"Honouring the past, shaping the

present, inspiring the future"

Topic: Role of Non-State Actors in the Middle

Eastern Region

StudyGuide
Table of Contents
·INTRODUCTION TO THE COMMITTEE
VETO POWER
EFFECTS ON RESOLUTION
·INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC AND PURPOSE OF
DISCUSSION
NON-STATE ACTORS, DEFINITIONS AND TYPES
·HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
FROM 1948 ARAB ISRAEL WARTILL 2014
·OTHER RELATED ISSUES
SUBTOPICS
·CASE STUDIES
ALL MAJOR NON STATE ACTORS EMERGENCE
·UN PAST ACTIONS
PAST UN AND SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTIONS
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
·MAJOR STAKEHOLDER
THE VETO POWER COUNTRIES
EUROPEAN UNION
ORGANISATION OF ISLAMIC COOPERATION
ARAB LEAGUE
·ONGOING SITUATION
·Q.A.R.M.A (QUESTIONS A RESOLUTION MUST
ANSWER)
·BIBLIOGRAPHY \ REFERENCE WEBSITES
AGENDA “ ROLE OF NON-STATE ACTORS IN THE MIDDLE EAST”

INTRODUCTION OF THE COMMITTEE

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC), established by the UN Charter in 1945, is
entrusted with the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. As
one of the six main organs of the UN, the UNSC has the unique authority to take binding
decisions on global security matters. It can recommend peaceful negotiations, dispatch
peacekeeping missions, and, when necessary, impose enforcement measures such as economic
sanctions or military action. Unlike other UN organs, the Security Council’s resolutions are
legally binding for all member states. The Council comprises 15 members, including five
permanent members (China, France, Russia, the UK, and the US) with veto power, ensuring
continuous representation at the UN headquarters for rapid response to global crises.

Veto Power
The Veto power refers to the ability of a permanent member of the United Nations Security
Council to block any substantive resolution or decision, regardless of majority support.

• Permanent Members: The UNSC's five permanent members (US, UK, France, Russia,
China) hold veto power, allowing any one of them to block resolutions.
• Impact on Resolutions: Veto use by the BIG five big 5 power states to shield many of the
issues which makes it more biased towards their own interests.

INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC

The role of non-state actors in the Middle East has grown significantly, particularly in the
wake of the Arab Spring. These actors, including civil society organizations, labor unions,
youth movements, and religious extremistgroups, have been instrumental in challenging
autocratic regimes and reshaping the political landscape in countries such as Tunisia, Egypt,
Libya, and Yemen. In Tunisia, for example, the success of the uprising against Zine El
Abidine Ben Ali was facilitated by the collective efforts of youth protesters, trade unions,
political parties, and the banned Religious group, Al-Nahda. Similarly, in Egypt, the April 6
Movement and the supporters of Khaled Said were pivotal in organizing protests that
ultimately led to the downfall of Hosni Mubarak. Libya and Yemen also saw the
involvement of diverse non-state actors—tribal groups, business interests, and religious —
whose coalitions, in combination with external interventions, played a central role in toppling
long-standing regimes.

MOTIVE BEHIND DISCUSSING THE ISSUE

The discussion of non-state actors in the Middle East is vital for understanding their growing
influence in shaping political, social, and security dynamics in the region. Unlike traditional
state actors, non-state actors often operate outside formal political structures and include
civil society organizations, militant groups, and political movements. Their involvement
raises critical questions about governance, legitimacy, and the future of the region’s stability.
Examining their role helps in assessing how these groups have contributed to both
democratization efforts and ongoing conflicts, providing insight into the evolving nature of
power and influence in the Middle East.

Non-State Actors: Definition and Types

Non-state actors (NSAs) are organizations or entities that wield significant political, social,
or military influence but are not formally associated with any government. These groups can
range from violent organizations like terrorist groups and insurgents to private companies
and civil society organizations. Their roles often challenge or complement state authority,
especially in conflict zones or areas with weak governance.

Types of Non-State Actors:

Terrorist Groups: These entities use violence and intimidation to achieve ideological,
political, or economic objectives by often targeting governments, institutions, or specific
ethnic or national groups to achieve goals such as independence, regime change, or social
revolution. . Their decentralized structure often makes them difficult to eliminate, as seen
with groups like al-Qaeda and ISIS.

Religious Terrorist Groups: Justify their violence through religious texts, doctrines, or
beliefs, often claiming divine sanction for their actions. They view their fight as a religious
religious duty, such as waging a holy war (jihad) or purifying society from perceived
religious corruption.

Insurgent Groups: Insurgents aim to overthrow or challenge existing governments

through armed conflict and political movements. For instance, the Taliban in
Afghanistan and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) have engaged
in prolonged insurgencies against state authority.

Organized Crime Syndicates: These groups engage in illegal activities primarily for
profit, such as drug and human trafficking, extortion, and money laundering. Notable
examples include Mexico's Sinaloa Cartel and the Italian Mafia, which operate across
borders and influence political and social landscapes.

Private Military and Security Companies (PMSCs): PMSCs provide military services to
governments and organizations, often in conflict zones. Companies like Blackwater
(now Academi) have drawn attention for their role in military operations, raising ethical
concerns about the privatization of military functions.

Cybercriminal Groups: These actors operate in the digital realm, targeting systems for
financial gain or political motives. Groups like Anonymous and DarkSide have
conducted high-profile cyberattacks, highlighting the growing threat of cybercrime.

Militias and Paramilitary Groups: Operating outside of formal state militaries, these
groups often form in response to perceived threats or serve as proxies in conflicts.
Examples include the Janjaweed in Sudan and various Libyan militias that have gained
power in the aftermath of Muammar Gaddafi's fall.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE TOPIC

The role of non-state actors (NSAs) in the Middle East has evolved significantly from the
1948 Arab-Israeli War to the present day, shaped by shifting political, social, and
geopolitical dynamics. Below is a detailed historical background covering their development
and influence from the Arab-Israeli War through to current conflicts:
1. Arab-Israeli War (1948) and Early Beginnings
The Arab-Israeli War in 1948 marked the creation of Israel and the displacement of
hundreds of thousands of Palestinians, who would become refugees. This led to the rise of
non-state actors such as the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) in the 1960s,
advocating for the Palestinian cause. The PLO, founded in 1964, became a major non-state
actor, organizing political, diplomatic, and militant resistance to Israel. It later evolved into
a recognized international body.

Key Non-State Actors (1948-1970s):

Fedayeen Militants: Small Palestinian armed groups that operated across borders, engaging
in guerrilla warfare against Israeli forces.
The PLO: Representing a broader Palestinian identity and engaging in both political and
military strategies, it gained international recognition as a legitimate actor.

2. 1960s-1970s: Rise of Political Islam and the Palestinian Struggle

The 1960s and 1970s were crucial for the ideological shifts in the Middle East, particularly
with the rise of political Islam. In this period, The Six-Day War of 1967 saw the rise of non-
state actors like the PLO gaining more prominence, while political Islamist movements, such
as the Muslim Brotherhood, began gaining influence in countries like Egypt, Syria, and
Jordan. The Brotherhood’s emphasis on political Islam introduced a powerful religious
dimension into regional conflicts.

Hezbollah was founded in the early 1980s, backed by Iran, and emerged as a Shia militant
and political force in Lebanon, opposing Israel and the Western influence in the region.

3.1970s-1980s: Iranian Revolution and Soviet-Afghan War.

The Iranian Revolution of 1979 was a watershed moment for non-state actors in the region.
The rise of the Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini empowered Shia groups like
Hezbollah and other Islamic movements across the Middle East. Iran began funding and
supporting NSAs like Hezbollah in Lebanon and other Shia militias in Iraq and Syria.

The Soviet-Afghan War (1979-1989) saw the birth of jihadist non-state actors, as Afghan
mujahideen, supported by the U.S. and Saudi Arabia, fought against Soviet forces. Many of
these fighters would later form the backbone of global jihadist groups like al-Qaeda.
 Notable NSAs in the 1970s-1980s:
Hamas: An offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood, founded in 1987 during the First Intifada,
Hamas quickly became a key player in Palestinian politics and military resistance,
contrasting with the PLO’s secular approach.
Hezbollah: Established in 1985 with Iranian support, Hezbollah has since played a critical
role in Lebanon’s politics and as a militant group fighting Israeli occupation.

4. 1990s: Oslo Accords and the Second Intifada

The 1990s saw the rise of diplomatic efforts to solve the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, with the
Oslo Accords in 1993, which gave the PLO and Palestinian Authority (PA) formal political
power. However, the failure to reach a final peace deal led to the Second Intifada (2000-
2005), where non-state actors like Hamas and Hezbollah grew in influence, as armed
resistance and suicide bombings became widespread.

5. Post-2001: War on Terror and the Growth of Jihadist Movements

After the 9/11 attacks in 2001, the U.S.-led global War on Terror deeply impacted the role of
non-state actors in the Middle East.

Al-Qaeda, founded in the late 1980s, became the world’s most infamous non-state actor,
with cells across the Middle East and North Africa.
The 2003 Iraq War destabilized the region further, leading to the rise of Sunni insurgent
groups, including al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI), which eventually evolved into the Islamic State of
Iraq and Syria (ISIS). By 2014, ISIS had become a dominant force, controlling large swathes
of Iraq and Syria.

Key Actors Post-2000:

ISIS/ISIL: The group’s capture of territory in Iraq and Syria between 2014 and 2017
challenged regional and global actors, using brutal tactics, including mass executions,
slavery, and sectarian violence.
Yemen's Houthis: A Shia insurgent group backed by Iran, the Houthis emerged as a key
player in the Yemeni Civil War after 2011.

6. Arab Spring (2011) and the Syrian Civil War

The Arab Spring of 2011 led to the downfall of autocratic regimes in Tunisia, Egypt, and
Libya, as non-state actors took on critical roles in driving revolutions.
In Syria, non-state actors became central players in the civil war that erupted after protests
against President Bashar al-Assad. Groups like the Free Syrian Army, Jabhat al-Nusra (an
al-Qaeda affiliate), and ISIS vied for control, with both regional and international actors
supporting various factions.

In Yemen, non-state actors like the Houthis and various tribal groups, alongside al-Qaeda
in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), fought in the civil war.

7. Current Era: Proxy Wars and Ongoing Conflicts

Today, non-state actors continue to dominate Middle Eastern geopolitics. Countries like
Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey use NSAs as proxies to advance their geopolitical interests:

Hezbollah remains a key player in Lebanon and Syria, with significant military and
political influence.
Shia militias in Iraq, many of which were mobilized to fight ISIS, now exert political
influence in Baghdad.
ISIS, although weakened, still poses a threat through sleeper cells and affiliate groups in
the region.
The Houthis continue to hold significant territory in Yemen and are a critical actor in
the ongoing civil war.

OTHER RELATED ISSUES

1. Weapons Proliferation to Non-State Actors

Weapons proliferation, particularly to non-state actors, represents a critical challenge to
global and regional security. The influx of weapons to non-state actors such as insurgent
groups, terrorist organizations, and militias exacerbates violence, prolongs conflicts, and
destabilizes regions. This subtopic explores how the unregulated spread of arms fuels
violence, undermines peace efforts, and creates cycles of conflict, drawing on historical and
contemporary examples. . For instance, during the Syrian Civil War, a massive influx of
weapons to various rebel groups fueled ongoing violence. According to SIPRI, global
military spending reached $1.9 trillion in 2021, with arms flowing into conflict zones in
Libya, Yemen, and Syria exacerbating these conflicts. Additionally, weapons smuggled
across porous borders by militias have allowed them to challenge state militaries,
contributing to regional instability and complicating peace processes.

2. Non-State Actors and State Sovereignty

Challenging State Authority: How non-state actors, such as separatist movements or
insurgent groups, challenge the legitimacy of state sovereignty. Groups like Hezbollah in
Lebanon and the Houthis in Yemen blur the line between state and non-state actors due to
their significant political and military influence. Hezbollah’s control over southern Lebanon
has eroded state authority, while the Houthis' control of Yemen’s capital, Sana’a,
exemplifies how non-state actors can usurp governmental power. Furthermore, foreign state
actors often sponsor these groups as proxies to advance their geopolitical interests, as seen in
Iran’s support for Hezbollah and the Houthis, challenging the sovereignty of Lebanon and
Yemen.

Proxy Wars and State Sponsorship: How non-state actors are supported or manipulated by
states for geopolitical reasons (e.g., Hezbollah and Iran, or the Taliban and Pakistan).

3. Non-State Actors in Conflict Zones

Influence in Weak States: How non-state actors emerge in fragile or failing states (e.g.,
Yemen, Libya, Syria) and their role in governance and conflict [Link]'s post-
Gaddafi power vacuum led to the rise of militias that continue to fight for control over
resources and territory. The fragmentation of Syria into zones controlled by various armed
groups highlights the diminishing control of the Assad regime over the country. These non-
state actors are often better organized and equipped than state forces, allowing them to exert
significant influence in conflict resolution or peace talks.

Humanitarian Crisis and Non-State Actors:

How NGOs and international organizations respond to humanitarian crises in war-torn
regions where non-state actors are active. In Syria, where over 13 million people have been
displaced, aid agencies have struggled to navigate access restrictions imposed by both the
Assad regime and armed rebel groups. In Yemen, the Houthi control of key regions has led to
delays and diversions of humanitarian supplies, exacerbating the humanitarian crisis.
NGOs such as Médecins Sans Frontières and the International Committee of the Red Cross
(ICRC) have highlighted how the presence of armed non-state actors complicates their
efforts to deliver aid.

Terrorism and Counterterrorism:

The rise of global jihadist groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS and international efforts to
counteract their influence. The rise of global jihadist groups like ISIS and Al-Qaeda has
reshaped the Middle East’s security landscape. ISIS, at its peak in 2015, controlled large
swathes of Iraq and Syria and drew over 40,000 foreign fighters from 80 countries.
Counterterrorism operations led by the U.S. and its allies, such as Operation Inherent
Resolve, have largely diminished ISIS's territorial control, but its remnants still pose a
threat. Al-Qaeda affiliates like AQAP in Yemen continue to exploit weak governance to
maintain operations, complicating international counterterrorism efforts.

4, Non-State Actors in Global Governance

International Organizations and NGOs: The impact of NGOs, civil society groups, and
international organizations (e.g., Amnesty International, Red Cross) on human rights,
environmental policies, and [Link] Rights Watch consistently document
abuses committed by non-state actors, highlighting violations of international law. The role
of Private Military Companies (PMCs), like Wagner Group in Libya, also underscores the
growing privatization of military force in the region, further complicating state sovereignty.
Private Military Companies (PMCs): The role of PMCs like Blackwater in conflicts and their
relationship with state military forces.
Corporate Actors: The role of multinational corporations (MNCs) in shaping economic
policies, labor rights, and sustainability efforts.

5. Human Rights and Non-State Actors

Human Rights Violations: How violent non-state actors contribute to or exacerbate
human rights violations, such as forced displacement, ethnic cleansing, and war crimes.
Groups like ISIS have committed atrocities, including genocide against the Yazidis,
while militias in Libya and Yemen have been involved in the targeting of civilians,
forced displacement, and summary executions. On the other hand, non-violent actors,
such as human rights NGOs, play a crucial role in documenting abuses and pushing for
accountability. The UN Human
Rights Council has called for investigations into war crimes in Syria and Yemen, where non-
state actors have been implicated in numerous violations.
Advocacy and Human Rights Protection: The role of non-violent non-state actors like
NGOs and international advocacy groups in monitoring and promoting human rights
standards. Transnational Crime and Security
Illicit Trade and Non-State Actors: Non-state actors involved in illegal activities like
drug trafficking, arms smuggling, and human trafficking, affecting global security.
Many non-state actors in the Middle East are involved in transnational criminal
activities, including drug trafficking, arms smuggling, and human trafficking. For
example, Hezbollah has been linked to drug trafficking networks that span from South
America to Europe, providing a key source of funding for its operations. In Yemen,
both the Houthis and AQAP have been involved in smuggling operations, exploiting the
country’s weakened borders. These illicit activities not only finance non-state actors but
also undermine regional security by fueling corruption and violence.
Cybersecurity and Non-State Actors: The rise of cyber-attacks by non-state actors such
as hacker groups (e.g., Anonymous) and the impact on global cybersecurity
frameworks.

Peacebuilding and Conflict Resolution

Role in Peace Processes: Non-state actors' participation in peace negotiations and conflict
resolution initiatives, e.g., The FARC in Colombia serves as an example of how insurgent
groups can transition from armed conflict to political dialogue. In the Middle East,
however, such transitions have been rare. The Houthis' participation in peace talks in
Yemen, supported by the UN, has so far failed to lead to a sustainable resolution. Third-
party mediation by countries like Oman and organizations like the UN has been crucial, but
the continued presence of armed non-state actors complicates the peacebuilding process.

Mediation by Third Parties: How international NGOs or religious groups serve as mediators
in regional or civil conflicts, bridging gaps between states and non-state actors.
The Role of Technology and Social Media
Recruitment and Propaganda: How violent non-state actors use social media for recruitment,
propaganda, and spreading ideology. Groups like ISIS mastered platforms like Twitter and
Telegram to spread their message and attract foreign fighters, while also using encrypted
communication to evade counterterrorism measures. Social media has also been a powerful tool
for digital activism, as seen during the Arab Spring, when grassroots movements used platforms
to organize protests and mobilize international support.
Digital Activism: The role of non-state actors, like grassroots movements and digital civil
society, in political activism and mobilizing protests (e.g., during the Arab Spring).

Legal and Ethical Frameworks

The involvement of non-state actors in armed conflict presents significant challenges to
international law, particularly in applying laws of war to groups like ISIS and Hezbollah. These
actors often control territory and provide governance, further complicating the question of their
legal status. Ethical questions also arise regarding engagement with non-state actors; for
example, some argue that negotiating with groups like the Taliban or Hezbollah is necessary for
peace, while others maintain that such actors should be excluded from political processes due to
their involvement in violence.

[Link] Law and Non-State Actors:

The challenge of applying international law to non-state actors, especially in cases of war crimes,
terrorism, and crimes against humanity.
Ethical Challenges: The ethical considerations of engaging with non-state actors, especially
when they control territories or provide essential services in the absence of the state.

Impact on Regional and Global Security

Non-state actors also contribute to terrorism, which has led to international military
interventions in Iraq, Syria, and Libya. The role of non-state actors in perpetuating conflicts like
the Syrian Civil War has profound implications for neighboring countries and the international
community at large.

Regional Stability: How non-state actors contribute to or undermine regional security in

conflict-prone areas such as the Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa.
Global Security and Non-State Actors: The broader implications of non-state actors on
global security, including their role in terrorism, refugee crises, and transnational
insurgencies.
CASE STUDIES

Libya: The Rise of Militias Post-Gaddafi

After the fall of the Gaddafi regime in 2011, Libya fragmented into regions controlled by
various militias. The collapse of state institutions and the weakening of the national army
gave space for over 1,600 militia groups, each with its own agenda. Prominent militias in
Zintan, Misrata, Tripoli, and Benghazi have contributed to Libya's internal conflict. While
initially formed to fill the security vacuum, these militias have become highly politicized,
aligning with political factions such as the General National Congress and the House of
Representatives. Attempts to integrate them into transitional.

Yemen: The Houthi Movement and Al-Qaeda

Yemen has been home to multiple non-state actors, notably the Houthi movement and Al-
Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP). The Houthis, a Shia Zaydi group, began their
rebellion in 2004, driven by grievances about economic marginalization and political
exclusion. After their takeover of the Yemeni capital Sanaa in 2014, they became a
dominant force, drawing Saudi Arabia into a military intervention to restore the Yemeni
government. This conflict, which has led to thousands of deaths and widespread famine,
reflects the complexities of non-state actor influence in weak states, where external actors
also play significant roles.

On the other hand, AQAP, active since the early 2000s, took advantage of Yemen's weak
state structure to grow its influence. AQAP initially gained international attention with the
USS Cole bombing in 2000.

Iraq: The Rise of ISIS

ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria) became the most notorious non-state actor in the
region after it seized control of vast areas in both Iraq and Syria. Rooted in Al-Qaeda in
Iraq (AQI), ISIS emerged in 2013 by taking advantage of political instability in the wake of
the US invasion of Iraq and the Syrian civil war. The group declared a "caliphate" in 2014,
controlling territory, oil fields, and imposing harsh Islamic rule.

ISIS’ dramatic rise is partly attributed to the sectarian policies of the Iraqi government
under Nouri al-Maliki, which marginalized Sunni communities, creating fertile ground for
the group’s expansion.
 Syria: The Multi-Faceted Conflict
The Syrian civil war, which began in 2011, has become one of the most complex cases of
non-state actor involvement. The initial opposition to Bashar al-Assad's regime quickly
morphed into a multi-layered conflict involving various non-state actors. These include the
Free Syrian Army (FSA), initially composed of army defectors, and several Islamist groups
such as Jabhat al-Nusra (now known as Hayat Tahrir al-Sham) and Ahrar al-Sham.

ISIS also played a major role in the Syrian conflict, controlling parts of the country and
clashing with both government forces and opposition groups. Moreover, Kurdish militias,
such as the People's Protection Units (YPG), emerged as key actors, particularly in their
fight against ISIS, backed by Western powers.

Hezbollah: The Non-State Actor as a State within a State

Hezbollah, a Shia militant group and political party based in Lebanon, has been a
significant non-state actor since its creation in the early 1980s. Supported by Iran and Syria,
Hezbollah has been involved in multiple conflicts, notably against Israel. Its sophisticated
military capabilities and political power make it one of the most formidable non-state actors
in the region, effectively operating as a state within Lebanon. Hezbollah has also intervened
in the Syrian conflict, supporting the Assad regime. This intervention has strengthened its
military experience and regional influence.

Palestine: Hamas
Hamas is a Palestinian Islamist group that governs the Gaza Strip and is considered a
significant non-state actor in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Since its formation in 1987
during the First Intifada, Hamas has clashed with Israel through several armed
confrontations. Its governance of Gaza, alongside its military wing, has been marked by
cycles of conflict with Israel, including wars in 2008-2009, 2012, 2014, and 2021.

Hamas has often been at odds with the Palestinian Authority, the internationally recognized
body governing the West Bank, which further complicates the political landscape in the
region.
UN PAST ACTIONS :

From 1948 to the present, the UN's approach toward non-state actors has evolved
significantly. Initially, the UN was more focused on traditional state actors, but over time, it
has increasingly recognized the crucial role non-state actors play in regional conflicts,
especially in the Middle East.

UNSC Resolution 181 (1947): The UN General Assembly proposed a partition plan to
create separate Arab and Jewish states. This resolution, however, faced opposition from
non-state actors such as militias and paramilitary groups, notably the Arab Liberation
Army and Haganah, a Zionist paramilitary organization.
UN Mediator for Palestine (1948): Following the outbreak of hostilities between Jewish
and Arab communities, the UN appointed Count Folke Bernadotte as its mediator.
Non-state actors, including militias, played key roles in the conflict, but Bernadotte’s
assassination by Zionist paramilitary group Lehi underscored the complexity of
engaging non-state actors.
1967 Six-Day War and Aftermath
UNSC Resolution 242 (1967): This resolution aimed to resolve the conflict by advocating
for the withdrawal of Israeli forces from occupied territories and respecting the
sovereignty of all states in the region. However, various non-state actors, such as the
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), remained outside formal negotiations,
continuing to engage in guerrilla activities.

Rise of the PLO and UN Engagement (1960s-1990s)

Recognition of the PLO: The UN General Assembly recognized the PLO as the
legitimate representative of the Palestinian people in 1974, granting it observer status.
This acknowledgment was one of the first major recognitions of a non-state actor in the
UN.
UN Security Council Resolutions 338 and 339 (1973): Following the Yom Kippur War,
these resolutions called for an immediate ceasefire and reaffirmed Resolution 242, but
guerrilla factions affiliated with the PLO continued their operations.
UN and Peace Processes: Throughout the 1990s, the UN supported peace processes,
including the Oslo Accords between Israel and the PLO, seeking to incorporate non-
state actors into formal negotiations.
Hezbollah and Lebanon Conflict (1980s-2000s)

UNIFIL Mission (1978): The United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) was
established to confirm Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon after its invasion. However,
Hezbollah, a prominent non-state actor, challenged both Israeli and UN forces, contributing
to prolonged instability in southern Lebanon.
2006 Lebanon War: After the Hezbollah-Israel war in 2006, the UN brokered Resolution
1701, which called for the disarmament of Hezbollah and the cessation of hostilities.
Nevertheless, Hezbollah remained a key player in Lebanese and regional politics.

Non-State Actors in Iraq (Post-2003)

UNAMI (United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq): After the 2003 US-led invasion,
various non-state actors, including Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) and later ISIS, emerged as major
threats. The UNAMI mission aimed to promote national reconciliation, but these groups
played a disruptive role in the post-invasion landscape.

Syria Civil War (Post-2011)

UNSC Resolution 2254 (2015): This resolution called for a ceasefire and a political solution
to the Syrian conflict, emphasizing an inclusive dialogue. Non-state actors, such as ISIS,
Jabhat al-Nusra, and other rebel groups, played key roles in shaping the conflict,
complicating UN mediation efforts.

Libya (2011-Present)

UNSC Resolution 1973 (2011): The UN authorized a no-fly zone over Libya to protect
civilians from the Gaddafi regime. However, after the regime’s fall, Libya saw the rise of
various militias and non-state actors, including Islamic militant groups. The UN has
attempted to mediate through the UN Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL), although
armed non-state actors have continued to dominate the political landscape.
Yemen Conflict (Post-2014)

UN and Houthi Rebels: The UN has engaged with Houthi rebels, a key non-state actor in
the Yemeni civil war, through numerous mediation efforts. UNSC Resolution 2216 (2015)
sought to restore the Hadi government and urged the Houthis to withdraw from Sanaa.
However, the Houthis, with backing from Iran, have remained a potent force, complicating
peace efforts.

ISIS and Global Terrorism

UNSC Resolutions 2170 and 2178 (2014): In response to the rise of ISIS and its expansion
across Iraq and Syria, these resolutions sought to address the threat posed by terrorist non-
state actors. The UN worked to curb foreign fighters joining ISIS and imposed sanctions on
those involved in financing or supporting terrorist groups.

Broader UN Efforts on Non-State Actors and Armed Groups

UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC): The UN has engaged non-state actors involved
in arms trafficking, drug trade, and organized crime, seeking to reduce their influence
through international cooperation and law enforcement.
Counter-Terrorism Initiatives: The UN has developed global counter-terrorism strategies,
targeting non-state actors like Al-Qaeda, ISIS, and their affiliates. These efforts include
sanctions, travel bans, and the freezing of assets.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Resolution 2396 (2017): Addressed the return of FTFs and encouraged states to adopt
measures for identification and prevention.
Mediation: Countries like the UK and France pushed for comprehensive strategies,
balancing military and socio-economic approaches.
The ongoing Syrian conflict has seen significant involvement from non-state actors,
including ISIS and various rebel groups. The UNSC condemned these actors for their
human rights abuses and called for peace negotiations. The U.S. supported Kurdish forces,
while Russia provided military backing to Assad, demonstrating contrasting priorities
among permanent members.
 Weapons Proliferation
Resolution 2370 (2017): Focused on preventing the supply of arms to non-state actors,
particularly in conflict zones like Yemen and Syria. The resolution stressed the need for
stringent controls to combat illicit arms trade.
The U.S. advocated for strong sanctions on Iran for its support of groups like the Houthis,
while Russia and China promoted diplomatic measures alongside military actions.

Cybersecurity Threats
Resolution 2341 (2017): Recognized cyberattacks from non-state actors as a significant
threat and called for enhanced protections for critical infrastructure.
Russia and China have engaged in cooperative dialogues despite their contentious
relationships with the West.

Conflict in Yemen
The Yemeni civil war features non-state actors like the Houthis, leading to multiple UNSC
resolutions, including Resolution 2216 (2015), which imposed sanctions on Houthi leaders.
Mediation: The U.S. and Saudi Arabia have supported the Yemeni government, while Iran
has been implicated in supporting the Houthis, highlighting a complex geopolitical struggle.

Libya and the Sahel

Resolution 2323 (2016): Extended the UN Support Mission in Libya, emphasizing
disarmament of militias. Resolution 2359 (2017) supported the G5 Sahel Joint Force against
non-state actors like Boko Haram.
Mediation: France has been central to military interventions, with U.S. backing, while
Russia has advocated for African-led solutions.
Counter-Terrorism: UNSC and UN initiatives have intensified efforts to curb non-state
actors involved in terrorism. This includes supporting the work of the Investigative Team
for Daesh Accountability (UNITAD), which reports on crimes committed by groups like
ISIS/Daesh. Nations have also strengthened their export control regimes to prevent the
transfer of dangerous technologies and weapons to non-state actors

Multinational Responses to Organized Crime: In response to the growing

influence of non-state actors like gangs and insurgent militias, especially in
unstable regions like Haiti, the UNSC approved a multinational police mission in
October 2023. This aims to restore order where non-state actors control critical
infrastructure like ports and roads​.
MAJOR STAKEHOLDERS

THE VETO POWERS

The five permanent members of the UN Security Council (P5)—the United States, Russia,
China, France, and the United Kingdom—have varying perspectives on the role of non-
state actors in the Middle East. Their approaches are influenced by geopolitical interests,
historical alliances, and specific conflicts in the region.

1. United States
The U.S. views non-state actors, particularly terrorist organizations like ISIS and Al-Qaeda,
as significant threats to regional and global security. The U.S. has been active in military
operations to combat these groups and has imposed sanctions on countries perceived to
support them, such as Iran and Syria. The U.S. has allocated over $15 billion for
counterterrorism efforts since 2015, focusing on training and equipping local forces,
particularly in Iraq and Syria .

2. Russia
Russia often supports non-state actors that align with its geopolitical interests, particularly
in Syria, where it backs the Assad regime against various rebel groups. Moscow emphasizes
the need for a political solution while criticizing U.S. interventions as destabilizing.
Since its military intervention in Syria in 2015, Russia has conducted thousands of airstrikes
against opposition forces, including non-state actors, reinforcing its influence in the region.

3. China
China takes a more cautious approach, advocating for sovereignty and non-interference. It
primarily focuses on countering terrorism as a security threat but avoids deep military
engagements. China's engagement is more economic, promoting development to counter
radicalization. China has pledged over $60 billion in investments in the Middle East under
its Belt and Road Initiative, which indirectly aims to stabilize the region and reduce the
influence of non-state actors .
4. France
France actively combats terrorism and supports various coalitions against non-state actors,
especially in Africa and the Middle East. It has been involved in military interventions,
viewing the rise of groups like ISIS as a direct threat to European security.
France has conducted over 3,000 airstrikes against ISIS since 2014 and has deployed
thousands of troops to counter terrorism in the Sahel region .

5. United Kingdom
The UK adopts a similar approach to the U.S. regarding counter-terrorism, focusing on
disrupting and defeating non-state actors through military and intelligence operations. It
emphasizes the need for comprehensive strategies that address underlying issues.
The UK has invested approximately £1 billion in counter-terrorism efforts since 2015,
including training local forces and providing humanitarian assistance in conflict zones .

6. EUROPEAN UNION
The EU emphasizes a comprehensive approach to addressing the challenges posed by non-
state actors, particularly focusing on counter-terrorism, conflict prevention, and the
promotion of human rights. It seeks to enhance regional stability through diplomatic
engagement, development assistance, and support for local governance. he EU has actively
participated in peace processes in the Middle East, notably the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,
and has supported diplomatic efforts to resolve the Syrian civil war. It advocates for a
political solution that includes all relevant actors, including non-state actors, in negotiations.
In recent years, the EU has allocated over €1.2 billion for stabilization and development
programs in conflict-affected regions, aiming to counter the influence of non-state actors
through socio-economic development and governance reforms .

7. ORGANISATION OF ISLAMIC COOPERATION

The OIC views non-state actors through the lens of Islamic solidarity and regional stability.
It condemns terrorism and violent extremism, regardless of the perpetrators' affiliations,
while emphasizing the need for dialogue and peaceful resolution of conflicts. The OIC has
established various initiatives to combat terrorism, including the establishment of the OIC’s
Independent Permanent Human Rights Commission, which addresses the root causes of
radicalization and extremism. The OIC's member states have pledged over $70 million to
support humanitarian efforts and reconstruction in war-torn areas, particularly in Syria and
Yemen .
8. ARAB LEAGUE
The Arab League focuses on collective security and regional stability, viewing non-state
actors as both a challenge and a potential partner in certain contexts. It recognizes that
many non-state actors operate within a complex framework of local grievances and
international dynamics. The League advocates for political dialogue as a means to resolve
conflicts involving non-state actors, such as in Libya and Syria. It seeks to include non-state
actors in dialogues about governance and stability, recognizing their influence in shaping
local dynamics.
In 2022, the Arab League launched the “Arab Strategy for Combating Terrorism” aimed at
enhancing cooperation among member states, focusing on intelligence sharing, and
addressing the socio-economic conditions that foster extremism .

ONGOING SITUATION :

The ongoing situation regarding non-state actors in the Middle East is characterized by a
complex interplay of various groups, shifting alliances, and the evolving geopolitical
landscape, which continues to impact regional stability and security.
Key developments include:

Rise of Non-State Militias: Following the withdrawal of U.S. troops from

Afghanistan in 2021, there has been heightened concern over the resurgence of
non-state militias, particularly in Iraq and Syria. Various groups, including Iran-
backed Shia militias, have gained influence and are often involved in conflicts
that threaten both local and regional stability. These militias operate
independently of the state, complicating the governance landscape and often
clashing with established governmental forces .

Continued Conflict in Syria: In Syria, the conflict remains fragmented with

multiple non-state actors vying for control. Groups like the Syrian Democratic
Forces (SDF) continue to fight against ISIS remnants and the Assad regime,
while other factions, including various Islamist groups, operate independently.
The absence of a unified opposition allows these actors to persist and adapt their
strategies based on changing dynamics .
 Humanitarian Crises and Terrorism: The humanitarian crisis continues to be
exacerbated by the presence of non-state actors. In Yemen, the Houthi
movement has significantly impacted the conflict's trajectory, drawing
international condemnation for its actions against civilians and its role in
prolonging the humanitarian crisis. Similarly, groups like ISIS have re-emerged,
exploiting governance vacuums to launch attacks, particularly in Iraq .

International Responses: Global responses to these non-state actors have been

varied, with countries like the U.S. and Russia engaging in complex geopolitical
maneuvers to counter their influence. The U.S. continues to support certain
factions in Syria and Iraq, while Russia backs the Assad regime, demonstrating
how international powers leverage non-state actors to achieve their objectives .
The European Union and the UN have also been involved in humanitarian aid
efforts and diplomatic initiatives aimed at stabilizing the region .

Shifting Alliances and Regional Tensions: The relationships between non-state

actors are often fluid, with groups forming alliances based on immediate strategic
interests. This fluidity can lead to unexpected conflicts or cooperation, as seen in
the relationships between Kurdish forces and both U.S. and Russian interests in
the region. Tensions between Iran and Gulf states, particularly Saudi Arabia,
have further complicated these dynamics, as Iranian-backed groups operate in
various countries, challenging the authority of local governments.

The ongoing situation regarding non-state actors in the Middle East is marked by enduring
conflicts, humanitarian crises, and complex geopolitical interactions. The international
community continues to grapple with the challenges posed by these groups, seeking to
balance military responses with humanitarian needs and long-term stability efforts. For
more detailed insights, you can refer to sources such as the Middle East Institute and the
International Crisis Group.
Q.A.R.M.A ( QUESTIONS A RESOLUTION MUST ANSWER)

[Link] can the UNSC effectively address the proliferation of arms to non-state actors in
conflict zones within the Middle East?

[Link] strategies can the UNSC implement to reduce the financial resources and external
support that non-state actors receive from state and non-state sponsors?

[Link] role should regional organizations (like the Arab League, OIC) and neighboring
states play in mitigating the influence of non-state actors within their respective regions?

[Link] can the UNSC enhance counter-terrorism operations without infringing on human
rights and ensuring that peacekeeping missions do not inadvertently empower non-state
actors?

[Link] should the international community respond to non-state actors involved in

governance or provision of services in areas they control (such as in Yemen, Syria, or Iraq)?

[Link] frameworks can be established to encourage disarmament, demobilization, and

reintegration (DDR) of combatants from non-state armed groups in post-conflict settings?

[Link] can the UNSC ensure that countering non-state actors does not exacerbate sectarian,
ethnic, or regional divides, particularly in fragile states like Iraq, Syria, and Libya?

[Link] can the UNSC promote stronger state institutions in the Middle East to reduce the
governance vacuum that non-state actors exploit?

[Link] diplomatic steps should be taken to engage non-state actors in peace processes while
balancing international legal norms, such as the prohibition against negotiating with
terrorist organizations?

[Link] should the UNSC address the involvement of major powers, including veto-
wielding members, in supporting or opposing non-state actors in Middle Eastern conflicts?
BIBLIOGRAPHY \ REFERENCES:

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