Geotechnical engineering - subdiscipline of civil engineering that involves In 1729, Bernard Forest de Belidor (1671–1761) - proposed a theory for

y for Rock Minerals

natural materials found close to the surface of the earth. It includes the lateral earth pressure on retaining walls that was a follow-up to Gautier’s A mineral is a natural inorganic substance of a definite structure and
application of the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to the (1717) original study. He also specified a soil classification system in the chemical composition.
design of foundations, retaining structures, and earth structures. It is manner shown in the following table. The specific gravity of most rock and soil forming minerals varies from 2.50
sometimes known as geomaterials. In 1840, Jean Victor Poncelet (1788–1867), an army engineer and (some feldspars) and 2.65 (quartz) to 3.5 (augite or olivine).
Soil engineering is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to professor of mechanics, extended Coulomb’s theory by providing a Gypsum has a smaller value of 2.3 and salt (NaCl) has 2.1. Some iron
practical problems. graphical method for determining the magnitude of lateral earth pressure minerals may have higher values, for instance, magnetite has 5.2.
Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the on vertical and inclined retaining walls with arbitrarily broken polygonal Soil formation is the process by which soil is created. The formation of soil
physical properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to ground surfaces happens over a very long period of time. Soil is formed from the
various types of forces. In his famous paper presented in 1776, French scientist Charles Augustin weathering of rocks and minerals.
Soils Mechanics is systematized in its modern form by Karl Von Terzaghi Coulomb (1736–1806) used the principles of calculus for maxima and Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks.
(1925), who is rightly regarded as the ‘‘Father of Modern Soil Mechanics”. minima to determine the true position of the sliding surface in soil behind Weathering occurs in situ or “with no movement”, and thus should not be
Terzaghi defined soil mechanics as follows, “Soil mechanics is the a retaining wall. confused with erosion, which involves the movement of rocks and
application of the laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy (1803–1858). In 1856, he published a study minerals by agents such as water, ice, wind, and gravity.
problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations on the permeability of sand filters. Darcy defined the term coefficient of Two important classifications of weathering processes exist – Mechanical
of solid particles produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) of soil, a very useful parameter in and Chemical Weathering.
of rocks regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of organic geotechnical engineering to this day. Mechanical weathering of rocks to smaller particles is due to the action of
constituents”. Sir George Howard Darwin (1845–1912), a professor of astronomy, such agents as the expansive forces of freezing water in fissures, due to
Rock Mechanics is concerned with the engineering mechanics and conducted laboratory tests to determine the overturning moment on a sudden changes of temperature or due to the abrasion of rock by moving
properties of rock, usually but not necessarily the bed rock. hinged wall retaining sand in loose and dense states of compaction. water or glaciers.
- DIKES DATING BACK TO ABOUT 2000 B.C. WERE BUILT IN THE BASIN OF In 1887, Osborne Reynolds (1842– 1912) demonstrated the phenomenon Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks by decomposing
THE INDUS TO PROTECT THE TOWN OF MOHENJO DARA (IN WHAT of dilatency in sand. the parent minerals, transforming them into new compounds such as clay
BECAME PAKISTAN AFTER 1947). DURING THE CHAN DYNASTY IN CHINA Albert Mauritz Atterberg (1846–1916), a Swedish chemist and soil silica particles, carbonates and iron oxides.
(1120 B.C. TO 249 B.C.) MANY DYKES WERE BUILT FOR IRRIGATION scientist, defined clay-size fractions as the percentage by weight of Oxidation Within the weathering environment, oxidation of a variety of
PURPOSES. particles smaller than 2 microns in size. metals occurs. The most commonly observed is the oxidation of Fe2+ (iron)
- ANCIENT GREEK CIVILIZATION USED ISOLATED PAD FOOTINGS AND Soil is the relatively loose mass of mineral and organic materials and and combination with oxygen and water to form Fe3+ hydroxides and
STRIP-AND-RAFT FOUNDATIONS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES. sediments found above the bedrock, which can be relatively easily broken oxides such as goethite, limonite and hematite. This gives the affected
- BEGINNING AROUND 2750 B.C., THE FIVE MOST IMPORTANT PYRAMIDS down into its constituent mineral or organic particles rocks a reddish-brown coloration on the surface which crumbles easily and
WERE BUILT IN EGYPT IN A PERIOD OF LESS THAN A CENTURY (SAQQARAH, Rock can be defined as a compact, semi-hard to hard mass of natural weakens the rock. This process is better known as ‘rusting’.
MEIDUM, DAHSHUR SOUTH AND NORTH, AND CHEOPS). THIS POSED material composed of one or more minerals. The rocks that are Carbonation of rock material is caused by carbon dioxide in the presence
FORMIDABLE CHALLENGES REGARDING FOUNDATIONS, STABILITY OF encountered at the surface of the earth or beneath are commonly of water. Limestones are very much affected by carbonation.
SLOPES, AND CONSTRUCTION OF UNDERGROUND CHAMBERS. classified into three groups according to their modes of origin. Leaching is the process in which percolating water washes out water-
- Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy - The structure weighs about 15,700 metric THREE BASIC TYPES OF ROCKS (CLASSIFIED BASED ON MODE OF soluble salts from the soil. Soil produced by chemical weathering of rocks
tons and is supported by a circular base having a diameter of 20 m ( 66 ft). FORMATION) will be cohesive (silt and clay).
The tower has tilted in the past to the east, north, west and, finally, to the - Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of magma (underground) or lava Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid
south. The tower now leans 5 degrees. (above the ground), e.g. granite, basalt, dolerite, andesite, gabbro, attachment of H+ and OH-ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral.
- Garisenda Tower and Asinelli Tower in Bologna, Italy - Similar problem syenite, porphyry. When rock minerals take up water, the increased volume creates physical
like the Leaning Tower of Pisa and they were built in the 12th century . - Sedimentary rocks are formed by gradual deposition of fine soil grains stresses within the rock.
Garisenda Tower is 48 m ( 157 ft ) in height and weighs about 4210 metric over a long period, e.g. limestone, sandstone, mudstone, shale,
tons . It has tilted about 4 degrees . The Asinelli Tower is 97 m high and conglomerate.
weighs 7300 metric tons . It has tilted about 1.3 degrees. - Metamorphic rocks are formed by alteration of existing rocks due to: (a)
In 1717 a French royal engineer, Henri Gautier (1660–1737), studied the extreme heat, e.g. marble, quartzite, or (b) extreme pressure, e.g. slate,
natural slopes of soils when tipped in a heap for formulating the design schist.
procedures of retaining walls.
 GENERAL TYPES OF SOIL • Sometimes magnesium replaces the aluminum atoms in the octahedral Types of Soil Structures
On the basis of origin of their constituents, soils can be divided into two units; in this case, the octahedral sheet is called a brucite sheet. Following are the types of soil structures which have been recognized in
large groups: 1. Residual soils, and 2. Transported soils. • Of the three important clay minerals, kaolinite consists of repeating various soil deposits;
Residual soils are those that remain at the place of their formation as a layers of elemental silica-gibbsite sheets in a 1:1 lattice ❑ Single grained structure.
result of the weathering of parent rocks. The depth of residual soils The main groups of crystalline materials that make up clays are the ❑ Honeycomb structure.
depends primarily on climatic conditions and the time of exposure. minerals kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite. ❑ Flocculated structure and dispersed structure – in the case of clay
Transported soils are soils that are found at locations far removed from • Kaolinite has a structure that consists of one silica sheet and one alumina deposits.
their place of formation. The transporting agencies of such soils are sheet bonded together into a layer about 0.72 nm thick and stacked
❑ Course-grained skeleton structure and matrix structure – in the case of
glaciers, wind and water. repeatedly.
composite soils.
The soils are named according to the mode of transportation. • The layers are held together by hydrogen bonds. Tightly stacked layers
• Soil particles are assumed to be rigid. During deposition, the mineral
❑ Alluvial soils are transported by running water and deposited along result from numerous hydrogen bonds.
particles are arranged into structural frameworks that we call soil fabric.
streams. • Kaolinite is common in clays in humid tropical regions.
• Two common types of soil fabric—flocculated and dispersed—are
❑ Lacustrine soils are the soils that have been deposited in quiet lakes. • Illite consists of repeated layers of one alumina sheet sandwiched by two
formed during soil deposition of fine-grained soils
❑ Marine soils are those deposited in sea water. silicate sheets. The layers, each of thickness 0.96 nm, are held together by
• Any loading (tectonic or otherwise) during or after deposition
potassium ions.
❑ Aeolian soils are the soils transported and deposited by wind. permanently alters the soil fabric or structural arrangement in a way that
• Montmorillonite has a structure similar to illite, but the layers are held
❑ Colluvial soils are those deposited primarily through the action of is unique to that particular loading condition.
together by weak van der Waals forces. Montmorillonite belongs to the
gravitational force, as in landslides. • Consequently, the history of loading and changes in the environment is
smectite clay family
❑ Glacial soils are formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers. imprinted in the soil fabric. The soil fabric is the brain; it retains the
SURFACE FORCES AND ADSORBED WATER
NAMES OF SOME SOILS THAT ARE GENERALLY USED IN PRACTICE memory of the birth of the soil and subsequent changes that occur.
• The surface area per unit mass (specific surface) of sands is typically 0.01
Marl consists of a mixture of calcareous sands, clays, or loam. SOIL PARTICLE SIZE AND SHAPE
m2 per gram, while for clays it is as high as 1000 m2 per gram
Hardpan is a relatively hard, densely cemented soil layer, like rock which The coarser fractions of soils consist of gravel and sand.
(montmorillonite).
does not soften when wet. Boulder clays or glacial till is also sometimes Gravel are small stones and pebble of which the individual particles are
• The specific surface of kaolinite ranges from 10 to 20 m2 per gram;
named as hardpan. Caliche is an admixture of clay, sand, and gravel nothing but fragments of rock, composed of one or more minerals.
• The illite ranges from 65 to 100 m2 per gram. The surface area of 45
cemented by calcium carbonate deposited from ground water. Sand grains contain mostly one mineral which is quartz.
grams of illite is equivalent to the area of a football field.
Peat is a fibrous aggregate of finer fragments of decayed vegetable matter. Pebbles are small stones well rounded by the action of water.
• Because of the large surface areas of fine-grained soils, surface forces
Peat is very compressible and one should be cautious when using it for Cobbles are well rounded stones formerly used in paving.
significantly influence their behavior compared to coarse-grained soils.
supporting foundations of structures. Boulder a large rock rounded by the action of weather and water.
• The clay–water interaction coupled with the large surface areas results
Loam is a mixture of sand, silt and clay. SOIL PARTICLE SIZE AND SHAPE
in clays having larger water-holding capacity in a large number of smaller
Loess is a fine-grained, air-borne deposit characterized by a very uniform The particle shape generally can be divided into three major categories:
pore spaces compared with coarse-grained soils.
grain size, and high void ratio. The size of particles ranges between about 1. Bulky
 Consequently, a thin film or layer of water, called adsorbed water, is 2. Flaky
0.01 to 0.05 mm. The soil can stand deep vertical cuts because of slight
bonded to the mineral surfaces. The thin film or layer of water is known 3. Needle shaped
cementation between particles. It is formed in dry continental regions and
as the diffuse double layer (Figure 2.8). The largest concentration of Bulky particles are formed mostly by mechanical weathering of rock and
its color is yellowish light brown.
cations occurs at the mineral surface and decreases exponentially with minerals. Geologists use such terms as angular, subangular, subrounded,
Shale is a material in the state of transition from clay to slate. Shale itself
distance away from the surface. and rounded to describe the shapes of bulky particles.
is sometimes considered a rock but, when it is exposed to the air or has a
 Surface forces on clay particles are of two types. One type, called
chance to take in water it may rapidly decompose
attracting forces, is due to London–van der Waals forces.
Clay minerals are complex aluminum silicates composed of two basic
 The other type, called repelling forces, is due to the diffuse double layer.
units: (1) silica tetrahedron and (2) alumina octahedron.
 Around each particle is an ionic cloud.
• The combination of tetrahedral silica units gives a silica sheet.
SOIL STRUCTURE (SOIL FABRIC)
• The octahedral units consist of six hydroxyls surrounding an aluminum
Soil structure in general, refers to the arrangement or state of aggregation
atom, and the combination of the octahedral aluminum hydroxyl units
of particles in a soil mass. The engineering behavior of soils is influenced
gives an octahedral sheet. (This also is called a gibbsite sheet).
by soil structure to varying degrees.