EARTH SCIENCE

Teacher: Ms. Rosienie D. Gallardo

 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO EARTH SCIENCE

What is Earth science?

Earth scientists seek to understand the beautiful sphere on which we live. Earth is a very large, complex
set of systems. So most Earth scientists study one aspect of the planet. Researchers work together to
answer complicated questions. The major branches of Earth science are described below.

1.1 Branches of Earth Science

A. Geology
Geology is the study of the solid Earth. Geologists study how rocks and minerals form. The way
mountains rise up is part of geology. The way mountains erode away is another part. Geologists also
study fossils and Earth’s history. There are many other branches of geology. There is so much to know
about our home planet that most geologists become specialists in one area. For example, a mineralogist
studies minerals (Figure below).

(left) Mineralogists focus on all kinds of minerals. (right) Seismographs are used to measure earthquakes
and pinpoint their origins.

Some volcanologists brave molten lava to study volcanoes. Seismologists monitor earthquakes
worldwide to help protect people and property from harm (Figure above). Paleontologists are interested
in fossils and how ancient organisms lived. Scientists who compare the geology of other planets to Earth
are planetary geologists. Some geologists study the Moon. Others look for petroleum. Still others
specialize in studying soil. Some geologists can tell how old rocks are and determine how different rock
layers formed. There is probably an expert in almost anything you can think of related to Earth!

Geologists might study rivers and lakes, the underground water found between soil and rock
particles, or even water that is frozen in glaciers. Earth scientists need geographers who explore the
features of Earth’s surface. They work with cartographers, who make maps. Studying the layers of rock
beneath the surface helps us to understand the history of planet Earth (Figure below).

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 Geologists ask a lot of questions. They wonder what they need to know about earthquakes to be
able to predict them in time to evacuate a region. They ask what will happen to shorelines as sea level
rises. Some even wonder what would happen if the magnetic field reverses!

These folded rock layers have bent over time. Studying rock layers helps scientists to explain these layers
and the geologic history of the area

B. Oceanography
Oceanography is the study of the oceans. The word oceanology might be more accurate, since
“ology” is “the study of.” “Graph” is “to write” and refers to mapmaking. But mapping the oceans is how
oceanography started.

More than 70% of Earth’s surface is covered with water. Almost all of that water is in the oceans.
Scientists have visited the deepest parts of the ocean in submarines. Remote vehicles go where humans
can't (Figure below). Yet much of the ocean remains unexplored. Some people call the ocean “the last
frontier.”

The Alvin research vessel is specially designed to

explore the seas.

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 There are many branches of oceanography. Physical oceanography is the study of water
movement, like waves and ocean currents. Physical oceanographers ask when or if a tsunami
will hit a shoreline. Marine geologists look at rocks and structures in the ocean basins. These
scientists ask how new ocean crust forms. Chemical oceanographers study the natural elements
in ocean water. Chemical oceanographers might be concerned with where carbon dioxide goes
in the oceans. Marine biologists look at marine life. There are lots of questions to ask about
marine life!

C. Meteorology and Climatology

Meteorologists don’t study meteors—they study the atmosphere! The atmosphere is a thin layer of gas
that surrounds Earth. The word “meteor” refers to things in the air. Meteorology includes the study of
weather patterns, clouds, hurricanes, and tornadoes. Meteorology is very important. Using radars and
satellites, meteorologists work to predict, or forecast, the weather (Figure below). Meteorologists are
getting better at predicting the weather all the time. Meteorologists wonder how to better predict
weather. They wonder what the effects of rising water vapor in the atmosphere will be on weather.

Meteorologists forecast the weather a region can expect from a tropical storm.

Climatologists also study the atmosphere. These scientists work to understand the climate as it is now.
They also study how climate will change in response to global warming. There are lots of questions to
ask about our changing climate.

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 D. Environmental Science
Environmental scientists study the effects people have on their environment. This includes the
landscape, atmosphere, water, and living things. These scientists ask all sorts of questions about how
Earth systems are changing as a result of human actions. They try to predict what changes will come in
the future.

Ecologists study lifeforms and the environments they live in

(Figure below). They try to predict the chain reactions that could
occur when one part of the ecosystem is disrupted.

In a marine ecosystem, coral, fish, and other sea life depend on each other for
survival

We hope to find better ways of living that can help the environment.

E. Astronomy
Astronomy is the study of outer space and the physical bodies beyond planet Earth. Astronomers use
telescopes to see things far beyond what the human eye can see. Astronomers help to design spacecrafts
or satellites that travel into space and send back information about faraway places (Figure below).

The Hubble Space Telescope.

Astronomers ask a wide variety of questions. How do strong bursts of energy from the Sun, called solar
flares, affect communications? How might an impact from an asteroid affect life on Earth? What are
the properties of black holes? Astronomers ask bigger questions too. How was the Universe created? Is
there life on other planets? Are there resources on other planets that people could use for space travel?
Astronomers use what Earth scientists know about our planet to make comparisons with other planets.

Summary

 The study of Earth science includes many different fields, including geology, meteorology,
oceanography, and astronomy.
 Each type of Earth scientist investigates the processes and materials of the Earth.

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1.2 Earth's Shape

What is a flat-earther?

Flat-earther is a term used to describe someone who believes something despite the evidence. Or who
does not believe something despite the evidence. There are actually people who believe that Earth is
flat. They say that satellite photos are faked. They believe that the Apollo Moon landings were faked.
But there are very few people alive today who actually believe that Earth is flat. There are, however,
plenty of people who can be called flat-earthers. These people believe (or disbelieve) something despite
the evidence.

Earth’s Shape

As you walk around, the ground looks flat. So why do you think that Earth is round? The best reason is
that we have pictures of Earth taken from space. These photos show that Earth is round. Astronauts
aboard the Apollo 17 shuttle took this one, called “The Blue Marble” (Figure below). Earth looks like a
giant blue and white ball.

This is how the Earth looks from space—like a blue and white marble.

Did people only come to think that Earth is round when spacecrafts
took photos? No! Even the ancient Greeks knew that Earth was round.
They figured this out by observing the arc shape of the shadow on the
Moon during a lunar eclipse. Since Galileo, people can look through a
telescope and see that the planets orbit around the Sun. These bodies—
the Sun and each of the planets—are round. If Earth is a planet, it is
certainly round.

Another way to tell that Earth is round is to look at ships sailing off into
the distance. What do you see when you watch a tall ship sail over the
horizon of the Earth? The bottom part of the ship disappears faster than
the top part (Figure below). What would that ship look like if Earth were flat? No part of it would
disappear before the other. It would all just get smaller as it moved farther away.

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 Earth’s curvature is noticeable when objects at a
distance are below the arc.

Hemispheres

Earth is a sphere (technically, an oblate spheroid, a bit squashed at the poles). As a sphere, it can be
divided. Half of a sphere is a hemisphere. Earth is divided into hemispheres: north, south, east, west
(Figure below).

Remember that the Equator is the line that falls at 0°. North of the Equator is the Northern Hemisphere.
South of the Equator is the Southern Hemisphere. The North Pole is at 90°N. So there are 90 degree
lines in the Northern Hemisphere. The South Pole is 90°S. So there are 90 degree lines in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Earth also has an Eastern Hemisphere and a Western Hemisphere. They are just made by humans so
that locations can more easily be specified. The Prime Meridian is 0° longitude and passes through
Greenwich, England. The International Date Line is the 180° meridian. The Eastern Hemisphere is east
of the Prime Meridian to the International Date Line. It includes eastern Europe and Asia. The Western
Hemisphere west of the Prime Meridian to the International Date Line. It includes western Europe and
the Americas.

The Northern, Southern, Eastern,

and Western Hemispheres are
highlighted.

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Summary
 Ancient Greeks knew that Earth was round. They saw the shadow the planet cast on the Moon
during a lunar eclipse.
 Through a simple telescope, the other planets appear to be round. So Earth must be round.
 A boat does not get smaller with distance but sinks below the horizon. This is more evidence
that Earth is round
1.3 Earth's Magnetic Field

How can you find your way?

You can use Earth's magnetic field to tell you where you want to go. A compass needle aligns with
Earth’s magnetic field. People can navigate by finding magnetic north. If you know where north is, you
can figure out how to get anywhere. A compass is great for finding your way when you're out in the
field!

Earth’s Magnetism
Earth has a magnetic field (Figure below). The magnetic field behaves like a giant bar magnet inside
Earth. If you have a large bar magnet, you can hang it from a string. Then watch as it aligns itself in a
north-south direction. It does this to line up with Earth’s magnetic field.

Earth's magnetic field is like a bar magnet that resides in the center of
the planet.

The magnetic field has north and south poles. The magnetic poles do
not exactly match the geographic poles. So the North Magnetic Pole is
not the same as the geographic North Pole. The same is true of the South
Pole. The magnetic field is created by the movement of molten metal in
the outer core.

Earth’s magnetic field extends several thousand kilometers into space.

It shields us from harmful radiation from the Sun (Figure below).

Earth's magnetic field protects the planet from

harmful radiation.

Magnetic Reversals
Something very strange has happened many times
during Earth's history. The planet's magnetic field
flipped! The North Magnetic Pole became the South
Magnetic Pole. The South Magnetic Pole became the

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North Magnetic Pole. Scientists are not sure why this happens. The fact that it does happen is useful to
scientists. In the chapter Plate Tectonics, you'll learn how.

Summary
 Earth's magnetic field is like a bar magnet through the planet.
 The magnetic field is generated by convection in the liquid outer core.
 Occasionally the magnetic field flips. The North Magnetic Pole becomes the South Magnetic
Pole and the South Magnetic Pole becomes the North Magnetic Pole.

1.4 Earth's Rotations

How do you know Earth rotates?

Something amazing happens every day (unless you live very far north or very far south)! The amazing
thing is that the Sun rises in the east. It also sets in the west. We know that the Sun doesn't actually
move around Earth. What causes the Sun to rise and set is that Earth rotates on its axis. This rotation
creates day and night.

Earth's Axis of Rotation

Imagine a line passing through the

center of Earth. The line exits the planet
at the top and at the bottom. The point
at the top is the North Pole. The point at
the bottom is the South Pole. This
imaginary line is called an axis. The
points are the north and south
geographic poles. The geographic poles
are different from the magnetic poles,
and they are in different places on the
planet

Earth rotates on an axis, an imaginary line that

goes from the North (celestial) Pole to the South
(celestial) Pole.

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Note that Earth's axis of rotation is tilted. The axis is not perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic.
This plane is the one that solar system bodies are mostly lined up in.

Earth spins around its axis, just as a top spins around its spindle. This spinning movement is called
rotation. The axis is Earth's axis of rotation. Earth rotates on its axis once every 24 hours.

Day-Night Cycle

To an observer looking down at the North Pole, Earth appears to rotate counterclockwise. From
nearly all points on Earth, the Sun appears to move across the sky from east to west each day. Of
course, the Sun is not moving from east to west at all; Earth is rotating. The Moon and stars also seem
to rise in the east and set in the west.

Earth’s rotation means that there is a cycle of daylight and darkness approximately every 24 hours.
This is the length of a day. Different places experience sunset and sunrise at different times, and the
amount of daylight and darkness also differs by location.

Summary
 Sun, Moon, and stars appear to travel from east to west each day.
 Earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours.
 Earth's rotation causes the day-night cycle.

1.5 Earth's Revolutions

What kind of revolution are we talking about?

Copernicus caused a revolution. He said that Earth revolved around the Sun. With his telescope,
Galileo found a lot of evidence for this. He could see moons orbiting Jupiter. If moons can orbit
Jupiter, surely Earth can orbit the Sun. Yes? In the two images above, you can see Jupiter at two
different times, showing moons in different places.

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Earth's Revolution
Earth orbits a star. That star is our Sun. One revolution around the Sun takes 365.24 days. That is
equal to one year. Earth stays in orbit around the Sun because of the Sun's gravity (Figure below).

Earth's orbit is not a circle. It is a bit elliptical. So as we travel around the Sun, sometimes we are a
little farther away from the Sun. Sometimes we are closer to the Sun.

Students sometimes think the slightly oval shape of our orbit causes Earth's seasons. That's not true!
The seasons are due to the tilt of Earth’s axis, as discussed in the previous concept.

Earth and the other planets in the solar system make elliptical orbits around the Sun. The ellipses in
this image are highly exaggerated.

The distance between the Earth and the Sun is about 93 million miles, or 150 million kilometers. Earth
revolves around the Sun at an average speed of about 27 kilometers (17 miles) per second. Mercury and
Venus are closer to the Sun, so they take shorter times to make one orbit. Mercury takes only about 88
Earth days to make one trip around the Sun. All of the other planets take longer amounts of time. The
exact amount depends on the planet's distance from the Sun. Saturn takes more than 29 Earth years to
make one revolution around the Sun. How old would you be if you were on Jupiter?

Summary
 Earth's orbit around the Sun is somewhat elliptical.
 Earth's seasons are not caused by the shape of its orbit.
 Earth and the other planets of the solar system revolve around the Sun.

1.6 Coriolis Effect

Is this an example of the Coriolis effect?
Does Coriolis determine which direction water in a toilet will swirl?
Unfortunately, no. Friction and the power of the flush have too big an
influence. But in the atmosphere and oceans, Coriolis affects flow
direction.

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Coriolis Effect

The Coriolis effect is not a force, even though that's what it is sometimes called. Coriolis does not force
anything to happen! Coriolis is an effect. What does that mean?

The Coriolis effect describes how Earth’s rotation steers winds and surface ocean currents. Unlike land,
air and water move freely (in the absence of obstacles). The Coriolis effect causes the path of a freely
moving object to appear to curve. This is because Earth is rotating beneath the object. So even though
the object's path is straight, it appears to curve. The curve appears to be to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere. It appears to be to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

Here is an example in the Northern Hemisphere. A plane takes off from City A . The pilot wants to land
in City B, which is 500 miles due north. But the plane will not arrive there without corrections. City B
was due north of City A when the plane took off. But during the time it takes for the airplane to fly 500
miles, City B moves east. This happens because of Earth's rotation. So if the airplane flies due north, it
will arrive at a different city, City C. City C is west of City B (in the Northern Hemisphere). To reach
City B, the pilot should curve right while flying north. The opposite happens in the Southern
Hemisphere. In the flights between cities pictured below (Figure below), the flight paths look curved.
Since a flight path must curve to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, can you tell which city the
plane took off from in each case?

The Coriolis effect is the reason that airlines' flight paths look
curved, even though they are the shortest possible path. Although
these flight paths show curves, what's wrong with this picture? (The
curves do not all follow the path due to Coriolis.)

Effect for Air or Water

As wind or an ocean current moves, the Earth spins underneath it. Wind or water that travels toward
the poles from the Equator curves to the east. Wind or water that travels toward the Equator from the
poles curves to the west. The Coriolis effect bends the direction of surface currents to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere. The currents curve left in the Southern Hemisphere (Figure below).

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Summary

 Earth rotates beneath freely moving objects like water and air. Compared with a spot on the
planet, the objects appear to be moving.
 Freely moving objects appear to move right in the Northern Hemisphere. They appear to move left
in the Southern Hemisphere.
 Coriolis is an effect rather than a force. Coriolis does not force a motion. An object appears to have
a change of motion due to the Coriolis effect.

1.7 Seasons

Do you like the seasons?

Do you live in a place with well-defined seasons? Do you appreciate the change of the seasons? In other
words, are you happy that Earth's axis is tilted?

Earth’s Seasons

Some people think that Earth is closer to the Sun in the summer and farther away from the Sun in the
the winter. But that's not true! Why can't that be true? Because when it's summer in one hemisphere,
it's winter in the other. So what does cause the seasons? The seasons are caused by the 23.5° tilt of
Earth’s axis. One hemisphere points more directly toward the Sun than the other hemisphere. As Earth
orbits the Sun, the tilt of Earth's axis stays lined up with the North Star.

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Solstice refers to the position of the Sun when it is closest to one of the poles. At equinox, the Sun is
directly over the Equator.

Northern Hemisphere Summer

During summer in the Northern Hemisphere, the North Pole is tilted toward the Sun. The Sun's rays
strike the Northern Hemisphere more directly (Figure below). The region gets a lot of sunlight. Summer
solstice is June 21 or 22. At that time, the Sun's rays hit directly at the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N). This is
the farthest north that the Sun will be directly overhead. Summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere
is winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere.

Summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere.

Northern Hemisphere Winter

Winter solstice for the Northern Hemisphere happens on December 21 or 22. The North Pole of Earth's
axis points away from the Sun (Figure below). Light from the Sun is spread out over a larger area. With
fewer daylight hours in winter, there is also less time for the Sun to warm the area. When it is winter in
the Northern Hemisphere, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere.

During summer in the Southern Hemisphere, the Sun’s rays directly strike the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S).
Sunlight is spread across a large area near the South Pole. No sunlight reaches the North Pole.

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Equinox

Equinox comes halfway between the two solstices. At equinoxes, the Sun's rays shine most directly at
the Equator (Figure below). The daylight and nighttime hours are exactly equal on an equinox. The
autumnal, or fall, equinox happens on September 22 or 23. The vernal, or spring, equinox happens
March 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere.

Where sunlight reaches on spring equinox, summer solstice, vernal equinox, and winter solstice. The time is 9:00
p.m. Universal Time, at Greenwich, England.

Summary

 Earth has seasons because of the (23.5°) tilt of its axis of rotation.
 In the Northern Hemisphere, at summer solstice the Sun is closest to the North Pole (around
June 22). At winter solstice, the Sun is closest to the South Pole (around December 22). In the
Southern Hemisphere, the names are changed.
 At equinox, the Sun is directly over the Equator. Autumnal equinox is around September 22.
Spring equinox is around March 22.

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