10.4.

2 Feasibility Study
upon the results of the preliminary survey the next step is
Depending
It is of proposal for its workability,
a detailed feasibility study. a test a system
and effective of
organization, ability to meet user needs,
use
impact on the
are as follows.
resources. The major questions addressed in this study
them?
1. What are the user's needs and how does a system meet

What the resources available for the proposed system?

2. are

the organization?
3 What are the likely impacts of the new system on

The above questions must be answered carefully. This can be done by

investigation and evaluation of the problem, identification and description
costs of
of the systems under consideration, specification of performance and
each system and finally selecting the best system. The feasibility study is to

In this stage the costs and benefits are estimated

acquire a scope ot the system.
with greater accuracy.

Feasibility study 1s a test of a system proposal according to its

meet uscer necds and
workabiy mpact on the organi72ton, abtity to
[Link] use ofresourccS

293
 After the feasibility study, a report called feasibility study report
will be submitted to the management for consideration. In this report, the

nature and scope of the proposed solution will be given in detail. The

following are the contents of this report.

1. Statement of the problem.
2. Summary of findings and recommendations.
3. Details of findings.
4. Recommendations and conclusions.
The above report will be reviewed by the management. This stage1s
a crucial one in the life cycle because the rest of the cycle depends on the

decision of the manage ment. Some projects die here whereas some are
mplemented. Changes proposed by the management are considered before
going to the next stage, namely analysis. There are three aspects in the

feasibility study.
(i) Technical Feasibility
Technical feasibility is concerned with the
existing computer system
(hardware, software etc.) and to what extent it can support the proposed
addition. For example, if particular software will work
only in a computer
with a higher configuration, additional hardware is
required. This involves
financial considerations and if the budget is serious
a
constraint, then the
proposal will be considered not feasible.

(ii) Operational Feasibility

This concerns mainly the human, organizational and political aspects.
Since computers have been known to facilitate
change, there will be resistance
on the part of
existing employees. An estimate should be made of how strong
a reaction the user staff is
likely to have towards the implementation of the
new system. So a sincere effort must be made to
educate the staff, sell the
new system to them
(ie. convince them about ts advantages) and train them
in it.
 ii) Economical Feasibility
Economic analysis is frequently used to evaluate the effectiveness of a
new system. It determines whether it is worthwhile to invest the money in
the new project or not. To ensure that the benefits of the new projects
outweigh the cost, a Cost Benefit Analysis is carried out. In cost-benefit
analysis, various benefits and costs involved are considered, calculated and
compared. If the benefits outweigh the cost, the project is considered
economically feasible, otherwise not.

10.4.3 Investigation and Fact Recording. Anayeis rehniqus

Systee Analysis tech niques
After the system is approved, the next stage is a careful assessment
of the needs that the new system isfulfill. For this,j the system
expected to

development steam collects information on the problem environment, and

then analyzes this information to determine what features the new system
should include. The study of the structure and processes of an
organization,
to ensure users needs, starts with data
collection, which is carried out by
investigating and recording facts. Fact recording means collécting
information as much as possible about the present
system. The common
fact recording methods are discussed below.

I. Interviews
Interview is one of the most valuable and versatile methods available
to the analyst for learning about the existing system. It provides valuable
information about policies, procedures and situations that are not clear from
written documents. However, to make an interview a successful one, the
following guidelines should be followed.
(a) Choose the right person(s) to interview. It will not be beneficial to ask
the right questions the wrong people. For example, to know about
to
the
policies of a company, a senior employee would be the right
person.
(b) If necessary, get an authorization from the
management to conduct the
interview. This will help in getting the
co-operation of the employees.
(c) Decide well in advance what the interview must
the person to be interviewed and
accomplish.
Contacting
letting him/her know about the purpose
and objectives of the interview well in advance will
help in getting better
answers.
05
(d) The points to be covered and a list of relevant questions to be
must be prepared. This will help to keep the interview to the poinaskea
Some cases, this list can be given to the interviewee so that
point. In
he/ sh
subjects covered in the interview.
could prepare about the

(e) Conduct the interview in a manner which helps to ensure

that hthe
objectives The interview should be conducted preferably a
are met.
the place of the interviewee. But interruptions should be kept to
to a
minimum or eliminated altogether, to make the interview continuous

After the interview, prepare a report of what was said as soon as

(f)
possible. This may be made available to the interviewee to make any

corrections or clarifications

II. Questionnaires
In situations in which it is not possible to interview all the concerned
persons, questionnaires can be used for collecting facts and opinions. But
they might not be as effective as direct interviewing. The following points
be kept in mind while
must
questionnaires are being designed.
(a) Questions should be clear and unambiguous. Negative questions must
be avoided
(6) Only questions that are relevant, should be included.
(c) Questionnaire must be brief and self
explanatory.
(d) Controversial questions must be avoided.
(c) Questions should not be framed in such a
way to
get expected answers.
Compared to
interview, questionnaire is
similar data from economical way to get
an
a
large number of people.
feel greater confidence in the Simultaneously, the respondents
interview. However the data
anonymity of questionnaire than
a
in that of an
is limited
asked. Since there is no
to direct responses to the questions
interaction with the person
raised cannot be clarified or follow asking questions, points
in framing good
a and
up questions cannot be asked. Difficulty
effective questionnaire is
method. another disadvantage of this
III. On-Site Observation

On-site observation is the

process of
ww
296 recognizing and noting people,
 Copute Science Std XTL
objects and occurrences to obtain intor mation. First hand dar
of on-site observation is to oa.
obtained this way. The major objective as
studied. It enables an analvu
close as possible to the "real" system being to

obtained from interviews or questionnaires is

verify whether the data
he/she From this can be determined which
consistent with what
sees.

also be checked whether

give reliable informatíon. It c a n
employee will documentation.
followed as given in the system
procedures a r e being
this method has s o m e disadvantages. Since people perform
However,
the data obtained may not bea
observed,
differently when they are being is that the analyst
of the normal situation. Another disadvantage
true reflection
observe the operations. This may be
in order to
must be physically present
for example, the
inconvenient if the procedure to be observed takes place on,

night shift.

IV. Sampling8
transactions is large, it may n o t be possible to
Where the volume of
conclusion. At this stage, a
of documents to arrive at a
study the entire set

example, to get the average number

random sample of data will be taken. For
n o t necessary to
take the entire transaction.
of customer transaction, it is
random during the year would
Instead the transactíons on a set of days at

However the sample data should be selected

give a sufficiently reasonable data
that it would be representative of the total picture.
carefully so

10.4.5 Systems Analysis

have been obtained,
concerning the current system
After all the facts
manner so that they be analyzed.
can
they are organized in some systematic
of the life cycle is to define user's needs
The goal of the analysis phase
completely and accurately in a requirement document. The emphasis of this
what be done for the new system to be considered a
document is on must

It is written in non-technical terms so that both the users and

success. usually
understand it. For instanae, the user must be able to read the
analysts can

document and determine if the proposed system will satisfy his/her

requirement. On the other hand, the analyst must be able to use the
document as the basis for the technical design of the new system.

297
 Systems Analyst
P M e h a n 1 9 7

A systems analyst is a person who is responsible for the analysis,

J n e a l a c h- 1 7 1
design and implementation of
a business system on the computer. So we
need someone who is good at problem solving, who knows about business
operations, and who has a strong background in relevant areas of computer
Science. In order to be successful, a systems analyst must possess the following
Roles Sstew attributes.

Analyst (1) Communication skills. Effective communication is important to the

success of any system. So the
analyst be able communicate
oStudy Rals clearly and
concisely, both in
writing and in speech.
must to

(2) Problem solving skills. Systems are developed to solve

Design Buuldinq an
analyst must have wide experience in
problems. So
s te solving problems.
(3) Business knowle dge . It is important for the
analyst to completely
understand the business environment for which the
AnalupisExuing developed.
system is beng

Sugrew (4) Technical knowledge. Analysts should be well trained in relevant areas
of Computer Science.
Acnclegical
Updtes Tools of Analysis lps he sys. analyst to
docum ent he seste
The 5peciiCeuti on fasystem to be bult.
following tools commonly used to make the process of
are

easier. analysis
(1) Data Flow Diagram. A data flow diagram (DFD) is used to model
the flow and transfor mation of data through the system. It
the
also shows
relationship
between the data and external entities such as
people
and organizations outside the system. A DFD is
constructed from four
basic symbols. They are
6) arrows
[to represent data flow]

ii) circles
O to represent a
process]
(1i) open ended boxes
[to represent a data
store]

(iv) Rectangles to represent an

entity]

A Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is a graplhical representation of data

movement, processes, and iles used in support of an information
System

(2) Data dictionary. A data dictionary contains the names of all the data
items used in the system, together with exact and complete definitions.
This is essential if terms are to be used consistently and unambiguously
by the various people who deal with the system. For example, suppose
the data flow diagram contains a data flow 'address'. This term does
not tell us precisely what constitutes the data flow. But these details
cannot be included in the DFD. So this can be entered in a data

dictionary under 'address' as follows.

Address house number+

Street+

City+
State+

Pin code.
This definition becomes a part of the data dictionary that will list all
key terms used to describe various data flows and files. This dictionary is
useful to analysts, programmers, and system users to access details on data
elements.

A data dictionary containsthe namesof allthedataitems used in

the system, together with exact and complete definitions

(3) Structured English (pseudo code)

The details of a given process can be specified using Structured English
easily understood manner. It consists of strictly worded formal English
200ws
 rules o r describing the
statements used for communicating processing
the order in which
It can also be used to specity
structure of a system.
when index marks are
certain operations are performed. For example,
fields like NCOC,
calculated, bonus marks are given according to the data in
follows.
NSS, Scouts, etc. This can be specified as

IF NCC is "Y" THEN

bonus is 15

ENDIF
IF Scout is "Y" THEN

bonus is 10

ENDIF

Structured English(Pseudo code) consistsof strictlyworded

formal English statements used for communicating Sing rules or
describing the structure ot a system

(4) Decision table. A decision table is a chart listing all the logical
conditions and actions. It consists of three parts.
(a) conditions;
(b) actions;
(c) rules.

The condition part displays the necessary tests and conditions.

In the
above example, the conditions are IF NCC is "Y" and IF Scout is "Y*.
The actionm part displays all processes desired in a
given module. The
actions in the above example are "bonus is 15' and 'bonus is 10.

We obtain a ule when we associate one or more actions with a given

combination of conditions. All the permutations of Yes and No responses
related to a condition are entered in columns under rules.

A decision table is a chart listing all the logical conditions and

action
 *******

Becision Tree

Another way of presenting a confusing situation in a clear,

concise,
and unambiguous manner is using a decision tree. In some situation, a
decision tree may give information more readily than a decision table. It is
a tree like diagram that relates conditions and actions sequentially

A Decision tree is a graphicrepresentation of condiions andi

outcomes resembling the branches of tre
o r Chopb 16
10.4.6 Systems Design
Pntamueh - fage 7I of the life
This phase is the most creative and challenging phase
is
In this the final system is designed.|First of all, the output
cycle. stage
in what format.
how output is to be produced and
designed by specifying of
files designed to meet the requirements
Secondly, the input data and
are

involves program
the output. Next is the processing design which
and expected
construction and testing. Finally,
the details of the entire design
a r e reviewed and
evaluated by the
o n users and the organization
impact 10.5.
has been discussed in detail under section
management This topic
Implementation, Installation,
Operation and Maintenance
10.4.7

They consist of coding, testing, site

These are post design phases.
and maintenance. Once the
installation, user training, operation
preparation,
maintenance begins. Both
implemented and installed, evaluation and
system is
in tune with the
hardware and software require periodic changes to keep
the
design specifications.
have been discussed in details under section 10.6 and
These phases
10.7.
10.5 Systems Design
The systems design process is to achieve objectives like practicability,

cfficiency, minimized cost, flexibility, and security of the system. It involves,

first, logical design physical construction of the system. The logical
and then,
structure and characteristics of output, input, files,
design specifies the
databases and procedures.
The physical
design involves the construction of
actual program files and a working system. The design of a computerized
301
 Computerki
areas. They ure

divided into four main

can be
information system

1. output design;

2 input design
3. files design;
design.
system processing and general program

10.5.1 Output Design

1o users.
Output is a must for communicating the results of procesng
A system is judged to be a success o r failure depending upon w hether its
useful So it is important that we first specify what is
products are or not.

required from a system. After that, the requirements to produce this output
are to be specified. This can be achieved only through close discussions
between the analyst and the user.
The medium of output is to be selected according to the need. Video
display be used for temporary output. Printouts can be taken ik she
can
output
is to be stored permanently) For
storing files, magnetic disk or tape can be
used. Microfilms are used if the amount of data is
usage, quality and cost must also be considered.
very like large.(Factors
Output can be divided into
two
groups, internal and external, according to
to the use
usage.) Internal usage reters
by employees within the organization whereas
exterual usage is
intended for the public. In internal
copies, formatting, print qualty,
quality etc. are not paper
important. But, since external documents detes mine the
public image of a
company, they must be attractive and
manner.
presented in a useful

10.5.2 Input Design

Once the outputs have been decided

upon, the next step is to find
out what
inputs are needed to produce these
outputs. For this the sources
of data must be identified
first. The next step is to find
the way to collect
these data (data capture). Then the
cotlected data are t o be couverted into
machine readable form (data
entry). Finally these data are to be sent to the
memory for processing with the help of a computer program (data input).
The reliability of the output-
produeed by a
system depends largely
on the degree of accuracy of the data
entering the system. So, much effort
has to be made to reduce the possibility of errors at this stage. This can be
achieved by reducing the human intervention. For this, OMR (Optical Mark
Reader) sheets, Magnetic Ink Character Readers (MICR), Bar codes etc.
can be used.)In some cases, the data capture, data entry and data input can
be combined to reduce errors at each stage.

10.5.3 File Design

After the outputs and inputs have been designed, the analyst must
decide the method of storing and accessing the data. This is called file design.
The above two problems are related. If the storage medium is magnetic tape,
then data must be arranged sequentially. However, if disk storage is available,
sequential or direct access can be chosen. In file design the following terms
are used.

Field: A field is the smallest unit of data. Each field is identified by a name
and is assigned a value. Example: Name, Date of birth, Admission
number etc.

Record: The collection of related fields is called a record. Example: The

information about a student.

File: A file is a collection of related records. Example: The students' details

of a class.
In a file, it is necessary to distinguish a specific record from another
one. For this a field called kg is used. So a particular record can be
distinguished by specifying a key. In a student record, the admission number
may be a key whereas in a bank record, the key will be an account number.

Accessing Records. Three access methods are adopted. They are Serial
access, Sequential access and Direct acces.

Serial Access: In serial access, records are accessed in the order in which
they were stored.

Sequential access. Here the records are accessed in ascending (or

descending) key sequence.

Direct access. In this method, records are accessed directly irrespective
of the order in which they are stored.
202
 Computer ScienceStd XIL ere **************
****
roced wie Driqn
and general program design
10.5.4 System processing
and files, the analyst must decide
After designing the outputs, inputs
the various parts of the system interact with each other to produce
will
how
from the inputs, using files. Here, what data to edit or
thedesired outputs
etc. are to be decided. The
sort, what files to update, how to perform update

people and programs. The

processing of data through the system is via
required for the system must be determined. For each
computer progranms
program, the purpose, inputs and outputs are to be specified. The relationship
between programs should also be specified. For specifying systems processing,
a tool called systems flowchart is used. In this, standard symbols are used to
represent input, output and processing of files.

10.6 Implementation [Link] - Choptn 18

After the system has been designed physically in detail, the next
stage is to transfer the system into a working one. Implementation is the
stage of a project during which the design of a system is coded, tested,
debugged and made operational. So it is the most crucial stage in achieving
a successful new system and in giving the users confidence that the new
system will work and be effective.
The following are the major activities that constitute the
implementation stage.
(1) Develop detailed programming specifications.

In this activity the internal logic of the various modules such as

algorithms, special techniques etc. are developed.

(2) Develop test specification and test data.

The decides how progtam testing should be done, for instance,

analyst
which module should be tested first. The specific areas where testing
should be especially stringent must also be pointed out.

(3) Write computer programs,

An appropriate programming language is selected for writing programs
according to the type of processing involved.
(4) Test computer programs.
This activity determines whether the system is producing the results
1t was designed to produce. Errors in design and logic will be shown
here. Programs are individually tested using the test data produced in

activity (2).
(5) User training.
While computer programs are being developed and tested, the analyst
with the procedures to be used in the
will start familiarizing the users

must be trained to enter data

new system. The data entry opérators
manua
from the source documents and to correct errors. For this,
a user

describing the procedures to be followed in detail should be developed

and made available to the users.

(6) System testing

After the computer programs have been written and tested, and users
have been trained to use the system, a full system test can take place.
All aspects of the system are tested, from preparation of source document
to the distribution of output.

(7) File conversion

File conversion is the process of converting data from the old system
into the format needed by the new system.]

Change to the new system

(8) over

A new system has been developed to improve the efficiency of the

compan y operations by replacing an cxIsting system. But the transition

rom old to new Is not always an Casy process. There

may be resistance
employees. So the analysts must take care to make
of the
sure
input and interaction. The change over can
user be in any of
the
following ways.
Direct changeover: Here the old' system is
discontinued and the new
system takes
over o n a particular date.

Partial changeover: In this methoa, tne new

system is
by-piece.
introduced piece
e 305
 conputer Science SdxI
Parallel running: This means processing current data by both the old
and new systems to cross check the results.

Sustem 1esfing. 10.7 System Validation and Maintenance

t Valuali he System Validation
tcmplett Sctew The last phase of the development process is the review of the system.
Check 4e Sstns This is done to verify whether the system has met the objectives set for it.
This will comprise of a comparison of actual costs and benefits against the
Complian u agaunsf
Spccatecd Raus a l original estimates, a review of how wellthe system is performing generally
Speaec Requalat)and an examination of documentation, control, and security procedures.
lnt 1eshing- Maintenance
esking ea?u This stage is the updating and correction of the program. Proper testing
me dte 1 at a lume and documentation can reduce the maintenance. Maintenance can be classified
into three categories.
ngralueu lestng- Corrective maintenance means Tepairing processing or pertormance
1eshetembi nahen failures because of previously ill-defined problems.
modults athng Adaptive maintenance means changing the program functions as aud
when a need arises to correct a problem, or upgrading the performance of
In Concut
the system.
lsablt Teeding.
Perfective maintenance means énhancing the performance according
(1thu quall to the user's additional changing needs.

wes expine KEY POINTS

huu nliacting
A system is an orderly grouping of inter dependent components linked
together according to a plan to achieve a specific objective.
tanu Tea hin
Systems are of rwo types -

Open Systems and Closed Systems.

D ne uihu
The cycle consisting of a of
Hu sm r e -
set
development activities in a
prescribed
order is called a systems
toums etiqinaf development life cycle.
businc cbject ue Systems development life cycle consists of preliminary
study/survey,
feasibility study, invest igation and fact recording,
analysis, design,
implementation, 1nstallation, operation and mintenance.