2022-23

FACULTY OF LAW, AMU

POLITICAL SCIENCE
PROJECT
TOPIC: EVOLUTION OF NUCLEAR
POWER IN INDIA
Submitted to: Dr. S. Sem Ali
Submitted by: Muskan Goyal
Roll Number: 22LLBWA103
Enrollment Number: GM9766
Semester: IVth {B.A.L.L.B (hons.)}
Section: A
 Synopsis
 INTRODUCTION
 NUCLEAR POWER DEVELOPMENT
1. Phase-I (1947-1974)
2. Phase-II (1974-1998)
3. Phase-III (1998- 2020)
 INDIA’S NUCLEAR DOCTRINE
 MAJOR GLOBAL NUCLEAR
TREATIES
 CHALLENGES FACED
 THE FUTURE
 CONCLUSION
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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 Introduction
From the start, India does not possess a a comfortable relationship with nuclear weapons. Indian
Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru had a very vocal stand against nuclear weapons. However, they
were also convinced that nuclear technology had an important role to play in national security.
The evolution of Nuclear power in India is a testatement to the nations quest for energy
independence and technological progress. Since its inception, India’s nuclear programme has
traversed a remarkable journey, shaped by Geopolitics dynamics, technological advancements,
and a commitment to sustainable energy solutions. From humble beginnings driven by the vision
of self- reliance to becoming a recognized player in a global nuclear arena, India’s Nuclear
trajectory is both fascinating and significant.

But it would not be correct to assume that India’s Nuclear policy was based on Nehru’s
perspective only. There were several other factors like India’s International security condition as
well as by domestic factors like the influence of bureaucratic elites and the vagaries of political
change. To cater these problems Indian Leaders probably considered nuclear weapons at best a
necessary evil.

Nuclear Power Development

India’s Nuclear Journey began in 1940’s influenced by both domestic energy needs and global
geopolitics. In 1945, the Tata trust had already formed the Tata institute of fundamental research
(TIFR) with Bhabha as its director, to initiate basic research in nuclear science. India’s Nuclear
journey is a long one, thus to understand it better laet us first divide it in phases:
1

Phase-I (1947-1974) – Developing a peaceful nuclear programme

Early Nuclear Policy

1
Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Secrecy and the Postcolonial State (New York:
Zed Books, 1998)

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Soon after Indian Independence in 1947, it entered into nuclear age in 1948 by the establishment
of Atomic Energy commission (AEC) through the Atomic Energy act with its chairman as Dr.
Homi Bhabha – also known as the Indian Oppenheimer. Under the Atomic energy commission,
the department of Atomic Energy was created in 1954 to serve as the apex executive agency of
the Government in this field with the responsibility of all civilian and military nuclear activities
in India. In the same year a multi-disciplinary centre for research and development was
established in Trombay near Bombay, which is now known as Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
(BARC). After that the first major project of centre namely, building a pool-type reactor named
APSARA, was undertaken and approximately in the same year, 1956 CIRUS, A 40 MW natural
uranium heavy water moderated research reactor was made with Canadian collaboration. The
CIRUS reactor is in operation to this day using the fuel produced at Trombay plant and heavy
water from the facility set up at Nangal in Northern India. In the meantime India also became a
member of International atomic energy agency in 1957. All these accomplishments were a sign
of developing India’s Nuclear energy agency. In this initial stage India supported partial test
ban treaty, 1963 which banned outer space and under water nuclear test. In 1969, India’s first
Nuclear power station came into operation at Tarapur, near Bombay, which consisted of two
boiling-water reactors (BWR), each of 200MWe capacity. Two other nuclear power plant were
also built in Kota, Madras, Narora and so on. At present India has 22 nuclear power plants
operating in 7 states with the capacity of 6780 MegaWatt.2
Events of 1960s and India’s plan for Nuclear weapons
In 1962, there was a war outbreak with china which was lost by India. In the meantime, China
also did nuclear test at Lop Nor in 1964 which made security concerns for India. USA and USSR
also failed to provide nuclear guarantee to India. Also , the war of 1965 with Pakistan reinforced
this necessity of developing weapons.3
Post 1965 developments and NPT Issue
By 1965, there were five major powers that had already acquired nuclear weapons ( USA, USSR,
UK, France, China). Looking at the Nuclear proliferation, India’s leaders demanded complete
ban on nuclear testing and began campaigning in 1965 for a universal non- proliferation treaty.
2
Ibid.

3
Ashley Tellis, India’s Emerging Nuclear Posture: Between Recessed Deterrent and Ready Arsenal (New Delhi,
Macmillan, 2005)

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Thus, Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was signed on 1 st July, 1968 by the UK, USSR
and USA, and came into existence on 5th May 1970. Against the India’s aim of banning of all
nuclear weapons NPT split the world into:
Nuclear Weapons State- the one who had tested prior to 1 st January 1967 and could keep their
weapons
Non- Nuclear Weapons State- which were banned from possessing or developing nuclear
weapons.
India opposed this treaty and refused to sign the treaty to keep its nuclear options open.4

Phase-II (1974-1998) Developing Nuclear Weapons

Pokhran 1- India’s First Nuclear Test
By the earlier 1970’s, India’s elit were divided into two camps, one who wanted nuclear
weapons for India ( the hawks) and the one who did not ( the doves). India- Pakistan war
generated support in favour of “the hawks.” During this war, USA tilted towards Pakistan and
USA-China relations were improving. These relations effectively created a China-Pakistan-USA
united front against India and were strengthened by China’s nuclear monopoly. During this time
India decided to carry out a nuclear test on 18 th may 1974 under the codename ‘Smiling Buddha”
in Pokhran, Rajasthan. India described this test as peaceful nuclear explosion (PNE).5
The consequences of India’s first nuclear test were significant, France supported India, China
and USSR remained muted yet critical, USA and Canada removed all nuclear ties and assistance.
India’s decision not to sign the nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) exempted it from the
obligations of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, allowing it greater
autonomy over its nuclear program. By conducting its nuclear test in 1974, India directly
challenged the anti-proliferation regime established by the P5 (Permanent five) nations. The
repercussions of India’s nuclear test led to the formation of the London suppliers group, later
known as the nuclear suppliers group. This group aimed to regulate the export and transfer of
nuclear materials that could potentially be used to develop nuclear weapons. Consequently, India

4
Ibid.
5
History of Nuclear India, available at <[Link]

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faced restrictions on accessing nuclear materials from international suppliers, hindering its
nuclear ambitions.6
India’s stance in nuclear disarmament and its commitment to self-restraint after its initial nuclear
test in 1974 continued. India supported plans for nuclear weapons convention akin to Biological
Weapons Convention, 1972 and chemical weapon convention (CWC) 1933, both which India
signed. However, India refused to sign Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) 1966 as it
favoured P5 nations and did not carry forward the disarmament process.7
Pokhran II- The Second Nuclear Test
India’s strategic position was getting worsen due to China’s rapid economic rise. Moreover,
Pakistan had also developed Nuclear infrastructure. Against this backdrop, on 11 th may (3 Test)
and 13th may (2 Test) 1988, India tested five Nuclear devices under PM Vajpayee under the
codename “Operation Shakti ”8
Phase III (1978-2020) From Emerging to Established Nuclear Power
India’s nuclear test were followed by a similar set of tests by Pakistan, resulting in fears in the
international community of an arms race or an escalation of conflict between the two openly
declared nuclear powers in South Asia. After the 1998 test, the Indian government established a
National Security Advisory Board, which issued a Draft Report on Indian Nuclear doctrine in
1999 under the chairmanship of nuclear strategist K Subhramanyam followed by the release and
operationalisation of official nuclear doctrine in 2003. U.S – India nuclear cooperation
agreement and the subsequent endorsement of India’s case by the Nuclear Suppliers Group,
enabled India to engage in international nuclear trade. In return, India has agreed to allow
safeguards on a select number of its nuclear facilities that are classified as “civilian” in purpose. 9

India’s Nuclear Doctrine

India’s nuclear doctrine outlines the country’s principles and policies regarding the use of
nuclear weapons. India’s nuclear doctrine is characterized by the following key principles:

6
Ibid.
7
Supra Note 1.
8
Nuclear Power in India, available at <[Link]
9
Ibid.

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1. No first use: India maintained a policy of no first use, stating that it will not be the first
to use nuclear weapons in a conflict. However, this policy is accompanied by a caveat
that India reserves the right to retaliate with nuclear weapons in response to a nuclear
attack or a major attack using other weapons of mass destruction against India or its
allies.
2. No use against Non-Nuclear states: India pledges not to use nuclear weapons
against non-nuclear weapons states, emphasizing a commitment to non-aggression and
the principle of proportionality in conflict.
3. Response to Biological or Chemical Attacks: While maintaining a policy of no-
first use, India reserves the option to retaliate with nuclear weapons in response to a
major attack with biological or chemical weapons, underscoring the seriousness with
which it views unconventional threats.
4. Massive Retaliation: In the event of a nuclear attack on India, the response will be
massive and designed to inflict unacceptable damage on the aggressor, deterring potential
adversaries from considering nuclear aggression.
5. Minimum Credible Deterrence: India’s nuclear doctrine is based on the concept
of Minimum credible deterrence, which means maintaining a nuclear arsenal sufficient to
deter potential adversaries from launching a nuclear strike against India. This implies
possessing a nuclear force capable of surviving a first strike and delivering a devastating
response.
6. Civilian Control: The establishment of the Nuclear command authority (NCA) in
2003 was a significant step towards ensuring effective civilian control over India’s
nuclear arsenal. The Nuclear command authority’s has athree tier structure comprising:
 The political council,
 Executive council, and
 Strategic forces command,
The council which authorizes the use of nuclear weapon is the political council headed by
the prime minister. The council which offers inputs for decision-making and
implementing directives is executive council which is headed by the National Security
Advisor to the prime minister. Furthermore, the strategic forces command, responsible

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 for the administration of the nuclear forces are tasked with the firing of nuclear
weapons.10

Overall, India’s nuclear doctrine, anchored in credible minimum deterrence and a commitment to
global nuclear disarmament, is bolstered by the establishment of the nuclear command authority,
which strengthens civilian control and enhances the credibility of India’s nuclear posture.

Major Global Nuclear Treaties

Several major global nuclear treaties have been established to promote nuclear disarmament,
non-proliferation, and peaceful use of nuclear energy, Some of the key treaties include:

 Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty

The nuclear non-proliferation treaty serves as the cornerstone of global efforts to prevent the
proliferation of nuclear weapons, encourage the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and advance the
goal of nuclear disarmament. The Non-proliferation treaty has been widely ratified, with 191
state parties, making it the most adhered to traty in the realm of nuclear-non proliferation,
peaceful nuclear energy utilization, and disarmament. It delineates commitments for both
nuclear-weapon states and non-nuclear weapon states, with the former pledging not to assist non
nuclear weapon statesin acquiring nuclear weapons. The teaty defines nuclear weapon states as
those that possessed and detonated nuclear weapons before January 1, 1967, with five recognized
nuclear weapon states as parties to the treaty.11

 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

The comprehensive nuclear test ban traty is an international traty aimed at banning all nuclear
explosions for both civilian and military purposes. It wasopened for signature in 1996 and has
not ye entered into force. The traty prohibits nuclea explosions by everyone, everywhere: on
earth’s surface, in the atmosphere, underwater, and underground. It establishes a global

10
Waheguru Pal Singh Siddhu, The Evolution of India’s Nuclear Doctrine (New Delhi: Centre for Policy Research ,
2004)

11
Ibid.

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verification regime to monitor compliance with the treaty, consisting of International monitoring
system, the International data centre, and on site inspections. As of now, 185 countries have
signed the Comprehensive test ban treaty and 170 have ratified it, but it requires ratification by
44 specifc nuclear capable states to enter into force, including the remaining eight countries with
nuclear programs.12

 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty

The Strategic arms reduction treaty is a series of bilateral treaties between the United States and
the soviet union aimed at reducing and limiting the number of strategic offensive arms, such as
nuclear weapons and delivery vehicles. The first Strategic arms reduction treaty was signed in
1991 and expired in 2009, It was followed by START II which was signed in 1993 but never
entered into force. The new arms reduction treaty signed in 2010 replaced strategic arms
reduction treaty I and focuses on further reductions in deployed strategic nuclear weapons. It
limits the number of deployed strategic nuclear warheads and delivery vehicles for both the
United States and Russia. The new arms reduction treaty was extended in 2021 for another five
years, ensuring continued limitation on strategic nuclear arms between the two countries. 13

Challenges Faced
The development of nuclear program in India was not an easy task. We had to face various
sanctions, scarcity of resources etc. Some of those challenges are as follows:

1. Resource Constraint: Limited indigenous uranium resers and international sanctions

have posed challenges in sourcing nuclear fuel and technology.
2. International Sanctions: After India’s nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998, it faced
international sanctions, limiting access to nuclear technology and materials.
3. Technological Hurdles: Developing indigenous nuclear technology, including
reactor design, fuel cycle technology, and nuclear weapons capability, required
significant investment and expertise.

12
Evolution of Nuclear Power in India, available at <[Link]

13
Ibid.

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 4. Safety Concerns: Ensuring the safety and security of nuclear facilities and materials
has been a priority, especially in light of global nuclear security concerns.
5. Public Opposition: Nuclear projects have faced opposition from local communities
due to concern about safety, enviormental impact, and displacement.
6. International Relations: Balancing India’s nuclear aspirations with its international
relations, particularly with nuclear-armed neighbors like Pakistan and china, has been a
delicate diplomatic challenge.14

Despite these challenges, India has made significant strides in developing its nuclear program,
achieving milestones such as indigenous nuclear reactor designs, nuclear submarine capability,
and civilian nuclear cooperation agreements with various countries.

The Future
India’s impressive feat of operating 22 nuclear reactors with a combined capacity of of 5.8 GW
demonstrates its commitment to nuclear energy self sufficiency. The nation civil nuclear
strategy, independent of external fuel or technological assistance for over three decades,
showcases its capability to develop and manage a robust nuclear program domestically. 15

India indeed has a largely indigenous nuclear power program, driven by its commitment to
growing nuclear capacity as a part of its infrastructure development program, the government has
set ambitious targets to grow nuclear capacity. The future of nuclear energy in India appears
promising, with continued investment in both conventional and advanced reactor technologies.
India aims to expand its nuclear power capacity to meet growing energy demands while reducing
carbon emissions. The government’s plan include constructing new reactors, such as Pressurized
Heavy water Reactors (PHWR’s) and advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWR’s), as well as
exploring advanced designs like thorium-based reactors. 16
14
Agni-3 clears Test; All set to be inducted into forces,” Indian Express, February 8,2010,
<[Link]

15
India’s Atomic Energy Programme Pat and Future, available at <[Link]

16
Ibid.

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 Conclusion
India’s nuclear program has evolved significantly since its inception, characterized by a journey
marked by scientific achievement, strategic imperatives, and technological innovation. From its
early embrace of peaceful nuclear applications to its development of nuclear weapons capability,
India’s nuclear trajectory has been shaped by geopolitical considerations, international isolation,
and the pursuit of self-reliance.

Despite facing challenges such as sanctions, regulatory hurdles, and Public perception issues,
India has preserved in advancing its nuclear capabilities, emphasizing indigenous development
across the nuclear fuel cycle. The country’s focus on thorium utilization and the development of
advanced reactor technologies underscore its long term energy security goals and strategic
autonomy in the nuclear domain.

Looking ahead, India remains commited to expanding its nuclear power capacity as part of its
energy security and climate mitigation strategies. With ongoing research and development
efforts, India aims to further enhance its nuclear capabilities while addressing regulatory
challenges and fostering international collaboration.

Bibliography

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1. Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Secrecy and
the Postcolonial State (New York: Zed Books, 1998)
2. Ashley Tellis, India’s Emerging Nuclear Posture: Between Recessed Deterrent
and Ready Arsenal (New Delhi, Macmillan, 2005)
3. Waheguru Pal Singh Siddhu, The Evolution of India’s Nuclear Doctrine (New
Delhi: Centre for Policy Research , 2004)

Webliography
1. Agni-3 clears Test; All set to be inducted into forces,” Indian Express, February
8,2010, <[Link]
2. India’s Atomic Energy Programme Pat and Future, available at
<[Link]
3. Evolution of Nuclear Power in India, available at <[Link]
4. History of Nuclear India, available at <[Link]
5. Nuclear Power in India, available at <[Link]

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