narrow N-type ID
the boundary and reduce the
depletion layer
width of the depletion region as +VD
ID ID (a) Circuit using schematic
shown in Fig.2-34. The minority-
symbol of PN junction
+VD
(a) Circuit using constructional
blocks of PN junction
Fig.2-34 Forward biased PN junction diode
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 31

carrier (electrons) flow from P-type material to N-type material (and of holes from the N–type
material to the P-type material) will decreases with the increase in applied forward bias voltage. As
the resistance of the depletion layer is the maximum the applied voltage will almost completely
drop across the depletion layer. This forward voltage will produce an electric field which is in the
opposite direction of original electric field of the barrier voltage. Thus, the resultant electric field
will decrease and the current due to minority carriers (minority drift current) will decrease and the
majority current (diffuse current) will increase. If the applied forward bias voltage is equal to the
barrier voltage 𝑉𝐵 , the resultant field in the depletion layer will be zero. Now the minority carrier
current will be zero and the current due to the majority carriers will be high. In the forward bias
condition, therefore, the forward current increases rapidly when the applied voltage is near about
the barrier voltage 𝑉𝐵 . This point of the I-V curve where the forward current increases rapidly is
called knee pointand the applied voltage corresponding to this point is called knee voltage. After
the knee point the current will increase rapidly with a very small increase in the forward voltage. In
fact, the voltage across a forward-biased diode will be less than 1 V.
From the theory of solid-state physics, the general characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be
defined by the following equation [Equ.2-29). This equation is referred to as Shockley’s equation.
𝑞𝑒 𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑛𝑘𝑇 − 1) (2-28)
𝑉𝐷
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 − 1) (2-29)

where,
𝐼𝑠 = reverse saturation current
𝑞𝑒 = magnitude of charge of an electron = 1.6 × 10−19 C
𝑉𝐷 = applied forward bias voltage to the diode
𝑛 = diode ideality factor, which is a function of the operating conditions and physical construction;
its value has the range between 1 and 2 depending on a wide variety of factors (for simplicity,
in this book, we will consider n=1 unless otherwise stated).
𝑘 = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K
𝑇 = Absolute temperature
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑘𝑇/𝑞𝑒 , which is called thermal voltage. At 27 C or 300 K the value of 𝑉𝑇 is ≈ 26 mV.

Example2-10
APN junction diode is operated at a temperature of 𝑇 = 300 K. Assuming 𝐼𝑆 = 10−14 A, and 𝑛 = 1,
determine the diode current for i) 𝑉𝐷 = +0.72 V and ii) 𝑉𝐷 = −0.72 V.
Solution:
i) For 𝑉𝐷 = +0.72 V the diode is forward biased. Using the Shockley’s equation,
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 [𝑒 𝑉𝐷 /𝑛𝑉𝑇 − 1] = 10−14 A [𝑒 0.72 V/0.026 V − 1]
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝐷 = 10−14 A × [𝑒 27.69 − 1] ≈ 9.63 mA [Ans. ]
ii) For 𝑉𝐷 = −0.72 V the diode is reversed biased. Using the Shockley’s equation,
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 32

𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 [𝑒 𝑉𝐷 /𝑛𝑉𝑇 − 1] = 10−14 A × [𝑒 −0.72 V/0.026 V − 1]

𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝐷 = 10−14 A × [𝑒 −27.69 − 1] ≈ −10−14 A [Ans. ]
Comments: Although 𝐼𝑆 is quite small, even a relatively small value of forward-biasvoltage can
induce a moderate junction current. With a reverse-bias voltage,the junction current is virtually
zero.

Example2-11
Determine the diode voltage (𝑉𝐷 ) and current (𝐼𝐷 ) for the circuit shown [Link] a diode
with a given reverse-saturation current of 𝐼𝑆 = 10−13 A.
Solution:
Using KVL, 𝑉𝑆 = 𝐼𝐷 𝑅 + 𝑉𝐷
Using Equ.(2-29), 12 V = 𝐼𝑆 [𝑒 𝑉𝐷 /𝑉𝑇 − 1]𝑅 + 𝑉𝐷
𝑜𝑟, 12 V = (10−13 A)[𝑒 𝑉𝐷 /0.026 V − 1](4.7 × 103 Ω) + 𝑉𝐷 (2-30)
This expression contains only one unknown variable (𝑉𝐷 ). Due to the exponential part and the
presence of 𝑉𝐷 on both sides, it will be difficult to solve this equation analytically. Let’s solve this
equation using iteration method.
R = 4.7 k
If we first try 𝑉𝐷 = 0.60 V, the right side of Equ.(2-30) is
5.5463 V, so the equationis not balanced and the value is ID ID
lower than 12 V. If we next try 𝑉𝐷 = 0.65 V, the rightside of VS VD
Equ.(2-30) is34.4923 V which is very larger than 12 V. 12 V
Now let’s try 𝑉𝐷 = 0.62 V, the result is 11.29458 V. So the
result should be little higher than 𝑉𝐷 = 0.62 V. If we
continue refining ourguesses, we will be able to show that, Fig.2-35: Circuit for Example 2-11
when 𝑉𝐷 = 0.62166 V, the right side of Equ.(2-30) is
12.00 V, which is essentially equal to the value of the left side of theequation.
The current in the circuit can then be determined by dividing the voltage differenceacross the
resistor by its resistance as,
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝐷 12 V − 0.62166 V 11.37834 V
𝐼𝐷 = = = = 2.4209 mA [Ans. ]
𝑅 4.7 × 103 4.7 × 103
Comment: Once the diode voltage is known, the current can also be determinedfrom the ideal
diode equation [Equ.(2-29)]. However, dividing the voltage difference across a resistorby the
resistance is usually easier, and this approach is used extensively in theanalysis of diode and
transistor circuits.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 33

2.17 Effect of Temperature on the Performance of Diode

The values of different parameters of semiconductor devices are mentioned at the temperature of
25°C. But the devices are not always operated at 25°C. The operating temperature may be higher
or lower than 25°C. This increase and decrease in temperature affects various parameters of the
semiconductor devices. The mostly affected diode parameters are discussed below.
2.17.1 Effect of Temperature on Barrier Voltage
The characteristics of a semiconductor diode are highly dependent on (operating) temperature.
The value of barrier voltage VB decreases by 2.5 mV per C temperature increase. As a result the
forward current increases (if the input voltage is fixed) and the forward characteristic curve shifts
to the left as shown in Fig.2-37(a). For example, if the barrier voltage of a Si diode is 0.7 V at room
temperature (25C), at 70C temperature its value will be 0.7 V – 2.5 mV  (70 − 25) = 0.588 V.

Example 2-12
At ambient temperature of 25° C, the barrier voltage of a Si diode is 0.7 V. What will be the barrier-
voltage when the junction temperature is i) 0°C, and ii) 50°C ?
Solution:
i) When the junction temperature is 0° C, the change in barrier voltage will be,
Δ𝑉𝐵 = (−2.5 mV/°C)ΔT = (−2.5 mV/°C)(0°C − 25°C)
𝑜𝑟, Δ𝑉𝐵 = 62.5 mV
This positive value means that the barrier voltage will increase by 62.5 mV from its room
temperature value. Thus, the barrier voltage at 0°C will be,
𝑉𝐵 = 0.7 V + 0.0625 mV = 0.7625 V [Ans. ]
ii) When the junction temperature is 50° C, the change in barrier voltage will be,
Δ𝑉𝐵 = (−2.5 mV/°C)(50°C − 25°C)
𝑜𝑟, Δ𝑉𝐵 = −62.5 mV
This negative sign means that the barrier voltage will decrease by 62.5 mV from its room
temperature value. Thus, the barrier voltage at 25°C will be,
𝑉𝐵 = 0.7 V − 0.0625 mV = 0.6375 V [Ans. ]
Comments: Barrier voltage increases with the decrease in junction temperature and vice versa.

2.17.2 Effect of Temperature onReverse P-type N-type

Saturation Current A
As discussed earlier, forward-biasing a diode decreases
B
the width of the depletion layer and allows free
electrons to cross the junction. Reverse bias has the Wider depletion
layer
IR IR
-VD

Fig.2-36: Thermal energy produces

holes and electrons in depletion layer
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 34

opposite effect: It widens the depletion layer by moving holes and free electrons away from the
junction.
Suppose that thermal energy creates a hole and free electron inside the depletion layer of a
reverse-biased diode, as shown in Fig.2-36. The free electron at A and the hole at B can now
contribute to reverse current. Because of the reversebias, the free electron will move to the right,
effectively pushing an electron out ofthe right end of the diode. Similarly, the hole will move to the
left. This extra holeon the P-side lets an electron enter the left end of the crystal. Thus a reverse
current will be produced, for the movement of minority carriers.
The higher the junction temperature, the greater the saturation current[Fig.2-36(b)]. In the reverse
bias condition, the reverse saturation current of silicon diode becomes double for every 10°C rise
in temperature. For example, at 25°C temperature, the typical value of 𝐼𝑠 of Si diode is 20 nA. At
75°C the value of IS will be 20 nA (75-25)/10 = 100 nA. Mathematically,
𝑜𝑟, %Δ𝐼𝑆 = 100% for a 10°C increase in tmeperature (2-31)
If the changes in temperature are less than 10°C, you can use thisequivalent rule:
𝑜𝑟, %Δ𝐼𝑆 = 7% for a 1°C increase in tmeperature (2-32)
The approximate value of reverse saturation current can easily be calculated as,
𝐼𝑆(at 𝑇°C) = 2(𝑇−25)/10 × 𝐼𝑆(at 25°C) (2-33)
The value of 𝐼𝑠 for Ge diode is as high as 1 A. Hence, Ge diode is not used for high temperature
applications. On the other hand, the value of 𝐼𝑠 of GaAs diode is so low that it can be used at
temperature as high as 400°C. For this reason, we need a diode with lower 𝐼𝑠 value for high
temperature applications.

Example 2-13
A silicon diode has a saturation current of 6.5 nA at an ambient temperature of25°C. What will be
the value of the saturation current at 80°C?
Solution:
The change in temperature is from 25°C to 80°C. Now, let’s see how many 10° are there. Starting
from 25°C the steps are: 35°C, 45°C, 55°C, 65°C, 75°C -> 5 steps. So, the saturation current will be
multiplied by multiplied by 2, five times. That is,
𝐼𝑆(at 75°C) = ((((6.5 nA × 2) × 2) × 2) × 2) × 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝑆(at 75°C) = 6.5 nA × 25 = 6.5 nA × 32
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝑆(at 75°C) = 208 nA
But, temperature has increased 5°C more (75°Cto 80°C).
Using Equ.(2-) 𝐼𝑆(at 80°C) = (1.07)5 × 208 nA = 291.73 nA [Ans. ]
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 35

Comments: As the saturation current doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature, it will increase
exponentially for every 10°C rise in temperature.

2.17.3 Effect of Temperature on Breakdown Voltage

The temperature variation has also some effect on the reverse breakdown voltage VBR. For Zener
breakdown mechanism (below 5 V) the value of VBR decreases with the increase in temperature. As
we increase the temperature the energy gap between the valence band and conduction band
decreases. So, the less strong electric field is required to move valance electrons to the conduction
band. Consequently, the required breakdown voltage decreases as the temperature increases. For
avalanche breakdown mechanism (above 5 V), the value of VBR increases with temperature. Due to
increase in temperature, vibrations of atoms increase that decreases the mean free path for
electrons (lower kinetic energy). Hence,for avalanche breakdown mechanism, breakdown voltage
increases with increase in temperature. The effects of temperature on different parameters are
shown in Fig.2-37.

ID (mA)
75 60 45 30 15 0
10 25C 75 60 45 30 15 0
-VD (V) VBR
8 -VD (V) VBR 1
VBR 1 VBR
50C 0C
6 VBR 2
2
4 0C 3
3
0C 25C 50C 50C 25C
2 4
VD (V) 4
0 Zener breakdown -ID (A) Avalanche breakdown-ID (A)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(b)Reverse characteristic (c) Reverse characteristic
(a) Forward characteristic

Fig.2-37: Effect of temperature on PN junction

2.18 Surface-Leakage Current

The surface leakage current is basically a type of surface recombination current caused by surface
defects. Surface defects can form the defect energy levels on the semiconductor surface, further
generating surface charges or recombination centers, increase the surface recombination. Suppose
that the atoms at the top and bottom of Fig.2-38(a) are on the surface of the crystal. Since these
atoms have no neighbors (to upper and lower sides), they have only six electrons in the valence
orbit, implying two holes in each surface atom. These holes, along the surface of the crystal,are
shown is in Fig. 2-37(b). Then
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 36

Holes in Dangling bonds

dangling bond behave as holes
Si Si Si
Si
P-type N-type
Si Si Si

VR
Si Si Si
ISL

(a) (b)
Fig.2-38: (a) Atoms on the surface of a crystal have no neighbors, (b) holes on the surface of a crystal

we can seethat the skin of a crystal is like a P-type semiconductor. Because of this, traveling
through the surface,electronscan leave theright end of the crystal andenter the left end. In this
way, we get a small reverse current along the surface.
The surface-leakage current is directly proportional to the reverse [Link] instance, if we
double the reverse voltage, the surface-leakage current𝐼𝑆𝐿 doubles, i.e., it follows the Ohm’s Law.
We can define the surface-leakage resistance as follows,
𝑉𝑅
𝑅𝑆𝐿 = (2-34)
𝐼𝑆𝐿

Example 2-14
Given a Si diode with a reverse current of 5 μA at 25°C and 100 μA at 100°C, calculate the surface
leakage current.
Solution:
The reverse current in a diode is the sum of reverse saturation current (𝐼𝑆 ) and the surface leakage
current (𝐼𝑆𝐿 ), i.e.
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑆 + 𝐼𝑆𝐿 (2-35)
Here, only the temperature is changed, not the biasing voltage. So, the surface leakage current will
remain constant.
For the 1st case (25°C temperature),
𝐼𝑅1 = 𝐼𝑆1 + 𝐼𝑆𝐿
𝑜𝑟, 5 μA = 𝐼𝑆1 + 𝐼𝑆𝐿
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝑆𝐿 = 5 μA − 𝐼𝑆1 (2-36)
For the 2nd case (100°C temperature),
𝐼𝑅2 = 𝐼𝑆2 + 𝐼𝑆𝐿
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 37
100−25
𝑜𝑟, 100 μA = (2 10 × 𝐼𝑆1 ) + 𝐼𝑆𝐿

Putting the value of 𝐼𝑆𝐿 from Equ.(2-33),

100−25
100 μA = (2 10 × 𝐼𝑆1 ) + 5 μA − 𝐼𝑆1

𝑜𝑟, 95 μA = (27.5 − 1) × 𝐼𝑆1

𝑜𝑟, 95 μA
𝐼𝑆1 = ≈ 0.53 μA
180.019
Putting this value of 𝐼𝑆1 into Equ.(2-36),
𝐼𝑆𝐿 = 5 μA − 0.53 μA = 4.47 μA [Ans. ]
Comments: At lower temperature, the value of surface leakage current is higher than the reverse
saturation current.

2.19 Resistance of PN Junction Diode

If we look at the diode characteristic curve, we find that the curve is nonlinear (in fact exponential).
At different points of the curve the rate of change of current is different. The resistance
corresponding to a particular point is inversely proportional to the rate of change of current. Thus,
we can say that every point of the characteristic curve has different resistance. However, if we
apply a DC voltage across a diode, it will operate at a fixed point and if we apply an AC voltage the
operating point will change (oscillate). For this reason, we have to study diode resistance in two
conditions – DC voltage condition and AC voltage condition.

ID (mA) ID (mA)
12 12
10 VD 10
Operating VD Operating
8 8
point point
6 6
𝑉𝐷 Curve 1
4 𝑅𝐷 = ID 4 ID
𝐼𝐷 Curve 2
2 2
VD (V) 0
VD (V)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Fig.2-39: DC or static resistance from Fig.2-40: Two different curves give

diode characteristics same DC resistance

2.19.1 DC or Static Resistance

If we apply a forward DC voltage, VD, across a diode a DC current, ID, will flow through the diode. If
we put the values of voltage and current on the I-V characteristic curve of the diode, a point will be
found. This point is called the operating point of the diode. In a simple method, if we divide the
voltage,VD, by the current, ID, a resistance will be found as
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 38

𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝐷 = (2-37)
𝐼𝐷
This resistance is called DC resistance or static resistance. Actually, this resistance is not merely the
junction resistance of the operating point, but the total resistance offered by the diode for this
operating point. For higher values of DC voltage the operating point will shift upward and the static
resistance will decrease. From the graph of Fig.2-39, it is found that for the value of 𝑉𝐷 = 0.75 V,
0.7 V
−3 = 87.5 .
the diode corresponding to this curve gives 𝐼𝐷 = 8 mA. Thus, the values of 𝑅𝐷 =
8×10 A

2.19.2 AC or Dynamic Resistance

The DC resistance of a diode does not properly depends on the shape of the characteristic curve it
only depends on the values of voltage and current. For example, as shown in the Fig.2-40, the given
operating point the two characteristic curves will give the same value of DC resistance (as the
operating point is same). But the AC resistance will depend exactly on the shape of the curve. If we
want to pass an AC signal through a PN junction, we have to forward bias the PN junction to fix a
suitable DC operating point. Then, the AC signal is superimposed to the DC bias voltage.
Fig.2-41 shows how the effects of the AC signal changes the position of operating point. The
positive half cycle moves the operating point upward and the negative cycle moves the operating
point downward. Depending on the peak-to-peak value of the AC signal we get a highest operating
point and a lowest operating point. By subtracting the voltages and currents of these two operating
points we can calculate the change in voltage (∆𝑉𝐷 ) and the change in current (∆𝐼𝐷 ). Dividing ∆𝑉𝐷
by ∆𝐼𝐷 will give a resistance and this resistance is called average AC resistance or average dynamic
resistanceand is denoted as 𝑟𝑑 . That is,
∆𝑉𝐷
𝑟𝑑 = (2-38)
∆𝐼𝐷
This dynamic or AC resistance will depend on the shape of the characteristic curve of the diode, at
least on the slope of the portion of the curve along which the operating point oscillates. Although it

ID (mA) ID (mA)
12 (𝑉𝐻 , 𝐼𝐻 ) 12
10 10
8 ∆𝐼𝐷 8
26 mV Tangent
6 DC Operating 6 𝑟𝑑 =
point
𝐼𝐷
4 4
2 (𝑉𝐿 , 𝐼𝐿 ) ∆𝑉𝐷 2
0 VD (V) VD (V)
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Fig.2-41: Dynamic resistance Fig.2-42: Dynamic resistance at a

calculation from two points single point using tangent

seems that, 𝑟𝑑 is the difference of the DC resistance of the highest and the lowest operating points,
actually it is not true. This can easily be understood from Fig.2-41.
From the graph, ∆𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝐻 − 𝑉𝐿 and ∆𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐻 − 𝑉𝐿
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 39

∆𝑉 𝑉𝐻 − 𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐻 𝑉𝐿
But, 𝑟𝑑 = = (≠ − 𝑜𝑟, 𝑟𝑑 ≠ 𝑅𝐷𝐻 − 𝑅𝐷𝐿 ) (2-39)
∆𝐼 𝐼𝐻 − 𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝐻 𝐼𝐿
Thus, we find that 𝑟𝑑 is not the difference of the DC resistances of the two operating points.
Actually, 𝑟𝑑 is the reciprocal of the slope of the line connecting the two operating points. 𝑟𝑑 does
not reflect the slope of the DC operating point (in Fig.2-39) of diode I-V characteristic curve.
To calculate 𝑟𝑑 corresponding to a DC operating point, we have to consider the value of ∆𝑉𝐷 and
∆𝐼𝐷 to be very small that the oscillation of the operating points shrinks to the DC operating point.
That is, we can write ∆𝑉𝐷 = 𝑑𝑉𝐷 and ∆𝐼𝐷 = 𝑑𝐼𝐷 . Thus,
𝑑𝑉𝐷 1
𝑟𝑑 = = (2-40)
𝑑𝐼𝐷 𝑑𝐼𝐷 /𝑑𝑉𝐷
Now, with the help of Calculus, we can calculate the value of 𝑟𝑑 from Eq.(2-28)
𝑞𝑒 𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑛𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝑞𝑒 𝑉𝐷
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑛𝑘𝑇 − 𝐼𝑆
𝑑𝐼𝐷 𝑑 𝑞𝑉𝐷
𝑜𝑟, = (𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑛𝑘𝑇 − 𝐼𝑆 )
𝑑𝑉𝐷 𝑑𝑉𝐷
𝑑𝐼𝐷 𝑞𝑒 𝑞𝑒 𝑉𝐷
𝑜𝑟, =( 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑛𝑘𝑇 − 0)
𝑑𝑉𝐷 𝑛𝑘𝑇
𝑞𝑒 𝑉𝐷
But we can assume, 𝐼𝐷 ≈ 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑛𝑘𝑇
𝑑𝐼𝐷 𝑞𝑒
∴ ≈( 𝐼 )
𝑑𝑉𝐷 𝑛𝑘𝑇 𝐷
1 𝑛𝑘𝑇 𝑛𝑉𝑇
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑟𝑑 ≈ ( )=( )
𝑑𝐼𝐷 /𝑑𝑉𝐷 𝑞𝑒 𝐼𝐷 𝐼𝐷
Considering, 𝑛 = 1, 𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K, 𝑇 = (273 + 27) K = 300 K and 𝑞𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 we
get,
(1.38 × 10−23 J/K) × (300 K)
𝑟𝑑 =
1.6 × 10−19 × 𝐼𝐷
26 mV
∴ 𝑟𝑑 ≈ (2-41)
𝐼𝐷
From this calculation we also find that the value of thermal voltage 𝑉𝑇 = 26 mV as mentioned
[Link] Equ.(2-41), we can calculate the value of 𝑟𝑑 at any point of the I-V characteristic curve
of the diode. As shown in Fig.2-42,𝑟𝑑 now gives the reciprocal of the slope of the curve at the DC
operating point.
The AC level determined by Equ.(2-41) merely gives the resistance of a PN junction. But a practical
diode has some additional resistances which are the bulk resistance of P-type semiconductor and
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 40

N-type semiconductor, contact resistance of the connecting leads, etc. The value of this additional
resistances range from 1 to 2 . Thus the actual AC resistance of a diode will be,
26 mV
𝑟𝑑 ≈ + 𝑟𝐵 (2-42)
𝐼𝐷

Example 2-15 ID (mA)

14
Two operating points are shown on the I-V curve of a
12
diode. Calculate the DC resistance and AC resistance 9.8 mA
using Equ.(2-42) for these two operating points. 10
Assume, 𝑟𝐵 = 2 Ω . 8
Operating
Solution: 6 point 2
Operating point 1
Calculation of DC or static resistance RD: 4
2
From the graph for operating point 1, 𝑉𝐷1 = 0.625 V 0.825 V VD (V)
0
and 𝐼𝐷1 = 2 mA 0 0.2 0. 0.7 1.0 1.2
5 5 0.625
5 5
Using Equ.(2-37), V
Fig.2-43: Two operating points
𝑉𝐷1 0.625 V on IV curve for Example 2-1
𝑅𝐷1 = = = 312.5 Ω (Ans. )
𝐼𝐷1 2 mA
Using Equ.(2-42),
26 mV 26 mV
𝑟𝑑1 = + 𝑟𝐵 = + 2 Ω = 15 Ω (Ans. )
𝐼𝐷1 2 mA
For operating point 2, 𝑉𝐷2 = 0.825 V and 𝐼𝐷2 = 9.8 mA
Using Equ.(2-37),
𝑉𝐷2 0.825 V
𝑅𝐷2 = = = 84.2 Ω (Ans. )
𝐼𝐷2 9.8 mA
Using Equ.(2-42),
26 mV 26 mV
𝑟𝑑2 = + 𝑟𝐵 = + 2 Ω = 4.7 Ω (Ans. )
𝐼𝐷2 9.8 mA
Comments: Both DC and AC resistances decrease for higher operating point (high values of VD and
ID). For a particular operating point, the AC resistance value is always smaller than the DC
resistance value.

2.20 Capacitancein PN Junctoin

The terminal characteristics of a diode (in fact any device) depends on frequency. Although at low
or medium frequency the variation of the performance with frequency can be neglected, at very
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 41

high frequency we must be aware of the stray capacitance of the diode. Stray capacitance is
defined as the capacitance which is automatically developed during the device fabrication. Actually
this is unwanted capacitance. There are two types of capacitances in PN junction diode. These are
transition capacitance and diffusion capacitance. Both types of capacitance are present in the
forward and reverse bias condition. In reverse bias, transition capacitance is dominating and in
forward bias diffusion capacitance is dominating.
2.20.1 Transition capacitance
We know that a parallel-plate capacitor consists of two conducting plates and a dielectric material
between them (Fig.2-44). The capacitance the this capacitor is given by
𝜖𝐴
𝐶= (2-43)
𝑑
At equilibrium condition of a PN junction, there exists a depletion layer between a P-type and an N-
type semiconductor. As the depletion layer has no free carriers its resistance is very high. It can
behave as a dielectric material as it can store charge (positive and negative ions). With a lot of
majority carriers, both the P-type and an N-type material can work as conducting plates. Thus, the
PN junction forms a parallel plate capacitor. The capacitance associated with this arrangement is
called transitioncapacitanceor depletion layer capacitance. This capacitance is also called simply
junction capacitance. The value of this capacitance decreases with the reverse bias voltage and can
be calculated as,
−𝑉𝐷 −1/2
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶𝑇0 (1 + ) (2-44)
𝑉𝐵
Here, 𝐶𝑇0 is the transiton capacitance with zero bias, −𝑉𝐷 is the applied reverse bias voltage and 𝑉𝐵
is the barrier voltage of the PN junction.

C (pF)
Parallel plate
12
capacitor
10

Conducting plates 8
Dielectric
6
4 CT + CD CD
PN Junction CT + CD CT
2
P N
- VD (V) 0 VD (V)
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Depletion layer
Fig.2-45: Variation of transition
Fig.2-44: Resemblance of parallel and diffusion capacitance
plate capacitor and PN junction

The value of this capacitance can also be calculated as,

𝑑𝑄 𝜖𝐴
𝐶𝑇 = = (2-45)
𝑑𝑉 𝑊
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 42

Here,  is the dielectric constant of Si, 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the PN junction and W is the
width of the depletion layer. Since the width of the depletion layer increases with the increase of
reverse bias the transition capacitance decreases with reverse bias voltage as shown in Fig.2-45.
The depletion layer capacitance is essentially the capacitance of reverse biased PN junction. The
value of transition capacitance is very low. The typical value for a low current diode is 4 pF.

Example 2-16
Consider a silicon PN junction at 𝑇 = 300 K, with doping concentrations of𝑁𝑎 = 1016 cm−3 and
𝑁𝑑 = 2 × 1015 cm−3. Assume that 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1010 cm−3 and the unbiased junction capacitance
𝐶𝑇0 = 1.0 pF. Calculate the junction capacitance at 𝑉𝐷 = −1 V and 𝑉𝑅 = −10 V.
Solutoin:
Using Equ.(2-27),
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 −3
(1016 cm−3 )(2 × 1015 cm−3 )
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑇 ln ( ) = 26 × 10 V ln [ ] ≈ 0.636 V
𝑛𝑖2 (2.2 × 1010 cm−3 )2
Using Equ.(2-44), the junction capacitance for 𝑉𝐷 = −1 V can be calculated as,
1 V −1/2
𝐶𝑇 = (1.0 pF) (1 + ) ≈ 0.625 pF [Ans. ]
0.636 V
For 𝑉𝐷 = −10 V,
10 V −1/2
𝐶𝑇 = (1.0 pF) (1 + ) ≈ 0.245 pF [Ans. ]
0.636 V
Comments: The magnitude of the junction capacitance is usually at or below thepico-Farad range,
and it decreases as the reversebias voltage increases.

2.20.2 Diffusion Capacitance

The capacitance effect which is produced due to the storage of charge carriers is called diffusion
capacitance,𝐶𝐷 . This capacitance is essentially the capacitance of forward-biased PN junction. If a
forward bias voltage is applied to a PN junction a forward current (𝐼𝐹 ) will flow from P-side to N-
side through the depletion layer. The forward current is due to the diffusion of majority carriers. If
we suddenly revere the polarity of bias voltage (reverse bias) the forward current 𝐼𝐹 will stop
immediately leaving some majority charge carriers in the depletion region. Now due to the reverse
bias, the depletion layer will be widened. The charge carriers, left by the forward current, will start
to flow back from the depletion layer in reverse direction as the minority carriers do. Thus, initially
the reverse current will be comparatively high and gradually decreases to the level of reverse
saturation current, 𝐼𝑆 . The effect is similar to the discharge of a capacitor. Similarly, when we
forward bias a PN junction at first majority carriers will be accumulated in the depletion region and
then the forward current will starts to flow. This effect is similar to the charging of a capacitor. This
charging and discharging property of the PN junction is represented by a capacitance and called
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 43

diffusion capacitance,CD. The value of diffusion capacitance can be calculated by the following
equation.
𝑑𝑄 𝜏
𝐶𝐷 = = ( ) 𝐼𝐷 (2-46)
𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝐵
where, 𝜏 is the minority carrier life-time, 𝑉𝐵 is the barrier voltage of the PN junction and 𝐼𝐷 is the
forward current level.
From this equation, it is clear that the diffusion capacitance increases with the increase in forward
current, i.e., with the increase of forward bias voltage. But, as we know, the resistance level of a PN
junction decreases with the increase of forward current. Hence, the time-constant ( = 𝑅𝐶) of the
PN junction remains almost constant which is very important. The value of diffusion capacitance is
higher than that of transition capacitance. The typical value of a low current diode is 1 nF with the
value of 𝐼𝐷 = 10 mA.
Both the transition capacitance and the diffusion capacitance depend on the applied voltage. This
dependency of the capacitance on voltage is used in varactor diode. The varactor diode is used in
electronic circuit as a variable capacitor, whose capacitance can be changed by changing applied
voltage [described in details in section 2-].

2.21 Ideal Diode

Actually, in electronic circuit a diode is used as a switch that allows current only in one direction
(forward direction). Although, a PN junction can behave as a one-way switch, in addition to
switching property it has barrier voltage 𝑉𝐵 , reverse saturation current 𝐼𝑆 , junction capacitance
(𝐶𝑇 + 𝐶𝐷 ) and some resistances (𝑅𝐷 , 𝑟𝑑 ). Actually these additional parameters are unwanted. So,
an ideal diode is such a diode that provides only the one-way switching property, but will have no
barrier voltage, reverse current, junction capacitance, and any resistance. In fact, an ideal diode will
have no limitation like – reverse breakdown, forward current limitation etc. We cannot
manufacture an ideal diode but we can only imagine it. The I-V characteristic curve of an ideal
diode is given in Fig.2-46(a).

ID (mA) Forward biased Reverse biased

8
VD VD
6 Characteristic of
an ideal diode ID IS
IS = 0 4
VBK =  VB = 0
2 RD = rd = 0
CD = CT =
- VD (V) 0 VD
0
-15 -10 -5.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 (V)
ON switch OFF switch
(a) (b)

Fig.2-46: (a) Characteristics of an ideal diode, (b): Switch and ideal diode analogy

The operation of an ideal diode can be compared with that of a mechanical switch with the
exception that the diode conducts current in only one direction and the switch conducts current in
both directions. Mechanical switch can be used for both AC and DC voltage. On the other hand an
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 44

ideal diode can be used as a switch only for DC. If the diode is forward-biased, it works like a closed
(ON) switch and if it is reverse-biased the diode works like an open (OFF) switch as shown in Fig.2-
46(b). However, for rectification purpose diodes are used with AC voltage.

2.22 Diode Approximation and Equivalent Circuit

We have already discussed the characteristics of an ideal diode and practical diode. It is not
possible to manufacture an ideal diode. So, in electronic circuits we use practical diodes. As the
parasitic components (barrier voltage, resistance etc.) of the practical diode are very small, in
different circumstances we can neglect different parasitic components and approximate the
operation of the practical diode and it can be represented by an equivalent circuit.
ID

Actual Ideal diode

Charact- Linear
charact- VB rav
eristic
eristic
VB VD
(b) (c)
(a)
Fig.2-47: (a) Actual and linearized characteristics, (b) Actual diodes,
and (c) Equivalent circuit of a diode

2.22.1 DC equivalent Circuit

At first, if we neglect the non-linearity of the characteristic curve, we can represent it by three
straight lines- two in forward bias and one in reverse bias as shown in Fig.2-47(a).For this
characteristic, the equivalent circuit of the diode can be represented by a barrier voltage 𝑉𝐵 , a
resistance 𝑟𝑎𝑣 and an ideal diode D connected in series as shown in Fig.2-47(c). Here, 𝑟𝑎𝑣 is the
average resistance of the portion of the characteristic curve after the knee point.
We know that the value of 𝑟𝑎𝑣 is very small, typically 100 . Hence, in some operation, where the
resistance value of the external circuit is very high compared to 𝑟𝑎𝑣 , we can neglect it. In that case
the equivalent circuit of the diode will consist of a barrier voltage 𝑉𝐵 , and an ideal diode D
connected in series as shown in Fig.2-48(b). The characteristic of this approximation will be as
shown in Fig.2-48(a).

ID Actual ID
characteristic Actual
Linear rav = 0 Ideal charact- 𝑟𝑎𝑣 =𝑉𝐵 =0 Ideal
Ideal
charact- charact eristic
diode diode
eristic 𝑉𝐵 -eristic

VB VD VB VD
(a) (b) (a) (b)
Fig.2-48: (a) Actual and linearized characteristics, Fig.2-49: (a) Actual and linearized character-
and (b) Equivalent circuit of a diode an ideal diode ristics, and (b) Equivalent circuit of a diode
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 45

Even in some situations, where the external resistance is very high and the circuit operating voltage
level is also very high compared to VB, the operation of a practical diode can approximate to that of
an ideal diode. Here, we neglect 𝑟𝑎𝑣 and 𝑉𝐵 . The characteristic curve and the equivalent circuit are
shown in Fig.2-49(a) and (b), respectively.
In these three equivalent circuits, the capacitance effect of the diode has not been considered.
That is, these three equivalent circuits are considered DC equivalent circuits.
2.22.2 Equivalent Circuit with Capacitance
The capacitance of a PN junction is very small. Hence, in normal operation we can neglect it. But,
the capacitance becomes effective in very high frequency operation and during the ON-OFF
transition time. Considering the junction capacitance, the equivalent circuit will be as shown in
Fig.2-50. As, the capacitance becomes
effective during the ON-OFF transition time, Ideal
VB rav diode
it limits the switching frequency of diode
which is represented by a parameter called
reverse recovery time.
Cav

2.23 Reverse Recovery Time Fig.2-50: AC equivalent circuit of

a diode considering rav and VB
In many applications, diodes must switch
rapidly between forward bias and reverse bias (i.e., from ON to OFF and from OFF to ON). Most
diodes switch very rapidly from OFF state to ON state, however, they take comparatively longer
time to switch from ON state to OFF state. This happens due to the capacitance effect of the diode.
The situation is explained in Fig.2-51(a). Here, to change the state of a diode a square wave voltage
pulse is applied to a diode. When the voltage changes from negative to positive, the diode
becomes forward biased very quickly and the forward current 𝐼𝐹 starts to flow immediately. But,
when the voltage changes from positive to negative, the diode starts to conduct in reverse
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 46

VF
D
t R Osc
Vs

VR
Input voltage waveform to a diode
Vs
IF Desired response
t
Actual response

t
VR
IS
t
IR
ts tt
trr
(a) Current response of a diode for (b) Reverse recovery time
the above input voltage waveform observed on oscilloscope
Fig.2-51: (a) Reverse recovery time (b) Effect of reverse recovery time on diode switching

direction instead of being OFF. The reverse current IR initially equals the forward current, then it
gradually decreases to the reverse saturation current IS. The high level of reverse current occurs
because at the instant of reverse bias, there are some charge carriers crossing the depletion region,
and these must be removed. Actually, this is the reason of diffusion capacitance as described
earlier. Thus, the time required for the reverse current to fall to the value of reverse saturation
current (IS) is called reverse recovery time,trr. Reverse recovery time has two components. The
time required by the carrier to move to their majority side from the depletion layer is called storage
time,ts, and the time required by the current to fall to saturation level is called the transition
time,tt[see Fig.2-51(a)]. The sum of ts and tt is trr. Typical values of trr for switching diodes range
from 4 ns to 50 ns. If we want to observe the reverse recovery time on oscilloscope, we have to
apply a very high frequency square wave to a diode in series with a resistor as shown in Fig.2-51(b).
Due to the reverse recovery time of the diode, the voltage developed cross the resistor will
produce negative [Link] instance, the 1N4148 has a 𝑡𝑟𝑟 of 4 ns. If this diode has a forward
current of 10 mA and it is suddenly reverse biased, it will take approximately 4 ns for the reverse
current to decrease to 1 mA. Reverse recovery time is so short in small-signal diodes that we can
neglect its effect at frequencies below 10 MHz or so. However, for frequencies above 10 MHzwe
have to take 𝑡𝑟𝑟 into account.

2.24 Silicon Diode versus Germanium Diode

Diodes are most commonly fabricated using Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge). As the atomic
structures of Si and Ge are different, the Si-diode and Ge-diode show many different
characteristics. The most common differences are tabulated here.
Table 2-3: Comparison of Si diodes and Ge diodes
Sl. No. Si Diode Ge Diode
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 47

1. The atomic number of silicon is 14. The atomic number of germanium is 32.
2. Electric distribution of Si is: Electric distribution of Ge is:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p2
3. Si has no d electrons Ge has d electrons
4. Has comparatively smaller atomic radius Has comparatively larger atomic radius
5. The barrier voltage of Si diode is ≈ 0.7 V The barrier voltage of Ge diode is ≈ 0.35 V
6. In reverse bias condition, Si diode has In reverse bias condition, Ge diode has high
low reverse current. reverse current.
7. Forward resistance is high: 500 Ω to Forward resistance is low: 200 Ω to 400 Ω
800 Ω
8. Reverse resistance is high: Several MΩ Reverse resistance is low: Several kΩ
9. Si diodes are a bit cheaper. Ge diodes are a bit expensive.
10 Temperature sensitive Highly temperature sensitive
11. For their large operating temperature For their short operating temperature range,
range, they are widely used. they are not widely used.

2.25 Diode Data Sheet

To select a suitable diode for a particular application, the data sheets or the specifications,
provided by the manufacturer, must be consulted. A portion of the data sheet of 1N4000 series is
shown in the following Table 2-4. The maximum ratings are the maximum voltages, currents, etc.,
that can be applied without destroying the device. A practical data sheet includes many
parameters. However, the meanings of the most common parameters are described below.
VRRM: VRRM is the maximum recurrent peak reverse voltage and also referred as peak inverse
voltage and DC blocking voltage. This is the maximum reverse bias voltage that can be tolerated
by the diode. If the reverse bias voltage applied to a diode exceeds this value the diode will be
destroyed.
VRMS:VRMs is the maximum RMS voltage. 1N4000 diodes are mainly used to convert AC voltage
into DC voltage. This is maximum RMS AC voltage that can be rectified by the diode. If the applied
AC voltage exceeds this value the diode will be destroyed.
IO or IF:IO is the maximum steady state forward current. This is maximum DC or RMS current that
may be passed continuously through the diode. This value is related to the power rating of the
diode. For power diode this value will be very high.
IFSM:IFSM is the maximum forward surge current. This surge current is very much higher than the
maximum forward current,IO, and can pass through the diode not more than a specified period of
time. It is a current that may be allowed to flow briefly when a circuit is switched ON.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 48

Table 2-4: A portion of a diode data sheet

1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N
Characteristics Symbol 4001 4002 4003 4004 4005 4006 4007 Units
Maximum recurrent peak reverse voltageVRRM 50 100 200 400 600 800 1000 Volts
Maximum RMS voltageVRMS 35 70 140 280 420 560 700 Volts
Maximum DC blocking voltag VDC 50 100 200 400 600 800 1000 Volts
Maximum average forward rectified current
IO 1.0 Amps
at Ta = 75C
Peak forward surge current, 8.3 ms single half
IFSM 30.0 Amps
sine-wave superimposed on rated load
Maximum instantaneous forward voltage
VF 1.1 Volts
drop at 1.0 A
current
Maximum DC reverse current Ta = 25C 5.0
IR µA
at rated DC blocking voltage Ta =125C 50.0
Typical juncton capacitance (Note 1) CJ 15 pF
Operating junction and storage temperature TJ,Tstg -65 to +125 -65 to +150 C

Notes: 1. Measured at 1.0 MHz and applied reverse voltage of 4.0 V

VF: VF is the maximum instantaneous forward voltage drop. This is the maximum voltage that will
be dropped by a diode for a given forward current and temperature (at 25C).
IR: IR is the maximum reverse current that will flow through the diode at the maximum DC blocking
voltage.
PM:PM is the maximum power dissipation that a diode can withstand at 25C. Actually, it is the
product of VF and IF or 𝑃𝑀 = (0.7 V) × (𝐼𝐹 ).

Metal body high SMD diodes

current diodes Plastic body diodes Zener diodes LEDs
Bridge rectifier

Fig.2-52: Photographs of different types of diodes

2.26 Photographs of Common Diodes

So far we have discussed about only one type of diode which is called rectifier diode. Beside
this rectifier diode, there are many other types of diodes. Although, most of them are made of
PN junction, some have other structures. The constructions and operation process of Zener
diode, light emitting diode, pin diode, varactor diode etc. are described in the following
headings. However, to get some idea about the physical shape and size, the photographs of
some common varieties of diodes are given in Fig.2-52.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 49

2.27 1.26 Zener Diode

As discussed earlier, for a very large reverse bias voltage the reverse current rapidly increases from
reverse saturation current. However, this phenomenon is used to produce a constant voltage in
devices called Zener diodes. There are two mechanisms that cause breakdown in reverse biased PN
junction.
2.27.1 Zener breakdown mechanism
This type of breakdown takes place in the PN junctions where the doping concentration is very
high. Due to the high doping concentration, the width of the depletion layer will be comparatively
small. The electric field strength of the
P-type N-type
depletion layer is,𝐸 = 𝑉𝑅 /𝑊(𝑊=width of the
Minority +ve ions
depletion layer). For small value of 𝑊, the -ve electrons
electron
value (intensity) of the electric field strength
will be very high. The high intensity electric
field causes electrons to break away the
Collisions
covalent bonds and leave from their parent
atoms. With the breakdown of many such Wider depletion layer
electrons insulating depletion layer converts IR IR
-VD
into a conductor. This ionization by electric
field is called Zener breakdown according to Fig.2-53: Electron multiplication for avalanche
the name of its inventor. The Zener breakdown in reverse biased PN junction
breakdown occurs usually with reverse bias
voltage less than 5 V.
2.27.2 Avalanche breakdown mechanism
If the doping concentration of the PN junction is low the width of the depletion layer will be very
large, when reverse biased. In this case, the electric field intensity will not be sufficient to produce
Zener breakdown. However, when the minority reverse-current flows, the carriers travel a
comparatively long distance to achieve large kinetic energies. If these energetic carriers collide with
the electrons of covalent bonds of the crystal, a high energy is transferred to the electrons and they
become free. This knocking down of the electrons is called ionization by collision. The newly
developed freeelectrons also collide with other atoms and produce more free electrons and so on
[as shown in Fig.2-53]. In this way, the carrier concentration in the depletion layer increases and
the reverse current increases rapidly resulting in the junction breakdown. As this breakdown
mechanism is similar to the avalanche of snow it is called avalanche breakdown. Avalanche
breakdown is normally produced by reverse voltage levels above 5 V.
Although, any of these two types of breakdowns may take place in a breakdown diode, the device
is called Zener diode, according to the name of its inventor Clarence Melvin Zener an American
physicist.
2.27.3 Characteristics of Zener Diode
Zener diode has almost the same characteristic as the normal low power rectifier diode except the
lower value of reverse breakdown voltage. The typical characteristics of a Zener diode are shown in
Fig.2-54(a) and the symbol a Zener diode is shown in Fig.2-54(b).
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 50

The forward characteristic is exactly same as the forward characteristic of a normal diode. The
forward threshold voltage
is 𝑉𝐵 = 0.7 V for Si diode. VZ ID (mA)
Arrowhead indicates
In the reverse bias -4 -3 -2 -1 0 current direction
VF (V)
condition very small VR (V) 0 when forward biased
amount of reverse current 5 IZK Anode Cathode
flows. But after the Zener 𝑟𝑍 = Δ𝑉𝑍 /Δ𝐼𝑍
breakdown voltage,𝑉𝑍 , the 10 Positive Negative
reverse current increases I terminal terminal
15
rapidly. Actually a Zener Z IZM
V
diode is uses at any point 20
Z
(between 𝐼𝑍𝐾 to 𝐼𝑍𝑀 ) of the (a) (b)
reverse characteristic curve -ID (mA)
after breakdown. The
Fig.2-54: (a) Zener diode characteristics,
Zener diode is used in
(b) Symbol and practical diodes.
circuit to produce a
constant voltage. The performance of the Zener diode as constant voltage source depends on the
shape of the reverse characteristics. It will provide a constant voltage which is equal to the Zener
breakdown voltage,𝑉𝑍 . The variation of this voltage with current (𝐼𝑍 ) depends on a parameter of
Zener diode called dynamic impedance of Zener diode𝑟𝑍 (or 𝑍𝑍 ) which can be calculated as,
Δ𝑉𝑍
𝑟𝑍 = (2-47)
Δ𝐼𝑍
As illustrated in Fig.2-54(a),𝑟𝑍 defines how 𝑉𝑍 changes with the change of reverse current. The
value of 𝑟𝑍 depends on the value of reverse current and has maximum value at the knee point of

Anode
𝐼𝑍 > 𝐼𝑍𝐾 𝑟𝑍 𝐼𝑍 > 𝐼𝑍𝐾
𝑉𝑜 =
DZ 𝑉𝑍 𝑉𝑍 + 𝐼𝑍 𝑟𝑍 𝑉𝑍 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑍

Cathode
(a) (b) (c)
Fig.2-55: (a) Zener diode, (b) Equivalent
circuit, and (c) Simplified equivalent circuit

the curve. The Zener diode current may be of any value between 𝐼𝑍𝐾 and 𝐼𝑍𝑀 . Here, 𝐼𝑍𝐾 is the
reverse current at the knee point of the reverse characteristic and 𝐼𝑍𝑀 is the maximum Zener diode
current which is limited by the power of a Zener diode.
In reverse bias condition, a Zener diode can be represented by an equivalent circuit as shown in
Fig.2-54. According to this model, the output voltage of a Zener diode will be,
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑍 + 𝐼𝑍 𝑟𝑍 = 𝑉𝑍 + 𝐼𝑍 𝑍𝑍 (2-48)
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 51

1N4728A – 1N4758A Zener Diodes

Tolerance = 5%

®
April 2009
1N4728A - 1N4758A
Zener Diodes DO-41 Glass Case
COLOR BAND DENOTES CATHODE

Absolute Maximum Ratings* Ta = 25C unless otherwise noted

Symbol Parameter Value Units
PD Power Dissipation 1.0 W
@ TL ≤ 50C, Lead Length = 3/8”
Derate above 50C 6.67 mW/C
TJ, TSTG Operating and Storage Temperature Range -65 to +200 C
*These ratings are limiting values above which the seviceability of the diode may be impaired.

Electrical Characteristics Ta = 25C unless otherwise noted

VZ (V) @ IZ (Note 1) Test Current Max. Zener Impedance Leakage Non-Repetitive

IZ (mA) Current Peak Reverse
Devices Current
Min. Typ. Max ZZ @ IZ ZZK @ IZK IR VR
(Ω) IZK (Ω) (mA) (µA) (V) IZSM (mA) (Note 2)
1N4728A 3.135 3.3 3.465 76 10 400 1 100 1 1380
1N4729A 3.420 3.6 3.780 69 10 400 1 100 1 1260
1N4730A 3.705 3.9 4.095 64 09 400 1 50 1 1190
1N4731A 4.085 4.3 4.515 58 09 400 1 10 1 1070
1N4732A 4.650 4.7 4.935 53 08 500 1 10 1 970
1N4733A 4.845 5.1 5.355 49 7 550 1 10 1 890
1N4734A 5.320 5.6 5.880 45 5 600 1 10 2 810
1N4735A 5.890 6.2 6.510 41 2 700 1 10 3 730
1N4736A 6.460 6.8 7.140 37 3.5 700 1 10 4 660
1N4737A 7.125 7.5 7.875 34 4 700 0.5 10 5 605
1N4738A 7.790 8.2 8.610 31 4.5 700 0.5 10 6 550
1N4739A 8.645 9.1 9.555 28 5 700 0.5 10 7 500
1N4740A 9.500 10 10.50 25 7 700 0.25 10 7.6 454
1N4741A 10.45 11 1.550 23 8 700 0.25 05 8.4 414
1N4742A 11.50 12 12.60 21 9 700 0.25 05 9.1 380
© 2009 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation’s courtesy [Link]
1N4728A – 1N4758A Rev. H3
Notes: 1. Zener Voltage (VZ)
is measured with the device junction in the thermal equilibtium at the lead temp.(T L) at 30C ± 1C and 3/8” lead length.

Example2-17
As shown in Table 2-5, the Zener diode 1N4728A has a typical value of 𝑉𝑍 = 3.3 V, and 𝑍𝑍 = 10 Ω.
If 15 mA of current flows through this diode, calculate the output voltage i) Using the model of
Fig.2-55(b), and ii) Using the model of Fig.2-55(c). iii) Calculate the power dissipated by the Zener
diode for both the cases.
Solution:
i) For the equivalent circuit of Fig.2-55(b), the output voltage can be calculated using Equ.(2-48).
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑍 + 𝐼𝑍 𝑍𝑍 = 3.3 V + 15 mA × 10 Ω = 3.45 V [Ans. ]
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 52

ii) For the equivalent circuit of Fig.2-55(c), the output voltage can be calculated using the same
equation assuming 𝑟𝑍 = 0.
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑍 + 𝐼𝑍 𝑍𝑍 = 3.3 V + 15 mA × 0 = 3.3 V [Ans. ]
iii) The output power dissipated by the Zener diode will be,
For the exact model, 𝑃𝑍 = 3.45 V × 15 mA = 51.75 mW [Ans. ]
For the simplified model, 𝑃𝑍 = 3.3 V × 15 mA = 49.5 mW [Ans. ]
Comment: The effect of 𝑟𝑍 on the output voltage is very small. Thus, 𝑟𝑍 can be neglected in most of
practical applications.

There are a number of Zener diodes produced by different manufacturing companies with different
breakdown voltage and power ratings. To write the names and specifications of all of them are out
of this book’s scope. However, to get some idea about the datasheet of Zener diode, a portion of
the Datasheet of 1N4728A manufactured by Fairchild Semiconductor is shown the following table.
Table 2-5: A portion of the datasheet of Zener diode [Courtesy of Fairchild Semiconductor]

2.28 1.27 Light Emitting Diode

Light emitting diode (LED) is a very common optoelectronics device. Although it is mainly used as
an indicating device, nowadays high power LEDs are used as light source (LED tube lights, LED bulbs
etc.) in our house. LEDs are also used to manufacture today’s very high quality televisions,
computer monitors and mobile phone displays. LED is nothing but a PN junction of semiconductor.
Semiconductor materials have a good capability to absorb and emit light in thevisible range. In a
forward biased PN junction light is emitted when the free electrons recombine with holes.
2.28.1 Construction
A cross-sectional view of an LED junction is shown in Fig.2-56(a). It is nothing but a PN junction.
Single element semiconductors like Si, Ge, Ga etc. are indirect band-gap materials. They are used to
manufacture rectifier diodes not the LEDs. In these single element PN junctions, visible light will not
be emitted when, electrons recombine with holes. On the other hand, alloys like gallium arsenide
(GaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP), gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) etc. are indirect band-gap
materials and are suitable for LED manufacturing. Combinations of different materials and different
components ratio produce light of different colors. LEDs made from GaAs emit invisible infrared
light. GaP material provides either red light or green light, while red or yellow emission can be
produced by using GaAsP. To make an LED an N-type epitaxial layer is grown upon a substrate, and
the P-region is created by diffusion method. Charge carrier recombination occurs in the P-region,
so the P-region is kept uppermost to allow the light to escape from the junction. The substrate is
placed in a cup-type reflector which is made either aluminum or even gold. The reflector reflects as
much light as possible toward the surface of the device and also works as the cathode connection
as shown in Fig.2-55(b). The positive (anode) lead is connected to P-type material by a very narrow
wire. The whole arrangement is encapsulated in an epoxy lens (plastic cover). The lens can be clear
or colored to identify the emitted light color when the LED is not energized. Some LEDs have glass
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 53

particles embedded in the epoxy lens to diffuse the emitted light and increase the viewing angle of
the device. In physical LEDs [Fig.2-57] the anode lead is longer than the cathode, but inside the
plastic cover, the head of the cathode is larger than that of anode.

Emitted visible light Solid epoxy cover

Connecting
wire PN junction
P-type N-type
Reflector
or

Anode Cathode

LED symbols
Metal contact Metal contact
(anode) (a) (cathode) (b) (c)
Fig.2-56: (a) Construction of LED using PN junction (b) Typical
physical construction of LED (c) Symbols of LED

2.28.2 Operation
When an LED is forward biased with a suitable voltage (about 1.5 V or more, depending on the
color) a forward current will flow. As the mobility of electrons is higher than that of holes mainly
majority carrier electrons flow from N-side to the P-side. In the P-type material the free electrons
recombine with holes which are the majority carriers of P-type materials. We know that the free
electrons recite in conduction band and the holes recite in the valence band. Hence, when the free
electrons come to valence band from conduction band they emit their extra energy which is equal
to band-gap energy (𝐸𝑔 ). In direct band gap-materials this energy is emitted as photons or light. By
selecting suitable materials and changing their combination ration the band-gap of the alloy can be
changed. As the light color depends on energy, LEDs of different band-gap energy can produce light
of different colors.

Forward biased LED ON Reverse biased LED OFF

LED LED

470 Ω 470 Ω

1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V

S S

Battery Battery

Fig.2-57: LED produces light when forward biased

LEDs of different colors need different forward voltages as shown in the following Table 2-6. The
amount of light produced by the LED depends of the forward current, but the current should not
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 54

exceed the maximum rating of the LED. Typical value of forward current of normal low power LEDs
is 1 mA to 50 mA.
Table 2-6: Some common materials used for LED manufacturing

Typical forward
Construction material Color
voltage (V)
GaAsP Red 1.8
GaAsP Orange 2.0
AlInGaP Yellow 2.1
GaP Green 2.2
GaN White 4.1
GaN Blue 5.0

2.29 Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED)

An OLED is a device that consists of two or three layers of materials composed of organic
molecules (contain carbon) or polymers that emit light with the application of currents. OLEDs emit
light in a similar manner to LEDs, through a process called electrophosphorescence. But in general,
OLEDs have very different properties from basic LEDs. They use molecular orbitals that are
analogous to the valence and conduction bands of inorganic LEDs. The color of the light depends on
the type of organic molecule in the emissive layer. The basic structure of a typical OLED is shown in

Cathode
EIL
Top Electrode Layer (EL) ETL
Electron Injection Layer LEL
(EIL) HTL
Electron Transport Layer
HIL
Light Emitting Layer (LEL)
Anode
Hole Transport Layer (HTL) Substrate
Hole Injection Layer (HIL)

Conductive Oxide Layer (COL)

Light
Substrate
Fig.2-58:Constructoin of OLED Fig.2-59:Operation of OLED

Fig.2-58. OLED devices consist of one to three functional organic layers including a hole transport
layer, a light-emitting layer, and an electron transport layer, and all of these layers are situated
between an anode and a cathode. In an OLED device, the light-emitting layer is excited by the
recombination energy of electrons from the cathode and holes from the anode, and then the light-
emitting layer emits light when returning to the ground state. One of the electrodes consists of
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 55

transparent material in order to extract light from the light emitting layer. In addition, the light
color depends on the chemical structure of light-emitting material, therefore it can be controlled
freely by material design. White color OLED lighting is fabricated by adjusting red, green and blue
light-emitting materials to the appropriate ratio.
There are two different types of OLED. Traditional OLEDs use small organic molecules deposited on
glass to produce light. The other type of OLED uses large plastic molecules called polymers. Those
OLEDs are called light-emitting polymers (LEPs) or, sometimes, polymer LEDs (PLEDs). Since they're
printed onto plastic (often using a modified, high-precision version of an inkjet printer) rather than
on glass, they are thinner and more flexible.
The basic principle of operationof OLEDs and normal LEDs is identical. OLED emits light by
conducting electricity to the organic materials that are sandwiched between the electrodes. On the
other hand, LED emits light by conducting electricity to inorganic materials that are sandwiched
between electrodes.

G F Com A B

E 1 10 G E 1 10 G A
D 2 9 F D 2 9 F F B
Comn 3 8 Comn Comn
3
8 Comn G
C 4 7 A C 4 7 A E C
H 5 6 B H 5 6 B D H

Common Anode Common Cathode Photograph

E D Com C H
Segment Names
Fig.2-60: Construction of 7-segment display using LEDs

Electrons are provided to the emissive layer and removed from the conductive layer when there is
current between the cathode and anode. This removal of electrons from the conductive layer
leaves holes. The electrons from the emissive layer recombine with the holes from the conductive
layer near the junction of the two layers. When this recombination occurs, energy is released in the
form of light that passes through the transparent cathode material. If the anode and substrate are
also made from transparent materials, light is emitted in both directions, making the OLED useful in
applications such as heads-up displays.
OLEDs can be sprayed onto special substrates just like inks are sprayed onto paper during printing.
Inkjet technology greatly reduces the cost of OLED manufacturing and allows OLEDs to be printed
onto very large films for large displays like 80-inch TV screens or electronic billboards.
Currently, the major applications for OLEDs are in displays, but OLEDs are also used in lighting and
are available at retailers for home lighting as well as street lighting. They tend to be less intense, so
they are typically designed as panels. They are superior in efficiency and power consumption to
standard LEDs and can be recycled at the end of their operating life. Since about 20% of the world’s
electricity production goes to lighting, saving energy for lighting can make a big difference in total
energy use.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 56

LED Street Light

LED Flash Light LED Strip Light LED Tube Light LED light with
screw base

Overhead light with LED light with

socket and module bayonet base
Mobile Display
Curved TV
Fig.2-61: Various application of LEDs

Standard LEDs are used for indicator lamps and readout displays on a wide variety of instruments,
ranging from consumer appliances to scientific apparatus. A common type of display device using
LEDs is the seven-segment display. Combinations of the segments form the ten decimal digits as
illustrated in Fig.2-60. Each segment in the display is an LED. By forward-biasing selected
combinations of segments, any decimal digit and a decimal point can be formed. Two types of LED
circuit arrangements are the common anode and common cathode as shown.
One common application of an infrared LED is in remote control units for TV, DVD, gate openers,
etc. The IR LED sends out a beam of invisible light that is sensed by the receiver in our TV, for
example. For each button on the remote control unit, there is a unique code. When a specific
button is pressed, a coded electrical signal is generated that goes to the LED, which converts the
electrical signal to a coded infrared light signal. The TV receiver recognizes the code and takes
appropriate action, such as changing the channel or increasing the volume.
Also, IR light-emitting diodes are used in optical coupling applications, often in conjunction with
fiber optics. Areas of applications include industrial processing and control, position encoders, bar
graph readers, and optical switching.
2.30 Varactor Diode
The inherent property of a P-N junction diode is- its internal capacitance varies with the variation
of the applied voltage across it. The varactor diode is also one kind of semiconductor diodethat is
used as a variable capacitor by changing the applied [Link] is alternatively known as varicap or
voltacap or Voltage Variable Capacitor (VVC) diode. Basically, varicap is used in reverse-biased and
its mode of operation depends on its transition capacitance 𝐶𝑇 . Reverse-biased junction of diode
behaves like capacitor.
2.30.1 Construction
If the reverse voltage across the diode is increased, the depletion layer widens, that decreases the
junction capacitance. Hence, we can change diode capacitance by simply changing voltage. Silicon
diodes which are optimized for this variable capacitance effect are called [Link]
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 57

construction, schematic symbols and junction capacitance versus junction voltage curve for a
varactor diode are shown in Fig.2-62. It consists ofP-type and N-type semiconductor layers
sandwiched together, with the N-type layer attached to a mesa structure (a portion of a large diode
is etched to construct a specific device).

CT (pF)
Anode stud 40
PN junction Variation of
(made of Si or (Molybdenum) 35
capacitance with
GaAs) 30
reverse bias voltage
Ceramic tube (b) 25
20 f=1.0 MHz
Wire(Gold
Mesa plated) 15 TA=25
structur 10 C
e Cathode stud 5
(Molybdenum) VR (V)
0
1 3 5 10 30 50
(a) (c)
(d)
Fig.2-62: Varactor diode: (a) Construction (b) Photographs,
(c) Schematic symbols, and (d) Typical characteristics

A gold plated molybdenum stud is connected to N-type layer by the mesa structure and it acts as
cathode [Link] P-type layer is connected to another gold plated molybdenum stud acts as
anode through a gold wire.
The entire arrangement is enclosed in a ceramic tube, except for some portion of the molybdenum
[Link] p-type and n-type layers are made up of gallium or silicon arsenide depending on the
type of application for which it is [Link] is used for
low frequency applications and gallium arsenide is used
Control voltage +VC
for high-frequency [Link] varactor diode the R2
concentration of impurities near the PN junction is very Transistor Vout
less and it gradually increases as we move towards the current R1 C1 C2
layer’s other surface, as in step recovery diodes. source L Varicap
The application of a varicap in a typical tuning circuit is
shown in Fig.2-63. Here C1 and C2 are two coupling
capacitors, and behave as short circuit in the operating Fig.2-63: Tuning circuit using varactor
frequency range. The transistor current source pumps a diode
fixed amount of current (few milliamperes) into the resonant 𝐿𝐶 tank circuit. The varactor diode is
negatively biased by the control voltage (VC) and acts as the capacitor (𝐶) of the tank circuit. By
varying the DC control voltage, we can vary the capacitance and hence the resonant frequency of
the LC circuit. Depending on the value of 𝐿𝐶, the tank circuit generates signal of different
frequencies. The energy for the tank circuit is supplied by the transistor current source.
2.30.2 Other Applications
 Varactor diodes are widely used in frequency modulation
 Harmonic generators
 Tuning circuits- radios, TVs tuners
 Automatic frequency controllers
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 58

 Frequency multipliers
 Active filters
 High frequency radios

2.31 Schottky Diode

The time, it takes to turn OFF a forward-biased diode is called the reverse recoverytime 𝑡𝑟𝑟
[Section2-23]. Due to this reverse recovery time, normal diode cannot be used for frequency above
10 MHz. To overcome this problem, German physicist Walter H. Schottky has invented the
schottky diode in 1914. A Schottky diode is formed by joining a doped semiconductor region
(usually N-type) with a metal such as gold, silver, or platinum. Rather than a PN junction, there is a
metal-to-semiconductor (MS) junction, as shown in Fig.2-64. The forward voltage drop is typically
around 0.3 V because there is no depletion region as in a PN junction diode. Like PN junction the
MS junction represents a low resistance to current flow when it is forward biased (metal positive
with respect to N-type silicon) and a high resistance when reversed biased. A depletion region and
a barrier potential are established in a metal-semiconductor junction by a mechanism similar to

Gold leaf metal contact

Anode
Schottky MS junction
barrier metal
N
Depletion layer Anode
N+ Si substrate Cathode Symbol
Cathode N region Metal region

Back metal contact

Fig.2-64: Construction and symbol of Schottky diode

that described for PN junction. The main difference is, the carrier diffusion consists of only
electrons diffusion from semiconductor to metal. The electrons accumulated in the metal surface
and the depletion region exists in the semiconductor side of the junction. Schottky diodes are
majority-carrier device, in contrast to PN junction diodes which are minority-carrier devices (the
current flows by the diffusion of minority carriers, i.e., electrons in the P-region and holes in the N-
region). Since, minority carriers must be removed from the junction for a PN diode to be OFF, there
is always a delay due to minority carrier lifetime when a PN diode is turned OFF (as described in
Section 2-23). Having no minority carriers to be cleared from the junction, a Schottky diode can be
turned OFF considerably faster than its PN-junction counterpart. Schottky diode is used in digital
logic families due to its low voltage of operation and very high speed. Fig.2-64 represents the
construction and symbol of Schottky diode.
Schottky diodes are high-current diodes used primarily in high-frequency and fast-switching
applications. Schottky diodes are also called hot-carrier diodes or Schottky barrier diodes. The
term hot-carrier is derived from the higher energy level of electrons in the N region compared to
those in the metal region. A Schottky diode symbol is shown in Fig.2-64. The LS family of TTL logic
(LS stands for low-power Schottky) is one type of digital integrated circuit that uses the Schottky
diode.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 59

2.32 Step Recovery Diodes

Step recovery diode (SRD) is a type of semiconductor diode, specially designed for low reverse
recovery time, 𝑟𝑟𝑟 . It is also known as a voltage-dependent variable capacitor, snap off diode,
charge storage diode. It works like a normal diode, i.e., it conducts current in forward biased
condition and blocks current in reverse biased condition. The main difference is it can instantly
switch from ON state to OFF state.

P+ P N+ N
Anode Cathode
Anode

Doping
density
N-type Cathode
P-type
(b) (c)

(a)
Fig.2-65: (a) Construction of step recovery diode, (b)Electrical symbol, and (c) Photographs

Step recovery diode has lower doping concentration than a conventional diode. Moreover, the
doping concentration decreases near the junction and, thus, the density of the charge carrier is low
around the junction. Therefore, very small (almost negligible) amount of charge is stored near the
junction. It provides very fast switching speed from ON-state to OFF-state and hence the value of
𝑡𝑟𝑟 is small compared to the normal rectifier diodes. The SRD snaps open state instantly, and this
phenomenon is called reverse snap-off. Therefore, it is also known as snap off diode. For this
diode, the value of 𝒕𝒓𝒓 is 𝟏𝟎 𝐧𝐬 to 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐧𝐬.
Construction-wise step recovery diode has a similar structure as a conventional diode except for its
doping concentration. It is a PN junction diode with a doping concentration that decreases
gradually near the junction. The charge carrier density is maintained very low near the junction as
compared to that near the terminals. Due to this unusual doping, it has different switching
characteristics than a normal diode. The doping profile and symbolof SRD are given in Fig.2-65.
Step recovery diode works as an ordinary diode at low frequency i.e. they conduct when forward
biased and acts as an open circuit when reverse biased. The forward bias voltage of this diode is
little bit higher than normal diode. It my be 1.3 V to 3.6 [Link], the reverse bias voltage
tolerance of this diode is also high. When it is switched from forward biasing to reverse biasing it
changes state [Link] high frequencies the switching of ordinary diodes takes time. So, the
forward current continues to flow in the reverse cycle of input voltage for a short duration. This
happens because the charge carriers stored near the junction.
The cut off frequency of step recovery diode is 200 GHz – 300 GHz. Thus, this high range of cut-off
frequency enables the diode to be used as a multiplier for circuits operating at a frequency of
about 10 GHz. Step recovery diodes can generate sharp pulses that make it appropriate for using as
harmonic generators. It is used in voltage controlled oscillators, in frequency synthesizers, in comb
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 60

generator for generating multiple harmonics of its input signal (Comb Generator), phase detector
for detecting the phase in a communication system. Step recovery diodes are also used in
modulation of signal.

2.33 Small Signal Diodes

Small signal diode is a type of PN junction diode which is used for voltage signals. The junction area
of this diode is very small, and hence, the stored charge is very small, that results in low
capacitance. Small-signal diode is also called
the signal diode or switching diode.
Metal anode SiO2 insulating layer
The basic construction for a silicon planar connection P type
diode is to infuse a P-layer on top of an N- N- type
layer. The N-layer consists of two layers – low- N+ type
doped N- layer and a highly-doped N+ layer as Metal cathode
shown in Fig.2-66. The N- and the P-layer form connection
a PN junction. As the P-layer is infused onto
the N- base layer, the shape of the PN junction Fig.2-66: Construction of planar small signal diode
becomes curved, as shown in Fig2-66. The
curvature of the junction makes the parameters of the diode more difficult to predict accurately.
Therefore, an improved small signal diode is made using a process as shown in Fig.2-67.
After the P type layer is made, and while the diode is still part of a silicon wafer containing many
identical components, a section of the PN block is etched away to form a diode, which is known as
Mesa Diode. This device now has a linear small-junction, giving a lower junction capacitance and
thelinearPN junction gives more predictable characteristics. Here, also, the N-type layer is divided
into two layers, an N- layer and a N+, which give a better distribution of electric charge across the
diode, helping to reduce the reverse potential across the junction and to give better reverse

SiO2 insulating layer Anode

Glass passi-
vation layer P type
N- type
N+ type
Cathode
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.2-67: (a) Construction of small signal Mesa diode,

(b)Electrical symbol, and (c) Photographs

voltage capability. The sides of the mesa are also coated with an insulating layer of either silicon
oxide or glass to passivate the junction area. This passivation protectsthe junction from
deterioration due to oxidization. Such modifications produce a more reliable diode with more
accurately controlled characteristics.
Many types of signal diodes are available in both wire ended and surface mount (SMT) format.
They differ from rectifier diodes in several ways. Generally, they have smaller junction area
resulting the less junction capacitance. Due to this small capacitance they store very small amount
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 61

of charge that makes them suitable for using in higher frequency circuits. Their switching speed is
very high. These diodes are used in circuits with high frequency or fast pulses and have a very
fast Reverse Recovery Time (𝑡𝑟𝑟 ), typically a few nanoseconds or less. They are physically smaller
than dedicated power rectifiers and have lower maximum reverse voltage parameters.

2.34 Point Contact Diode

APoint contact diode is formed by touching a metallic wire with an N-type semiconductor to form a
small area of contact. This forms a small point junction and hence the name Point Contact diode. It
is widely used because such a small point junction possesses a small value of junction capacitance.
Thus, the charge storage at the junction is low. Due to this, the switching ability of this diode is
much better than a conventional diode.
As shown in Fig.2-68(a), It is constructed by a contact of an N-type semiconductor substrate and
Tungsten or Phosphor Bronze wire which is called cat-whisker. The semiconductor used in the
construction of point contact diode can be either Silicon or Germanium. But Germanium is used
extensively because it possesses higher carrier mobility. The dimension of the semiconductor
substrate is about 1.25 mm2 and its thickness is 0.5 mm. One face of the semiconductor substrate
is soldered to the metal base by the technique of radio frequency heating. The contact point of the
cat-whisker is made very sharp so that the contact area is very small. The cross-sectional area of
tungsten wire is joined to N-type semiconductor but the face of the substrate joined to cat-whisker
should be opposite to that of metal contact phase. The anode and cathode terminals are connected
through metallic contacts. The whole assembly is enclosed inside a glass or ceramic cover.

Anode

Supporting
Catwhisker wire
material Point contact
Point contact P region
N-type
Metal plate crystal
N-type
crystal Supporting
material
(b)
Lead Lead
Cathode
(c)
Fig.2-68: (a) Construction of point contact diode, (b) Photograph, and (c) Electrical
symbol
When forward bias is applied to point contact diode the current produced in the device is passed
through the cat-whisker. Due to this, the tungsten wire gets heated. Due to this heating, the wire
undergoes deformation. Thus a small gap is deliberately left for the expansion of wire under the
large current. When the wire gets heated, the semiconductor in the contact with the wire also gets
heated. Thus, the whisker acts as a P-type semiconductor. Therefore, a P-N junction is formed but
the area of the junction is very small. It can be assumed as a pointed junction. Although the
junction cannot be seen clearly because the size of the junction is very small, it can be considered
as point junction. The entire device is enclosed in glass or ceramic envelope. Besides, the
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 62

supporting structure is provided to N-type semiconductor and cat-whisker to provide mechanical

strength to the device.
The junction capacitance and diffused capacitance in this diode is very small, i.e., about 0.1 pF to
1.0 pF. This is because the area of contact between the wire and the N-type substrate is very small.
Due to the small area of junction, the density of charge carriers near the junction is very low. Thus,
the low charge storage imparts it the ability to switch fast.
The main applications of point contact diodes are – high frequency circuits, radio frequency
mixers, video detector circuits, envelope detectors.

2.35 Transient Voltage Suppression Diode

The Transient Voltage Suppression (TVS)diodes are solid state PN junction devices. They are
specifically designed in order to protect sensitive semiconductor devices or circuits in a PCB layout.
They are used to prevent transient events associated with electrostatic discharge (ESD).
The constructions of the TVS diodes are same as the Zener diodes. The major difference between
TVS diode and Zener diode is that TVS diodes are designed to suppress transient voltage while
Zener diodes are designed to regulate voltage. The cross-sectional area of this diode is very large to
increase the current capacity and, hence, power rating. The larger the cross-sectional area of the
TVS diode, the higher is the absorbing capacity of transient currents.
As shown in Fig.2-69(b), the TVS diodes are used in parallel to the component/circuit to be
protected from surge.

Clamped Transient
Transient

Transient current
Circuit to be
TVS
protected

Unidirectional Bidirectional
(a) (b)
Fig.2-69: TVS diode: (a) Symbols and (b) Typical circuit connection

In normal condition, TVS diode will have no effect in the circuit because it will behave as open or
high impedance. But, when the applied voltage exceeds its threshold voltage, the junction of the
TVS diode breaks down due to the avalanche mechanism as described in Section 2.27. The diode
becomes short momentarily and diverts the transient current from flowing through the load.
Hence, the load is protected. Voltage across the circuit is limited to TVS diode clamping voltage.
After the transient voltage vanishes, diode returns to high impedance state again. TVS diodes are
available in wide range of voltages. Typically the diodes are available from 5 V to 440 V. There are
two types of TVS diodes – Unidirectional and Bidirectional. Unidirectional diodes are used for DC
voltage and the bidirectional diodes are used for AC voltage. The symbols of the TVS diodes are
shown in Fig.2-69(a).
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 63

TVSs are used as board level protectors for semiconductors as well other sensitive parts. The
applications of TVS diode include MOS memory, AC power lines, signal and data lines,
telecommunication equipments etc. from lightning surges as well as unwanted voltage transients.
Varistor diodes have a laminated structure, with breakdown voltage and capacitance being
controlled by the number of layers and the interlayer design. On the other hand, TVS diodes are a
combination of P-type and N-type semiconductors. They are silicon-based ESD protection
components.
𝐼𝐹 (mA)
Negative resistance
𝐼𝑝 b
30
Forward current

25 Anode RS LS
20
Tunneling Forward
15 CD -RN
current current
10 Cathode
𝐼𝑣 c
5 Valley point Symbol
0 a 𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝐹 (𝑉))
0 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 (b) Equivalent circuit
Forward bias voltage (c)
(a)
Fig.2-70: (a) Characteristics, (b) Symbol, and (c) Equivalent circuit
Construction and symbol of Schottky diode

2.36 Tunnel Diode

An ordinary PN junction diode is doped by impurity atoms in the concentration 1015 cm−3. With
this order of doping, the width of the depletion layer is of the order of a micron. Now if the
concentration is greatly increased to 1018 cm−3 then the width of the depletion layer reduces to
about 100 Å or 1/100times the width of the depletion layer for an ordinary PN junction diode. This
width of 100 Å is extremely small, being only about 1/5𝑡ℎ of the wavelength of the visible light.
This type of diode with very small depletion layer is called a tunnel diode because due to this
extremely thin depletion layer many carriers cantunnel through, rather than attempt to surmount,
at lowforward bias. This heavily doping also reduces the reverse breakdown voltage to a very small
value (approximately zero) with the result that the diode appears to be broken down for any
reverse voltage. Since in tunnel diode the tunneling action of the carrier takes place at the velocity
of light, it is a useful circuit element even at microwave frequencies. Also, its small physical size and
hence the associated stray capacitance and lead inductance are so low that they can be properly
used at very high frequencies.
Tunnel diodes are usually fabricated with germanium, gallium-arsenide (GaAs). Fig.2-70(a)
represents the tunnel diode forward current-voltage characteristics and Fig.2-70(b) shows the
symbol. It is clear from the curve that the diode starts conducting from zero voltage, immediately
with the application of the forward bias. As the forward biasvoltage increases, the
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 64

v
Switch R1 v
D
VS RP C L t VS R2 RP C L
t

(a) (b)
Fig.2-71: (a) Damped oscillation in a parallel resonant circuit (b)
Undamped oscillation in the same circuit with tunnel diode

current rises quickly and reaches a peak value,𝐼𝑝 ,when the forward voltage is𝑉𝑝 (point b). When
forward voltage is increased further, the current starts decreasing till it achieves its minimum value,
called the valley current, 𝐼𝑣 , corresponding to valley
voltage 𝑉𝑣 (point c). For further increase in voltage (greater 𝐼𝐹 b
Operating
than 𝑉𝑣 ) the diode current increases again as in ordinary
point
junction diodes. In the region bc, immediately to the right IQ
of b[Fig.2-70(a)], current decreases with the increase in c
forward voltage. This characteristics is called the negative a 𝑉𝐹
resistance characteristics between peak current𝐼𝑝 and V Q

valley current𝐼𝑣 . This negative resistance is equal to the Fig.2-72: Operaitng point for oscillator
reciprocal of the average slope of the characteristics in this
region and is determined from the relation
𝑑𝑣
𝑅𝑛 = − (2-49)
𝑑𝑖
When a tunnel diode operates in the negative resistance region it can be represented by an
equivalent circuit as in Fig.2-70(c). In the equivalent circuit,𝐿𝑆 is due to lead inductance significant
at very high frequencies. 𝑅𝑆 is due to bulk resistance of the device, lead and ohmic contacts at lead-
semiconductor junction. 𝐶𝐷 is due to depletion layer capacitance associated with the forward
biased junction. – 𝑅𝑁 is negative resistance component of the diode.
A parallel resonant circuit consists of a capacitance, inductance, and resistance in parallel, as in
Fig.2-71(a). 𝑅𝑃 is the equivalent parallel resistance of the series resistance of the coil. When the
power switch in turned ON a damped sinusoidal output is developed. The damping is due to the
resistance of the tank circuit. When current flows through this resistance, some energy is lost (𝐼 2 𝑅𝑃
loss) andcauses decaying of the wave.
If a tunnel diode is placed in series with the tank circuit and biased at the center of the negative-
resistance portion of its characteristic curve, as shown in Fig.2-72, a sustained(constant
amplitude)oscillation will result [Link] is because the negative-resistance characteristic of the
tunnel diode counteracts the positive-resistance characteristic of the tank resistance. The tunnel
diode is only used at very high frequencies. In the circuit of Fig.2-71(b), resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are used
to bias the tunnel diode.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 65

2.37 Photodiode

It is one kind of light sensor that converts light energy into electrical energy (voltage or current).
Photodiode is a type of semiconductor device that consists of a P-type and an N-type layer, i.e.,
with a PN junction. Between the P-type and N-type materials, sometimes an intrinsic layer is
present. This type of structure is called PIN (P-type Intrinsic N-type) diode. Its construction and
characteristics are shown in Fig.2-73.
Incident light

P-type N-type -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Electron VR(V)
Hole Dark current 10
500 lux
Ip Ip 20
1000 lux 30
Depletion/Intrinsic layer
Ip Vs Ip (b) Symbol 1500 lux 40

2000 lux 50 I (A)

P
(a) Operation mechanism
inside a photo diode (c) I-V characteristics

Fig.2-73: Photo diodes: (a) Operation, (b) Symbol, and (c) I-V characteristics

Photodiode materials are made of generally silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and indium gallium
arsenide (InGaAs), indium-gallium-arsenide-phosphide (InGaAsP), etc. Internally, a photodiode has
optical filters, built in lens and an exposed surface through which light can enter into the PN
junction [Fig.2-74]. When surface area of photodiode increases, it results in slow response, but the
sensitivity increases. The photographs of some photodiodes are shown in Fig.2-74.
The photodiode accepts light energy as input to generate electric current or voltage. It is also called
as photodetector, photo sensor or light detector. Photodiode is an active device and normally used
in reverse biased condition. With a suitable reverse voltage, the reverse current is directly
proportional to the light intensity incident on it. As the current is generated due to the incident
light, it is called photo-current, 𝐼𝑃 . The I-V characteristic of this device is shown in Fig.2-73(c).
A reverse-biased PN junction has a small amount of reverse current 𝐼𝑅 due to thermally-generated
electron-hole pairs. In silicon, 𝐼𝑅 is in the range of nano-amperes. But, for photodiode, the number
of these minority carriers is increased by light [Link] characteristic curves of Fig.2-73(c) show
that for a given reverse voltage, 𝐼𝑃 increases with
increase in the level of illumination. By changing the
illumination level, reverse current can be changed. In this
way, reverse resistance of the diode can be changed by a
factor of nearly 20. This mode of operation is called the
photoconductive mode.
Fig.2-74: Photographs of photodiodes
Photoconductive Mode
In this operation, transimpedance amplifiers (current to voltage converters) are used as
preamplifiers for photodiodes, as shown in Fig.2-75. This amplifier converts the current of photo
diode into voltage. Moreover, it provides a suitable voltage level (generally small voltage) for the
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 66

photodiode in the input side.. In case of PIN structure, the existence of intrinsic region enhances
the area for radiation absorption. Hence, these process increases the sensitivity of this [Link]
photodiode can work in two other modes

Cf Cf
Rf Rf

if VCC 0.1 µF VCC 0.1 µF

if

ii A 𝑣𝑝 A
0.1 µF RL vo 0.1 µF RL vo
-V -VEE -VEE

Fig.2-75: Application of photodiode Fig.2-76: Application of photodiode

as photoconductive mode as photovoltaic mode

Photovoltaic Mode
This is otherwise called as zero bias mode. When a photodiode operates in low frequency
applications and ultra-level light applications, this mode is preferred. When photodiode is
irradiated by a flash of light, voltage is produced. This voltage will have a very small dynamic range
and it has a non-linear characteristic. When photodiode is configured with Op-Amp in this mode,
there will be a very less variation with temperature. The circuit arrangement is shown in Fig.2-76.
Avalanche Diode Mode
In this mode, the diode operates at a high reverse bias condition. It allows avalanche multiplication
(as described in Secton 2-) to each photo-produced hole-electron pair. Hence, this operaton
produces internal gain within the photodiode. The internal gain increases the device response. The
circuit arrangement for this mode will be exactly same as in Fig.2-75.
Applications of photodiode include i) Optical communication ii) Light detector iii) Switching etc.

2.38 PIN Diode

A PIN diode is a 3-layer device in which an intrinsic layer (undoped semiconductor) is sandwiched
between a P-type and an N-type region which results in a PIN [Link] intrinsic region offers
very high resistivity of the order of 0.1 Ω · m. Along with high resistance a PIN diode also possesses
a lower value of capacitance due to the wider intrinsic layer between the P and N layers.
2.38.1 Working Principle of PIN Diode
A PIN diode is almost similar to a normal PN junction diode except the presence of intrinsic
region, as shown in [Link] no external bias voltage is applied, a depletion layer is
produced in the same as in normal PN junction [Link] depletion layer is wider on the I-
region compared to N-region, as N region is highly doped.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 67

If the diode is forward biased, the width of the depletion layer decreases and current flows
through the device due to the movement of the majority carriers.
If the diode is reverse biased, the width of the depletion layer increases. For a particular
reverse voltage the entire I-region becomes depleted. This particular voltage is known as
swept outvoltage. Usually, its value is −2 V. In this condition, very small amount of reverse
current flows through the device due to the minority
+ +
carriers. P-layer P-layer N-layer N-layer

2.38.2 Some Important Features of PIN Diode Metal Metal

contac contac
Low Capacitance: As we already discussed that a PIN t Intrinsic t
diode offers a lower value of capacitance due to the layer
larger distance between P and N region.
High breakdown voltage: Due to the presence of Anode Cathod
P I N e
intrinsic region, PIN diode exhibits a higher value of
breakdown voltage. This is because a higher voltage
is required to destroy the thick depletion region. Fig.2-77: Constructional
blocks of a PIN diode
Sensitive to Light: The depletion region is responsible
for generating energy when radiation falls on its surface. The existence of an intrinsic region
enhances the area for radiation absorption. Hence, PIN diodes are widely used as
photodetectors.
2.38.3 Applications of PIN diode
As already discussed, PIN diodes are used as photodetectors, radio frequency switches, voltage
rectifiers. PIN diode possesses a faster response time. Due to this, these are widely used in
microwave applications.

2.39 Gunn Diode

Gunn diode is a high frequency microwave semiconductor device. It is fabricated with N-type
semiconductor material only not a PN junction device. In 1963, J. B. Gunn invented this device.
Even though it has no junction, it is called a diode, because it has two terminals (anode and
cathode) attached to it. The Gunn diode is made up of a single piece of N-doped semiconductor
alloy such as GaAs, InP, etc. As shown in Fig.2-78(a), two thinner N+ layers are made on opposite
ends of the active material (N-layer) to connect the anode and cathode leads. Moreover two Au-Si
ally layers are used as contact mounts. Generally, the top contact mount is connected to gold-
coated-lead by Au wire and the bottom Au-Si layer works as a buffer layer above the substrate. The
entire assembly is enclosed by ceramic walls.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 68

Gold plated Gold coated lead

Mo ring flange Gold wire
Au alloy
(contact mount) N+ (Ohmic contact)
N+ (Ohmic contact)
N (active region)
Ceramic cover Au-Si alloy
(contact mount)
Substrate
Au-plated Mo
header mount (b) (c)
(a)
Fig.2-78: (a) Construction of Gunn diode, (b) Photograph, and (c) Electrical symbol

It is an active two-terminal solid-state device that showsGunn effect. Its operation can be explained
on the basis of i) domain formation, ii) two-valley theory of Ridley–Watkins–Hilsum (RWH), or iii)
the transfer electron mechanism.
The characteristics of a Gunn diode can be explained by thetwo-valley model or the Ridley–
Watkins–Hilsum (RWH) theoryaccording to their inventors (invented in 1961). RWH theory is
found inN-doped semiconductor material like GaAs or InP and so on. As shown in Fig.2-79, there
are two valleys in the conduction band of the N-type [Link] room temperature, the valence band
is full of valance electrons, and the conduction band is partly filled. The forbidden energy gap
between the valence band and the conduction band is about 1.43 eV. Electrons in the lower valley
(let it be represented by 𝑛1 ) exhibit a small effective mass (𝑚1) and very high mobility, 𝜇1 .
Electrons in the upper valley (represented by 𝑛2 ) exhibit a large effective mass (𝑚2) and very low
mobility 𝜇2 . The two valleys are separated by a small energy gap, Δ𝐸 ≈ 0.36 eV. For a lower
applied potential difference across the material, a low electric field will be produced. For this
electric field electrons remain in the lower valley, moves with a higher mobility 𝜇1 and the material
behaves Ohmically. For a certain higher potential difference, the electric field reaches a certain

𝐽 Original bulk
Current density
Energy (E)

resistance
Conduction 𝑚2∗
energy 𝑚1∗ 𝜇2∗ 𝐽𝑡ℎ
Negative
𝜇1∗
0.36 eV resistance

1.43 eV
Valance 𝐽𝑣
energy GaAs
Electric field (E)
Wave number (k) 𝐸𝑡ℎ 𝐸𝑣

Fig.2-79: Energy band diagram of GaAs Fig.2-80: Characteristics of Gunn diode

threshold value (𝐸𝑡ℎ ), and the electrons are swept from the lower valley to the upper valley where
the mobility of the electrons is low (𝜇2 ). If the rate of transfer of electrons from the lower to the
upper valley is very high, the current will decrease with an increase in voltage as shown in Fig.2-80.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 69

This portion of the I-V characteristics is called the negative resistance [Link] average electron
mobility, 𝜇 is given by
𝑛1 𝜇1 + 𝑛2 𝜇2
𝜇= (2-50)
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
where
 m1* is effective mass of electron in lower valley
 m2* is effective mass of electron in upper valley
 𝑛1 is electron density in lower valley
 𝑛2 is electron density in upper valley
 𝜇1 is mobility of electron in lower valley
 𝜇2 is mobility of electron in upper valley
 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 is total carrier concentration
The importance of the Gunn diode lies in its dynamic negative resistance characteristic [Fig.2-80].
In any N-type semiconductor, the following relations govern current, field and drift velocity.
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜇𝐸 (2-51)
𝑑(𝑣𝑑 )
∴ =𝜇 (2-52)
𝑑(𝐸)
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑞𝜇𝐸 (2-53)
𝑑(𝐽)
∴ = 𝑛𝑞𝜇 (2-54)
𝑑(𝐸)
From Equ.(2-54), we find that the current density is directly proportional to the mobility (𝜇).
Therefore, the current density decreases when the charge carriers move from lower valley to the
higher valley.
2.39.1 Domain Formation in Gunn Diode
When bias voltage (𝑉𝐵 ) is applied across the diode terminals, an electric field (𝐸0 ) is established
across the N-type GaAs, as shown in Fig.2-81. As 𝐸0 increases, electron drift velocity increases up to
a certain value (𝐸𝑡ℎ ). This is because the drift velocity (𝑣𝑑 ) is directly proportional to the applied
electric field.
However, with a further increase in bias voltage, the VB
mobility of electrons decreases, which causes the
velocity to decrease, and thereby slowdowns the
electrons. This slowing-down results in a traffic jam, N E0i
and more electrons accumulate to a layer. This layer
is calleddomain or charge layer. This charge layer N+ E E N+
Anode
Cathode E0f E0f
produces an electric field (𝐸) in such a direction that
Domain or Charge layer
it decreases the original field (𝐸0𝑖 ) on the left (𝐸0𝑓 )
and increases it to the right (𝐸0𝑓 ). As a result, Fig.2-81: Domain formation in Gunn diode
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 70

theaccumulated charge suddenly pushed toward the anode on the right, forming a current pulse.
When this pulse moves to the anode, 𝐸0 goes back to the original value, and starts another domain
and again another current pulse.
In this procedure, N-type GaAs releases the power that it has acquired during the domain
formation in the direction to the anode. In favorable conditions, this release of power at anode will
be utilized by the noise signal of a particular frequency,depending on the Gunn diode
configuration, and gets amplified. The amplification of noise energy results in sustained oscillations.
The frequency of oscillation depends on the length of the GaAs piece and the concentration of
electrons or doping concentration.
2.39.2 Typical Characteristics of Gunn Diode
The value of biasing voltage for the Gunn diode depends on the active layer (N-layer) width. For
GaAs as the active material, the value of 𝐸𝑇ℎ is 3.3 kV/cm and that of 𝐸𝑣 is 11 kV/cm [see Fig.2-
80]. For proper operation, the device must be biased in between these two points. Let us assume a
typical value of applied electric field, say 𝐸𝐵 = 6 kV/cm. Therefore, for 𝐿 = 5 µm the required
bias voltage should be,
𝑉𝐵 = 6 kV/(1 cm) × (5 μm) = 6000 V/(10−2 m) × (5 × 10−6 m)
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝐵 = 3 V
Similarly, for 𝐿 = 50 μm, the bias voltage should be, 𝑉𝐵 = 30 V.
The current density at 6 kV/cm is 400 A/cm2. Therefore for 3×10−8 m2 area, I = 120 mA.
Applications
Gunn diode is used in i) Radar transmitters as a low power oscillator, ii) Oscillators with pulse
signals, iii)Transponders intelemetry and air traffic control industries, iv)Broadband linear amplifier,
v) Sequential logic circuits and fast combinational circuits, vi)Microwave receivers as low and
medium power oscillator, vii)Parametric amplifier as pump sources, viii) Local oscillator in the
microwave frequency range of 1 GHz
to 100 GHz.
Anode

2.40 Shockley Diode

P Anode
J1
Shockley diode is a four-layer, PNPN N
J2
device. It conducts when it is forward P
J3
biased and stop conducting when it is N
Cathode
reverse biased. The major difference
between conventional diode and Cathode
Shockley diode is- it starts conducting
when the forward voltage exceeds Fig.2-82: Shockley diode: (a) Construction
break-over voltage. Shockley diode (b) Symbol, and (c) Photographs
operates in two states: either ON or
OFF. Thus, it is used as a switching device. According to its construction, it is called PNPN diode. It is
a two terminal device that is why it is called as diode.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 71

It is constructed by sandwiching four layers of semiconductors – P-type, N-type, P-type and one
more N-type layer. Due to sandwiching four layers together, three PN junctions (𝐽1, 𝐽2, and 𝐽3) are
formed.
When forward voltage is applied across the diode, that is, anode is connected to higher potential
and the cathode is connected to lower potential, junctions 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 become forward biased. But
junction 𝐽2 is reverse biased. So, the applied voltage is almost entirely dropped across this reverse
biased junction 𝐽2. When the applied
Anode Anode
voltage exceeds a threshold value, 𝐽2
(E) Anode
breaks down and the device behaves as T1
(almost) short circuit. P P (E)
J1 J1 (B)
N (B) T1
On the other hand, for reverse bias N J2
J2 (C) N (C)
P P (C) J2 (C)
condition, 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 become reverse J3 (B) P
J3 T2
biased and 𝐽2 is forward biased. Here N
(E) N (B)
also for a certain reverse bias voltage, T2
the diode gets catastrophic break Cathode Cathode (E)
Cathode
down. So, the diode is not operated in
Fig.2-83: Two-transistor analogy of Shockley diode
this breakdown condition.
The operation of a Shockley diode can be understood by using a two-transistor model. The four
layers constitute internally two transistors 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 connected as shown in Fig.2-83. Junction 𝐽1 is
the B-E junction of transistor 𝑇1 and junction 𝐽3
is the B-E junction of transistor 𝑇2. Junction 𝐽2 is IF
ON state
common to both the transistors and forms the
B-C junction of them. IH -ve resistance
IS
VR
When the applied voltage is greater than the VR VF
VK
threshold value, 𝐽1breaks down and emitter Leakage current
current (𝐼𝐸1 ) flows in transistor 𝑇1. Due to this OFF state
𝐼𝐸1 , 𝐼𝐶1 is also produced. This 𝐼𝐶1 works as the IR
base current (𝐼𝐵2) of transistor 𝑇2. Due to this Fig.2-84:I-V characteristics of Shockley diode
𝐼𝐵2, 𝐼𝐶2 is produced which is also the base
current of 𝑇1. Thus, one transistor assists the other to increase their currents. Finally, both the
transistors become saturated, and the voltage across 𝐽2 decrease but current increases. This
portion of characteristic curve is called negative resistance region, as the voltage decreases with
the increase in current. TheI-Vcharacteristic of a Shockley diode is shown in Fig.2-83. After being
saturated, the current increases from a particular limit, which is called the holding current, 𝐼𝐻 . To
keep the diode ON, the holding current is the minimum current. The diodewill be OFF, if it is
reverse biased or the forward current falls below the holding current (𝐼𝐹 > 𝐼𝐻 ).
Shockley diodes are used as triggering devices and as relaxation oscillators. They are mainly used to
trigger silicon controlled rectifier (SCR).

2.41 Liquid Crystal Display

Liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat, thin display device that has replaced the older CRT displays.
Although, nowadays LED and OLED displays have become popular, LCDs are used for small devices
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 72

– like calculators, watches, multimeters etc. as dot matrix and 7-segment designs. Several organic
compounds exhibit optical properties of a crystal though they remain in liquid form. These
materials are used in LCD displays. Depending on the behavior of the liquid crystals, there are two
types of LCDs
 Field effect type and
 Dynamic scattering type
2.41.1 Field Effect Type
Nematic type liquid crystal is layered between glass-plates with transparent electrodes deposited
on the inner faces as shown in Fig.2-85.
Sealer/spacer Horizontal polarizer
Glass Incident Light
Applied Incident Light
potential No Light
No Light

Vertical polarizer Incident Light

Incident Light
Back reflector
Eye
Clear conducting pattern Eye
(a) (b)
Fig.2-85: Construction of LCD (a) Reflective and (b) Transmissive

Two thin optical polarizers, one with vertical polarization and the other with horizontal
polarization, are placed on each glass sheet. As shown in Fig.2-86(a), groves are made on the inner
faces of the glass plates. Vertical groves are made on the glass attached to vertical polarizer and
horizontal groves are made on the glass attached to horizontal polarizer.

Liquid crystal
(90 twisted)
Light

Vertical
polarize (b)
Glass plate r
Light passing with vertical
through Glass plate groves
horizontal Horizontal with horizontal
polarizer polarizer groves
(a)
Fig.2-86: Transmissive LCD with no applied potential (a) 3-D Construction,
(b) Front transparent 7-segment contacting design

Without any applied potential, the rod-like atoms of liquid crystal align with the vertical and
horizontal groves of the glass plates and become90° twisting. Light becomes vertically polarized
passing through the vertical polarizer. When light passes through the liquid crystal it becomes
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 73

90°twisted or horizontally polarized. This horizontally polarized light easily comes out through the
horizontal polarizer. Thus the segment of LCD looks bright without any applied potential.
On the other hand, when a potential is applied to the transparent electrodes [as shown in
Fig.286(b)], the rod-like atoms align parallel to the electric field developed by the applied potential
or perpendicular to the glass plates,as shown in Fig.2-87. Now, the 90° twisting of the liquid crystal
does not exist. Therefore, the vertically polarized light is not rotated and try to come out of the
horizontally polarizer. Due to the mismatch of the polarizations, light cannot pass through the
horizontal polarizer. So the segment where potential difference is applied looks dark. The
operation described so far needs a source of light at the opposite to the viewing face of the LCDs
and this variety is called transmissive LCD. The main advantage of this LCD is that it can be used
without any ambient light.

Liquid crystal
(no twisting)
Light

Vertical
No light through polarizer
horizontal
polarizer Glass plate with
vertical groves
Glass plate with
Horizontal horizontal groves
polarizer
Fig.2-87: 3-D Construction of transmissive LCD with applied potential

On the contrary, in the reflective variety of LCD, ambient light falls on the LCD and get reflected
from a reflector placed at the back of the LCD. The constructions of this LCD are shown in Fig.2-
85(a). Here, in place of the light source a reflecting plate is used. This plate also works as the back
electrode. This type of LCD cannot be used without ambient light.
2.41.2 Dynamic Scattering Type
The construction of the dynamic scattering LCD is similar to that of reflecting LCD. Only the
difference is, here, there is no polarizing [Link].2-88 shows the construction of this type of LCD.
It consists of two glass plates with thenematic liquid crystal fluid in between. The back plate is
coated with thin transparent layer of conductive oxide; where as front plate has a photoetched
conductive coating with seven segment pattern as shown in Fig.2-88 or dot-matrix [Link]
with the pure nematic liquid crystal impurities (or ions) are added to increase its conductivity.
Working Principle
In the normal state, without application of electric field, all the molecules in the nematic liquid
crystal are parallel to the glass plate (lower portion of Fig.2-88). So, the incident light will simply
pass through the liquid and the liquid-crystal structure will appear clear or transparent.
When the electric field is applied (upper portion of Fig.2-88), the dipoles of molecules rotate into
alignment in the direction exactly perpendicular to the field direction produced by the applied
voltage. Now, the ions are pulled by the electrodes and hence the positive ions will go towards
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 74

negative potential and vice versa and a turbulence is produced. When the applied voltage is greater
than a threshold level (for commercial units the threshold level is usually between 6 V and 20 V),
the turbulence becomes more the crystal atoms achieve completely random orientations.
So, the light falling on them is scattered and
hence the assembly appears dark. When the field Ion moves Sealer/spacer
Reflected Light
is switched OFF, the molecules are locally
Eye
rearranged and the assembly becomes Incident Light
transparent again. Glass
Applied
The indium oxide conducting surface potential Reflected Light
is transparent. Under the condition shown in the Eye Incident Light
Fig.2-88, if a voltage is applied across the
conducting surfaces, the molecular arrangement Ions
Clear conducting
is disturbed. As a result,that region will have pattern
different indices of refraction. The incident light Fig.2-88: Construction and operation
is therefore reflected in different directions at of dynamic scattering LCD
the interface between regions of different indices
of refraction with the result that the scattered light has a frosted glass appearance.
A digit on an LCD display may have the segment appearance shown in Fig.2-86(b).The black area is
actually a clear conducting surface connected to the terminals below for external control. On the
back side there is also a conducting plate. In normal number display system 7 segments are made
and controlling ON/OFF of the segments number 0 to 9 can be generated. On the other hand,
alphanumeric displays have many dots that can be controlled
individually. Here, the characters are displayed by controlling a
matrix of 5 × 7 dots.
The main advantages of LCD are: Low power, Good contrast,
and Low cost. On the other hand, the main disadvantages of
LCD are: Slow operational response, Large size, Small life span Fig.2-89: Photograph of an LCD
for DC applications etc.

2.42 Solar Cell

The solar cell,also called photovoltaic cell, is simply a semiconductor device that absorbs light
energy from the sun (or any other sources) and convertsit into electrical energy. In 1839, French
scientist Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect at the young age of 19. Willoughby
Smith first described the effect of light on selenium during the passage of an electric current in
1873. But, the first solar cell was invented by Charles Fritts in 1883, where he coated a thin layer of
selenium (a semiconductor material) with an extremely thin layer of gold. The resulting cells had a
conversion efficiency of only about 1%. This invention led to the launching of a movement for
producing solar energy. Solar cells were first used in a prominent application when they were
proposed and flown on the Vanguard satellite in 1958, as an alternative power source to the
primary battery power source.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 75

2.42.1 Construction
A simple conventional solar cell (first gen Si cell) structure is depicted in Fig.2-90. When an N-type
semiconductor and a P-type semiconductor are fabricated in a single Si bar a PN junction is
developed. This is typically achieved through diffusion or implantation of specific impurities
(dopants) or via a deposition process.

Sun Busbars
light
Metal grids

PN junction Depletion
𝐸⃗ layer
Direction of N-type
electric field P-type
Metal contact
Electron flow (b)
Electron
movement
𝐸⃗ Hole
movement
(c)
(a)
Holeflow

Fig.2-90: Si solar cell: (a) Construction, (b) Photographs, and (c) Symbol

A metallic grids arrangement with two or three bus barson top of the cell forms the -ve electrical
contact. Another contact is the metallic layer on the back side of the cell. To minimize the reflection
loss, an antireflective coating (metal oxide mainly TiO2)is produced on top of the cell. For this
purpose, texturing (pyramid-like structures) is also produced on this side. Like the normal PN
junction, a depletion layer with an electric field is produced in this device. This electric field is the
key factor for its operation.
2.42.2 Operation
Sunlight is incident on the frontface (N-type layer) of the solar cell. The photons of light, with
energy, collide with electrons and produce hoe-electron pairs. These hole-electrons are separated
by the electric field of the depletion layer of the cell and develop the electric [Link] photons
with sufficient energy ℎ𝜈 > 𝐸𝑔 ,cangeneratehole-electronpairs, that is, photons with energy greater
than the semiconductorband gap (𝐸𝑔 ) will contribute to the energy conversion process. Thus, the
spectral nature of sunlight is an important consideration in the design of efficient solar cells. Due to
the electric field, the holes move to the P-type layer (backward) and the electrons move to the N-
type layer (upward). When these charges accumulate on the P and N layers, a potential difference
is produced. Therefore, if a load is connected across the cell, electrons flows through the load and
then to the P side. This flow of current produces power in the load. The potential difference
produced in a solar cell is approximately equal to the barrier voltage of the PN junction. Hence it
depends on the energy pap (𝐸𝑔 ) of the material.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 76

2.42.3 Solar Cell I –V Characteristics

Solar cell is actually a current source. Its output current depends on the intensity of incident solar
radiation. The higher the incident solar radiation, the larger is its output current. For a particular
solar radiation, the variation of output voltage and current is shown in the I-Vcharacteristics in
Fig.2-91(a). From this graph, it is clear that, with the increase in output current the output voltage
decreases very slowly up to a current level. But after this level of current, the output voltage
decreases very rapidly with very small increase in current. If the output terminal is open, i.e., 𝐼 = 0,
the output voltage of the cell is maximum and it is called the Open Circuit Voltage (VOC). On the
other hand, if the output terminals of the cell are shorted, that is, for the maximum current the
output voltage will be zero. This maximum current is called the Short Circuit Current (𝐼𝑠𝑐 ). At the
short circuit and the open circuit condition the output power of the cell will be zero. At the knee
point of the curve, there is a point where the product of current and voltage is the maximum. This
point of the curve is called the Maximum Power Point (MPP).
I (A) ISC
3.0
2.5
Maximum Ip ID1 ID2 I
2.0 IMP Power Point
1,5 (VMPIMP) D1 D2 RL Vo
1.0
(a) VOC
0.5
VMP V (V)
0 (b)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Fig.2-91: (a) Characteristics, (b) Equivalent circuit Construction and

symbol of Schottky diode
The equivalent circuit of the solar cell is shown in Fig.2-91(b). Here, 𝐷1 is an ideal diode with 𝑛 = 1,
and𝐷2 is a practical diode with 𝑛 = 2. The rest of the parameters are same as described for PN
junction diodes. From this equivalent circuit the value of the output current (𝐼) can be calculated
as,
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑝 − 𝐼𝐷1 − 𝐼𝐷2
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑝 − 𝐼𝑜1 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉/𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝐼𝑜2 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉/2𝑘𝑇 − 1) (2-55)
The quality of Si solar cell is measured from various parameters. One important parameter is the
Fill Factor (FF). It is defined as the power of the solar cell at the maximum power point to the
product of 𝑉𝑂𝐶 and 𝐼𝑆𝐶 . Mathematically,
𝑃𝑀𝑃 𝑉𝑀𝑃 𝐼𝑀𝑃 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐹𝐹 = = = (2-56)
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶
The value of FF is 1 for ideal solar cell but for practical solar cell it may vary from 0.5 to 0.9.
Another important parameter is the efficiency of the solar cell. It is defined as the ratio of the
output power (at MPP) to in input power. The output power at the MPP is 𝑉𝑀𝑃 𝐼𝑀𝑃 and input power
on a cell is insolation (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡/𝑚2) times the area of the cell in meter. Mathematically,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑀𝑃 𝐼𝑀𝑃
𝜂= = (2-57)
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑑 × 𝐴
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 77

Here, 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑑 is the solar radiation in 𝑊/𝑚2 and 𝐴 is the area of the cell in 𝑚2. There are various types
of solar cell. The Si solar cell may be of three types. These are mono-crystalline, poly-crystalline and
amorphous. Presently, the maximum efficiency of these three types of Si solar cells are 25 %,
18 %, and 13 %, respectively.

Sample Questions:
1. What do you mean by an electrical circuit and an electronic circuit?
2. Explain the Bohr’s atom model.
3. Calculate the energy of an electron in hydrogen atom.
4. What is eV? Convert 1 eVinto Joule.
5. What are valence electrons? How these electrons control the electrical properties of
materials?
6. What is energy band? How energy band is developed in a material?
7. Explain conductor, semiconductor and insulator in terms of energy band diagrams.
8. Give the classifications of semiconductor materials.
9. Explain how N-type semiconductor is made.
10. Explain how P-type semiconductor is made.
11. What do you mean by drift and diffusion of carriers?
12. Explain the hole-movement mechanism.
13. What is PN junction? Explain how depletion layer is developed in a PN junction.
14. Explain how the barrier voltage is developed in a PN junction.
15. Why does the majority carrier diffusion not continue to produce equal carrier
concentration in both sides of a PN junction?
16. Explain the four current components of a PN junction in equilibrium. Why the net current
is zero?
17. Draw the I-V characteristic curve of a diode and explain. What is knee voltage?
18. What is thermal voltage? Calculate the value of thermal voltage at T = 300 K.
19. Explain the effect of temperature on the performance of a PN junction diode.
20. Explain different resistances of a PN junction diode.
21. What is surface leakage current? Why this current is produced? Explain the reason.
22. Explain transition and diffusion capacitance.
23. What are the properties of an ideal diode? Explain with characteristic curves.
24. Draw the high frequency equivalent circuit of a PN junction diode and explain.
25. Explain with suitable diagrams the different equivalent circuits of a diode.
26. What is reverse recovery time of a diode? How this time limits the frequency of switching
of a diode?
27. Give a comparison between a silicon diode and a germanium diode.
28. In diode datasheets the value of a number of parameters are given. Write the names of 5
important parameters and explain their meanings.
29. What is Zener diode? Explain Zener and avalanche breakdown mechanism.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 78

30. Draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and explain. What is dynamic impedance of
a Zener diode and how the parameter affects the operation of a Zener diode as a constant
voltage source?
31. Explain the construction and operation of an LED. Why the blue LED needs very high value
of forward bias voltage?
32. Draw the exact and approximate equivalent circuit of a reverse biased Zener diode and
explin.
33. Explain the parameters: 𝑉𝑍 , 𝐼𝑍𝐾 , 𝐼𝑍𝑀 , 𝑃𝐷 in the context of a Zener diode.
34. Write the names of some materials used for LED fabrication with color and bias voltage.
35. Describe the construction and operation of a PN junction LED.
36. Describe the construction and operation of an OLED.
37. Mention some applications of LEDs and OLED.
38. What is a varactor diode? Describe the construction and operation of a varactor diode.
39. Draw the diagram of a tuning circuit using a varactor diode and explain.
40. What are the applications of varactor diodes.
41. What is Schottky diode? Describe their construction and operation.
42. What are the uses of Schottky diodes?
43. What is step recovery diode? Explain the construction and operation of a step recovery
diode.
44. Write some applications of step recovery diodes.
45. What is small signal diode? Explain the construction and operation of a small signal diode.
46. What is point contact diode? Explain the construction and operation of a point contact
diode.
47. What is transient voltage suppression diode? Describe their construction and operation.
48. With the I-V characteristics explain the operation of a tunnel diode.
49. Draw the equivalent circuit of a tunnel diode and explain.
50. Explain with diagram, how undamped oscillations can be produced in a resonant circuit
using tunnel diode.
51. What is photo diode? With suitable diagram describe the construction and operation
process of a photo diode. Draw the characteristic curves of this diode.
52. With suitable circuit diagrams, explain different modes of operations of a photo diode.
53. What is PIN diode? Why is the name PIN? Describe its construction and operation process
of a PIN diode.
54. Write some important properties of a PIN diode. What are the applications of PIN diodes?
55. What is Gunn diode? Describe the construction and operation of a Gunn diode.
56. Draw the I-V characteristics of a Gunn diode and explain.
57. Explain with diagram the domain formation mechanism in a Gunn diode.
58. Write some applications of Gunn diodes.
59. What is Shockley diode? Why is it called a diode? Describe its construction and operation
procedure.
60. Using two-transistor analogy explain how the negative resistance is developed in a
Shockley diode.
61. What is LCD (liquid crystal display)? Give the classifications of LCDs.
62. Describe the construction and operation of field effect type LCD.
63. Describe the construction and operation of dynamic scattering type LCD.
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 79

64. What is solar cell? Explain the construction and operation of a solar cell.
65. Explain the carrier separation mechanism in a solar cell.
66. Draw the I-V characteristics of a solar cell and explain.
67. Define the terms: 𝑉𝑂𝐶 , 𝐼𝑆𝐶 , 𝐹𝐹, efficiency and maximum power point.
68. Draw the equivalent circuit of a solar cell and derive the equation for load current.
Exercise
1. The electron in a hydrogen atom has a kinetic energy of 13.6 eV. Calculate the potential
energy and the net energy of the electron. [Ans. 𝑃𝐸 = −27.2 eV, 𝐸𝑛 = −13.6 eV]
2. The hydrogen atom has only one electron. Its potential energy is−27.2 eV. Calculate the
kinetic energy and the ground state energy of the hydrogen atom. [Ans. 𝐾𝐸 = −13.6 eV,
𝐸𝑛 = −13.6 eV]
3. In a situation, an electron acquires a speed of 105 ms −1 .Calculate its kinetic energy in
Joules and eV unit at that situation. [Ans. 4.55 × 10−21 J, 2.84 eV]
4. Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration in Si at a temperature of 27°C. [Ans. 1.5 ×
1010 cm−3 ]
5. Do the same for Ge. [Ans. ]
6. A Si crystal is doped by arsenic (As) with a doping concentration of 2 ppm. If the crystal
contains 5 × 1028 m−3 atoms and 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1016 m−3. Calculate the number of electrons and
holes in the crystal. [Ans. 𝑛𝑒 = 1023 m−3 , 𝑛ℎ = 2.25 × 109 m−3]
7. At 300 K temperature, a sample of intrinsic silicon has electron density of 1.5 × 1010 cm−3and
hole density of 1.5 × 1010 cm−3. One of every 2 × 106 atoms of this sample is replaced by a
phosphorous atom. Assuming all the donor electrons are in the conduction band, calculate the
ratio of the charge carrier density in the doped silicon to that for the intrinsic silicon. Given:
density of silicon, 𝜌 = 2.3290 g/cm3, Avogadro’s number, 𝑁𝐴 = 6.022 × 1023 mol−1, and
Molar mass of Si, 𝑀 = 28.09 g/mol. [Ans. 𝑛𝑃𝑒 /2𝑛𝑖 = 1.66373]
8. In a P-type silicon, the majority hole density is 5 × 1021 holes/m3. The intrinsic electron
density of silicon is 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1016 electrons/m3. Find the (minority carrier) electron density
of the P-type silicon sample. Also calculate the ratio of minority carrier and majority carriers.
[Ans. 𝑛𝑒 = 4.591010 electrons/m3, 𝑛𝑒 : 𝑛ℎ = 1: (1.852 × 10−11 )]
9. In a process of N-type germanium preparation, pentavalent impurity atoms have been mixed
in such a level that its electron density becomes 8.5 × 1022 holes/m3. The intrinsic electron
density of germanium is 𝑛𝑖 = 2.4 × 1019 electrons/m3. Find the (minority carrier) hole
density of the developed P-type silicon sample. Also calculate the ratio of minority carrier and
majority carriers. [Ans.]
10. Calculate the values of conductivity () and resistivity () of an intrinsic silicon semiconductor
material.
11. Calculate the values of conductivity () and resistivity () of an intrinsic germanium
semiconductor material
12. Calculate the diffusion current density for Si semiconductor at T = 300 K. Assume the electron
concentration varies linearlyfrom 𝑛𝑒 = 1010 cm−3 to 𝑛𝑒 = 1015 cm−3 over a distance from
𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 5 μm. Assume that the diffusion constant for electrons is𝐷𝑒 = 30 cm2 /s. [Ans.
𝐽𝑒 = 9.6 A/cm2]
13. Calculate the diffusion current density for Ge semiconductor at T = 300 K. Assume the electron
concentration varies linearly from 𝑛𝑒 = 1010 cm−3 to 𝑛𝑒 = 1015 cm−3 over a distance from
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 80

𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 5 μm. Assume that the diffusion constant for electrons is 𝐷𝑒 = 30 cm2/s. [Ans.
𝐽𝑒 = A/cm2 ]
14. In a circuit, charge is changing with time according to 𝑄(𝑡) = (0.05 C) × [sin( 2π100/s ∙ 𝑡)].
Calculate the instantaneous current at 𝑡 = 0 s, and 𝑡 = 100 s. [Ans. 31.416 A and −30.746 A]
15. Suppose a silicon bar is made using the P-type silicon sample of Ex.7. If the motilities of
electrons and holes are 𝜇𝑒 = 0.14 m2 ⁄(V ∙ s) and 𝜇ℎ = 0.05 m2 ⁄(V ∙ s), respectively,
calculate the conductivity and resistivity of the silicon bar. [Ans.]
16. Calculate the potential barrier of a silicon PN junction, at junction temperature 𝑇 = 300 K.
Consider that the doping concentration in P-type region is 𝑁𝑎 = 1015 cm−3 and that in N-type
region is 𝑁𝑑 = 1016 cm−3 and the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon is 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 ×
1010 cm−3 . [Ans.
17. Calculate the potential barrier of a germanium PN junction, at junction temperature 𝑇 =
300 K. Consider that the doping concentration in P-type region is 𝑁𝑎 = 1016 cm−3 and that in
N-type region is 𝑁𝑑 = 1017 cm−3 and the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon is 𝑛𝑖 = 2.4 ×
1019 .[Ans.]
18. APN junction diode is operated at a temperature of 𝑇 = 300 K. Assuming 𝐼𝑆 = 10−12 A, and
𝑛 = 1, determine the diode current for i) 𝑉𝐷 = +0.72 V and ii) 𝑉𝐷 = −0.72 V. [Ans. 0.963 A,
−10−12 A]
19. Determine the diode voltage (𝑉𝐷 ) and current (𝐼𝐷 ) for the circuit shown [Link] a
diode with a given reverse-saturation current of 𝐼𝑆 = 10−13 A. [Ans. 0.63633 V, 4.26 mA]
ID (mA)
R = 2.2 k 14
ID ID 12
VS VD 10
10 V
8
Operating point 1 Operating
6 point 2
Fig.2-: Circuit for Ex.16
4
2
0 VD (V)
0 0.2 0. 0.7 1.0 1.2
5 5 5 5
Fig.2-43: Two operating points
on I-V curve for Ex.20

20. At ambient temperature of 25° C, the barrier voltage of a Si diode is 0.75 V. What will be
barrier-voltage when the junction temperature is i) 100°C, and ii) 20°C? [Ans. i) 0.5625 V , ii)
0.7625 V]
21. A silicon diode has a saturation current of 7 nA at an ambient temperature of25°C. What will
be the value of the saturation current at 100°C? [Ans. 1.257 μA]
22. Given a Si diode with a reverse current of 5 μA at 25°C and 80 μA at 100°C, calculate the
surface leakage current. [Ans.]
23. If the surface-leakage current is 2 nA for a reverse voltage of 20 V, what is the surface-leakage
current for a reverse voltage of 30 V, and 80 V? [Ans. 80 nA]
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 81

24. As shown in the following Fig.2-, by applying a DC voltage a DC operating point is set for a
diode circuit. When an AC signal is applied in the circuit the operating point oscillated
between, Ph and PL. Calculate the average AC resistance faced by the AC signal. Also calculate
the DC resistance and AC resistance using Eq.(1.17 for the three operating points. Assume,
𝑟𝐵 = 2 Ω .
25. Consider a silicon PN junction at 𝑇 = 300 K, with doping concentrations of 𝑁𝑎 = 1016 cm−3
and 𝑁𝑑 = 2 × 1015 cm−3. Assume that 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1010 cm−3 and the unbiased junction
capacitance 𝐶𝑇0 = 1.0 pF. Calculate the junction capacitance at 𝑉𝐷 = −1 V and 𝑉𝑅 = −10 V.
[Ans. 2-16 of book]
26. As shown in the following Figure, a square wave voltage VD is applied to a diode circuit. The
voltage developed across the resistor R is observed on an oscilloscope. If the value of trr is 1
s, calculate the frequency of the applied waveform.
VD
D
+ t

R Osc
VD VR

trr

27. As shown in Table 2-5, the Zener diode 1N4732A has a typical value of 𝑉𝑍 = 4.7 V, and 𝑍𝑍 =
08 Ω. If 12 mA of current flows through this diode, calculate the output voltage i) Using the
model of Fig.2-55(b), and ii) Using the model of Fig.2-55(c). iii) Calculate the power dissipated
by the Zener diode for both the cases.
28. A solar cell with 𝐹𝐹 = 0.9, produces 𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 0.65 V and 𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 4.2 A when illuminated by solar
radiation of 1000 W/m2. If the area of the cell is 10 cm × 10 cm, calculate the efficiency of
the cell. [Ans. 𝜂 = 18.72 % ]
29. F
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 82

𝑉 (2-58)

"the social ills prevalent in society today"

Table 2-: A portion of the periodic table
5 6 7
B C N
Boron Carbon Nitroge
10.81 12.01
n14.01
13 14 15
Al Si P
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus
26.98 28.09 30.97
31 32 33
Ga Ge As
Gallium Germaniu Arsenic
69.72 m 72.64 74.92
49 50 51
In Sn Sb
Indium Tin Antimony
114.8 118.7 121.8
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 83
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 84
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 85

Temperature coefficient of Zener diode:

where _VZ is the resulting change in Zener potential due to the temperature variation.
Note in Fig. 1.51a that the temperature coefficient can be positive, negative, or
even zero for different Zener levels. A positive value would reflect an increase in VZ
with an increase in temperature, while a negative value would result in a decrease in
value with increase in temperature. The 24-V, 6.8-V, and 3.6-V levels refer to three
Zener diodes having these nominal values within the same family of Zeners. The curve
for the 10-V Zener would naturally lie between the curves of the 6.8-V and 24-V devices.
Returning to Eq. (1.12), T0 is the temperature at which VZ is provided (normally
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 86

room temperature—25°C), and T1 is the new level. Example 1.3 will demonstrate
the use of Eq. (1.12).

Boylstad

[Link]
en/semiconductor/knowledge/faq/diode/are-there-any-special-
[Link]
As the temperature of a semiconductor increases, its energy band gap (Eg) narrows (i.e., VF
decreases). The width of the depletion region and VF are closely related to each other. As
temperature increases, the depletion region narrows, making Zener breakdown more likely to
Chapter 2: Semiconductor and PN-Junction Diode 87

occur at lower voltage. In other words, Zener voltage decreases as temperature increases.
(Negative temperature coefficient)
As is true to all substances, an increase in temperature causes the amplitude of the crystal
lattice vibration to increase. Therefore, an increase in temperature makes it more difficult for
electrons and holes to flow. (Their mobility decreases.) Avalanche breakdown generates
electron-hole pairs when electrons accelerated by an electric field collide with atoms in a
crystal. An increase in temperature causes avalanche breakdown to occur at higher voltage. In
other words, avalanche breakdown voltage increases as temperature increases. (Positive
temperature coefficient)
Fig. 1 shows the temperature coefficient of Zener voltage. In this example, the zero-crossing of
the temperature coefficient from negative to positive occurs at a Zener voltage of 5 to 6 V.
However, the zero-crossing point depends on process and other conditions.