Chapter 3.

Biomes and Ecosystems

By Tina Salata

"Here is your country. Cherish these natural wonders, cherish the

natural resources, cherish the history and romance as a sacred
heritage, for your children and your children's children. Do not let
selfish men or greedy interests skin your country of its beauty, its
riches or its romance." —Theodore Roosevelt

Learning Objectives
Classify the different regions of the biosphere, which includes the Earth’s
crust, waters, and atmosphere inhabited by living organisms.
Identify how populations have limits to growth based on a population’s
carrying capacity.
Describe the interactions of living things with each other and the
nonliving components around them.
Describe how energy is required for life.
Explain how and why decreased genetic diversity can be detrimental to a
species.

Questions Students May Have

1. What is the difference between biotic and abiotic?
2. What is a species with regard to the biological concept?
3. What is the theory of evolution?

Populations
Populations are only one level of life and a source of variety on the planet. Ecology is
the study of the interactions between populations of organisms and their
environments; it is studied at the individual, community, and ecosystem level. The
population of an organism can vary depending on interactions with other organisms
and nonliving items in the environment.

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Levels of Life (Cell to Biomes)
In science there are living and nonliving components. Living things are described as
biotic from bio, meaning life. To be categorized as a living organism, there are some
generally agreed upon requirements:
Life is organized.
A living organism can adapt to changes in the environment or a changing
environment.
It can regulate a metabolism (obtaining nutrients/resources to survive)
and internal environment to maintain homeostasis (e.g., energy
regulation to salt concentrations).
It can grow.
It is capable of reproducing. The species can change over time
(Periyasamy, Gray, & Kille, 2013).
A single bacterial cell and an elephant can be classified as biotic as they both meet
these criteria.
Abiotic is the term used to describe nonliving components of the ecosystem.
Something that is not living can have some of these characteristics: a crystal can grow
in size, but it does not have the ability to acquire a source of nutrition or energy.
Examples of nonliving components include climate, fire, rain, wind, and soil. Habitat
describes where organisms live (like a home). Habitat includes biotic components like
vegetation as well as abiotic components like topography (e.g., mountains, lakes, type
and amount of soil).
At the microscopic level, organisms can be unicellular, like bacteria, or multicellular,
like humans. The cell is the basic unit of life and all living things are either comprised
of cells or consist of one cell. The microscopic levels of life include different types of
cells. The smallest level of life consists of only one cell. A cell is considered living
because it has specific functions that are organized, it responds to environmental
changes, it can use membranes to alter the internal environment, it can divide to
reproduce, and mutations or errors in reproduction can create changes in the cell’s
genetic code. It has been debated as to whether viruses are considered living
organisms since the virus is defined by some as having a living part, while the virion (a
virus particle) that spreads the virus is nonliving. Early studies found that virions lack
metabolism, and these early observations led to viruses being categorized as abiotic
(Forterre, 2010). Viruses are acellular, so by definition, they are not considered living.
They have genetic material and a protein coat but cannot reproduce without a host.

Questions Students May Have

What is the difference between biotic and abiotic?

Biotic refers to living components of the environment, while abiotic refers to
nonliving components of the environment. For example, an apple tree in bloom

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 is living, while the decomposed apple in the compost is not living, or abiotic.

A grouping of the same species is called a population. To be defined as a single

species from a biological perspective, there are pre- and post-fertilization barriers
that separate species (Coyne & Orr, 2004; Meffe & Carroll, 1997). Some pre-
fertilization limitations include geographic barriers where the species would not come
in contact with each other (such as those found on different continents), a lack of
sexual attraction, or different mating seasons. Post-fertilization barriers include
creating hybrids, which are offspring that are unable to survive to adulthood or
offspring that are unable to reproduce viable young descendants such as a hinny or
mule (offspring of a horse and donkey) (“Mule, in Zoology," 2013). Hybrids typically do
not occur under natural conditions. For example, tigers and lions are found on
separate continents, but in zoos there is potential for them to breed, thus creating
hybrids called ligers and tigons (Wilson, 2010).
The concept of biological species resolves around reproductive isolation mechanisms.
These isolation mechanisms are the only way to define a subspecies from the
biological species. Alternatives include looking at the similarity of different traits to
classify into groups from kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
Traits and/or genetic similarity are the basis for these groupings (Meffe & Carroll,
1997). When there are subspecies, either of these definitions can be debated.
Subspecies seem to have the potential to become a separate species, but they can
still interbreed (Wilson, 2010). For example, there are subspecies of giraffes that
naturally do not breed with each other and have a different spot pattern, but in a
captive population they will interbreed and produce offspring that can reproduce.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of these subspecies of giraffes seems to show distinct
differences, but within the scientific community it is still debated (Beheregaray &
Caccone, 2007; Chan, Halachev, Loman, Constantinidoe, & Pallen, 2012).
Even without the concern of species and subspecies, “86 percent of land species and
91 percent of marine species are still out there waiting for names. At the present rate,
it would take more than 1,000 years to catalog them all” (Bakalar, 2014, para. 8).
Species are the most specific grouping of organisms. Those that share similar traits
have the same genus. Because there can be a variety of common names for the same
species, the scientific names of species includes the genus and species. For example,
the mountain lion's scientific name is Puma concolor since it is called a panther or a
cougar in other locations. Puma concolor is in the cat family (Felidae), the order of the
carnivores (Carnivore), the class of mammals (mammalia), the phylum of animals with
a spine (Chordata), and the animal kingdom (Animalia).

Questions Students May Have

What is a species with regard to the biological concept?

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 A group of reproductively isolated organisms that can reproduce and yield fertile
offspring.

A community occurs when multiple species coexist in the same geographic place. This
includes the interactions of multiple species like a prairie dog creating homes for
snakes or ferrets, while at the same time being a food source for some of the species
it has created a home for (Cully et al., 2010). Sometimes these relationships are
beneficial (may impact one or both species) and at other times they can be harmful to
the individual at the organism level but benefit the population level. These
ramifications are further discussed later in this chapter.
An ecosystem is a community with abiotic components. Ecosystems are subdivided
into terrestrial (on land) ecosystems, such as forests, grasslands, and deserts, or
aquatic (in the water) ecosystems, such as fresh and marine systems (i.e., salt water).
The process of plant communities changing over time in ecosystems is called
succession (described further in Chapter 7). The ecosystem can react to these
changes in one of three ways. Fragile ecosystems such as the desert crust do not
respond well to change and can take hundreds of years to recover. Resilient
ecosystems, such as many types of grasslands, thrive in spite of disturbances and
cope better with grazing and/or fire. Stable ecosystems are able to keep their
structure and function over long time frames and in spite of disturbances, which
contributes to the development of specialized species such as those that exist in the
tropical rainforests (Miller & Spoolman, 2012). The ecosystems with the most species
biodiversity are coral reefs and tropical rainforests.
When the diversity in an ecosystem decreases, the important services the affected
organisms provide can diminish. For example, ecosystems provide supporting
services for life such as the formation of soil or nutrient cycling, which provides fresh
water, nitrogen, and phosphorous. This also allows for cultural values such as
recreation, spiritual significance, or cultural importance (United Nations Global
Compact, 2012).
Multiple ecosystems that share similar climates (long-term trends in temperature,
precipitation, and soil that have species with similar adaptations) are called biomes.
The division of terrestrial and land classifications of biomes will be discussed in
greater detail later in this chapter.
Biomes are grouped together in the biosphere (where life is found). This is the largest
category for life and is divided into three potential locations: the hydrosphere, the
geosphere, and the atmosphere. The hydrosphere is where water is found.
Sometimes, aquatic life can be found in exotic locations, such as a lake under the
west Antarctic ice sheet that hosts microbes that use the geosphere as a source of
energy (“Check Out the Freezing Cold Place,” 2014).
The geosphere is composed of soil and rock that extends to the interior of the Earth.
For example, cave species such as Proteus anguinust (an amphibian found in caves in
Slovenia) have skin that changes its pigment like people with light exposure, but also
requires less oxygen than many other species because it lives in a subterranean
aquatic environment. When proteus was first discovered, people thought it was a

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baby dragon; it was not until the early 1900s that the unique species, originally
classified by Linnaeus (father of the scientific name classification system) as a lizard,
was correctly classified (Kmecl, 1998).
The atmosphere is the gaseous layer of matter surrounding the planet. According to
Drozdov and Kirvolutsky (2014), life can be found as high as 50,000 feet. Bacteria
have been found at over 30,000 feet (Veronique, 2013). To put this in perspective, by
2020 there are plans for the world’s tallest buildings to be completed in China and
Saudi Arabia, which will only reach around 3,000 feet (Li, 2014). This means that it
would take approximately 16.5 of the world’s tallest buildings stacked on top of each
other to reach the maximum height where life has been found.
In general, these three areas contain extreme examples of life. The ecosphere takes
into account where the majority of life is found, which is only about one third of the
Earth (Drozdov & Kirvolutsky, 2014). Factors such as availability of oxygen,
temperature extremes, and acidity levels are all limits to where life can be found.
Biosphere 2 was an experiment in central Arizona that tried to recreate multiple
ecosystems that were closed off from the Earth (Biosphere 1) to determine the
potential for space exploration in the 1980s. Biosphere 2, however, was not as
successful as hoped. The goal was to sustain eight people for two years while keeping
the biosphere closed. Instead, the experiment was shortened because of high levels
of carbon dioxide, which eventually led to the extinction of Biosphere 2’s pollinators.
In addition, an external source of energy was required to circulate the air and prevent
overheating (O'Callaghan, 2013). A classroom experiment that minimizes the scale of
this experiment with some success is called "bottle biology," where a mini ecosystem
is created in a plastic bottle. To learn more about bottle biology activities visit
[Link]

Life History Strategies (R vs. K)

There are a number of mechanisms through which a species population can
propagate itself. The life histories fall within or between K-selected or R-selected
strategies, which were classified by MacArthur and Wilson (1967).
A niche is the job or role a species plays in an ecosystem. Based on the time and
frequency of reproduction, size, and longevity, a species has a certain type of
purpose. K strategists are typically specialists, meaning they have a very specific niche
like the spotted owl or panda. Generalists, on the other hand, have a broad niche and
are typically R strategists.
K specialist species like orangutans and elephants typically have a small number of
offspring and a lot of time goes into taking care of them. K specialists are species that
do better in stable environments because they require more specific resources.
When recording population levels over time, the graph for K specialists typically
follows an S-shaped curve where the population size rises and falls as the carrying
capacity, the total number of a population the ecosystem can support, changes. Plant
species that are found in less disturbed environments have also been classified as K
specialist. K specialist plants outcompete other species by being specialized (Bohn,
Pavlick, Reu, & Kleidon, 2014).

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R-selected species, in contrast, follow a reproductive strategy whereby they have as
many babies as possible and let them fend for themselves (most insects and
rodents). When graphing population levels of R-selected species, the graph looks like
a J because the population has a dramatic increase followed by a dramatic fall. These
species do better in habitats that experience disruptions because the population
bounces back quickly. Plant species that do not change much after a disturbance are
also classified as R-selected species, so their population numbers look more like a
straight line than a J (Bohn et al., 2014).
Many species have characteristics of both these life strategies or may change
behavior based on environmental conditions. The burying beetle, for example, will
care for its young like a K strategist with both parents, but have many babies at once
like an R strategist. The burying beetle is also important to ecosystems because it is a
detritivore that consumes dead animals, which are prepared as a nursery and food
source for the babies and starts the recycling process of nutrients (Goodall, Maynard,
& Hudson, 2009).
Chapter 3 Exercise 1

Limiting Factors
Populations cannot continuously grow forever without overusing the natural
resources. Limiting factors are what result in death for an individual and control
population levels. These factors create a range of tolerance, a kind of delicate balance
where the elements that support life are just right. These include abiotic factors such
as temperature or acidity levels.
Limiting factors are divided into density-dependent or density-independent limits.
The density-dependent limiting factors are those whose impact is dependent on the
size of a population. Examples include the availability of food, water, and shelter or
the ease with which diseases are transmitted. Density-independent factors, on the
other hand, are not impacted by population size. This means that the population
could be big or small, but the limiting factor—a natural disaster or exposure to a
toxin, for example—would have the same impact on the population.

Case Study Showing Effects of Wolves in Yellowstone After Being Extirpated

The elk numbers in Yellowstone National Park are impacted by biotic and abiotic factors. Biotic
limiting factors include the availability of food and pressures from hunting and predation.
Abiotic factors such as drought, harsh winters, and temperature extremes can decrease elk
populations as well. High population densities of elk were hypothesized to decrease the
number of trees such as aspen, cottonwood, and willow because they were consuming the
trees at unsustainable levels (i.e., eating most of the seedlings so they were unable to reach
maturity). This was not substantiated when the elk population dropped in the 1950s and
1960s. Wolves were no longer found in Yellowstone by the 1930s so a new hypothesis
suggested that with the wolf reintroduction in 1995, the elk population would decrease, and
the tree population would increase because of pressures from the wolves. A study in 1997
showed no change in tree stand growth. This may have been because the ecosystem had been
altered to the point of no return or there was not enough time to see a change because the
alteration occurred over many years. In 2012, a new study was conducted. Though a drought
occurred in Yellowstone from 2000-2007, the study showed recovery of aspen stands in 2005
(Painter, Beschta, Larsen, & Ripple, 2014). One theory that accounts for this change is that

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 wolves change prey behavior, so the elk are not grazing in some areas for fear of being eaten
(Ripple & Beschta, 2003).

Since the reintroduction, other population numbers have also been altered. With elk grazing
less intensively, streams are more stable with the trees (Kenworthy, 2003). Beaver typically
prefer aspen and willow trees so their numbers can increase. Beavers, as ecosystem
engineers, encourage wetlands that impact aquatic and wetland species (Ripple & Beschta,
2004). Not all species have seen an increase since the reintroduction. In particular, coyotes
compete for similar resources as the wolf and their population has decreased in size since the
wolf reintroduction. There has also been predation on sheep and cattle, which has resulted in
controversy for this reintroduction (Kenworthy, 2003).

Review Question

What impact have wolves had on elk, and how has this impacted the ecosystem?

Wolf predation changes elk behavior so the elk cannot over browse. Consequently, new tree
growth has resulted in a change of population numbers dependent on trees.

Species
"The first law of ecology is that everything is related to everything else." —Barry
Commoner
As discussed earlier, to qualify as living, the object in question must be able to adapt.
Adaptation on the species level is governed by the theory of natural selection,
whereby species change or adapt over generations. Some individuals believe in
natural selection, while others believe in creationism. Others may believe in natural
selection while at the same time believing in God. For example, God can be
considered a guiding force in natural selection, making it possible for species to adapt
to change or plan the ability for species to change when conditions change (Garte,
2014). One group that focuses its research on evolutionary creationism is BioLogos,
which uses science and interprets the results from a Christian belief. However, this
group has also been criticized for assuming the Bible can be misinterpreted (Joubert,
2012).
Charles Darwin was a trained naturalist who took a while to find his purpose but is
best known for natural selection and descent with modification, both of which
contribute to the theory of evolution. He tried going to school to be a doctor but was
too squeamish. It was through the study of religion that Darwin became a naturalist.
He is most famous for writing the book On the Origin of Species, which showed that
fossils of what looked to be the same species were found on different continents. He
inferred that species on the Galapagos Islands could have derived from a single
species (i.e., multiple types of finches descending from one common ancestor
species) and that multiple species look similar in their embryonic stages. The process,
however, was completely unknown to Darwin, although he proposed a theory that
environmental factors select beneficial traits that can be passed on to the next
generation, resulting in the theory of natural selection (Davies, 2010).
Adaptations are beneficial traits that have been favored by environmental pressures
in the theory of natural selection. This means species are not changed because they
want a certain trait, but the trait is already in the population (such as giraffes having

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long necks or elephants having tusks). Species that have short lifecycles and large
numbers of progeny can demonstrate adaptations being selected at a much faster
rate than those of lower offspring production and slower development time. In
environmental science, fitness is defined by those who can have the largest number
of progeny to spread their genes. This means that factors limiting an individual's
capacity to reproduce or factors that cause death before reproductive age is reached,
result in unfit individuals because their genes are not passed on to new generations.
Adverse impacts on a global scale can result from efforts with good intentions. For
example, from a health perspective, there are species of bacteria that are resistant to
antibiotics. One such example of a bacterium that is resistant to antibiotics is the
staph infection (Staphylococcus aureus), which became resistant to penicillin in the
mid-1900s. This happens because, after medical treatment, some bacteria are able to
survive and reproduce a strain that is unaffected by the medicine, such as penicillin.
Bacteria also have a trait where genetic resistance can be transferred to new bacteria
by transferring genes, speeding up the process of more individual bacteria becoming
resistant to antibiotics. In the 1970s, bacteria began expressing resistance to multiple
antibiotics. This led to debates on the best method of control or prevention of drug
resistance (Levy & Marsha, 2004).
Speciation occurs when the changes within a given subpopulation of a species result
in a new species that is unable to reproduce with the parent population. This
definition relates to the biological species concept, though it has been debated
among researchers and is further complicated by organisms that do not sexually
reproduce (asexual organisms), organisms that can have sexual and asexual
reproduction, and the occasional hybrid (Coyne & Orr, 2004). The process that brings
about these changes is also debated within the scientific community. Allopatric and
sympatric species are two theories that focus on sexually reproducing species using
the biological species concept.
Allopatric speciation is where the population is isolated, as on an island. It has been
argued by Shpak (2005) that negative traits can be bred away easier by isolating
populations so that genes that decrease fitness are eliminated, making the hybrids
more fit. One place that allopatric speciation is speculated to occur is on islands
because varying island ages can allow for species to expand and then become
isolated from the parent population. Drosophila (genus that includes fruit flies) on the
Hawaiian Islands is one example of high diversity that is likely to have undergone
allopatric speciation (Nanda & Singh, 2012).
Sympatric speciation, on the other hand, is when a population isolates itself without
geographic barriers. For example, there can be variations of traits within a species
(behavioral or physical appearance) and those with the same traits choose to isolate
themselves. This type of speciation is harder to define when the initial cause may
have been a previously unknown geographical barrier and the distinction between
species and subspecies is not fully accepted (Drès & Mallet, 2002). One example of
this includes apple maggot flies that isolate themselves based on different types of
apple trees (Coyne & Orr, 2014).
Chapter 3 Exercise 2

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Species Interactions
Species within a community experience a variety of positive, negative, and neutral
benefits of sharing the same ecosystem. Having multiple species in a given area
increases species diversity. It is thought that increased species diversity allows for
overlapping niches (jobs within the ecosystem), so the community is better able to
survive a natural disaster. For instance, such a rich species diversity as exists in
tropical wetlands might allow those areas to recover faster than a less diverse
community (Carvalho, Thomaz, Kobayashi, & Bini, 2013).

Predators
Predators are species that consume other species as food. This may seem limited to
carnivores that mainly eat meat or omnivores that consume plants and animals.
However, organisms that only consume plants, herbivores, are also considered
predators because they do not make their own food. For example, animals that
consume seeds may only eat the seeds rather than helping with seed dispersal. A
potential benefit to this is the increased success of surviving seeds because there are
fewer resources to share from the parent plant (Janzen, 1971). Predation of animals
provides benefits at the population level by selecting prey that are easy targets, so
the weak and sick are eliminated. For example, a predator may chase a herd of
animals and catch the slowest animal, which may be weak and sickly. This predation
helps to control population numbers as well as strengthens the remaining herd.
Apex predators, the top predator that is relatively safe from being consumed by
another species in the given ecosystem, will impact a large percentage of species'
numbers (Pasanen-Mortensen, Pyykönen, & Elmhagen, 2013). Most of the time, the
top predators are large, cover a large territory, and have a small population size.
Despite being small in number, apex predators can help set limits for herbivores
(such as deer) and mid-level omnivore/carnivores (such as foxes) so they do not
overeat the food supply. For example, one European study shows lynx populations
help control red fox populations (Pasanen-Mortensen et al., 2013). Despite the
importance of predators to an ecosystem, many are at risk of extinction or have
lesser impact on the ecosystem because they compete with humans. Protection of
such predators often produces conflicts of interest regarding hunting and perceived
safety (Ordiz, Bischolf, & Swenson, 2013)
Successful delisting of predators on the endangered species list includes the
American alligator (March 1967–June 1987), the Arctic peregrine falcon (June 1970–
October 1994), and the American peregrine falcon (June 1970–August 1999) (Weaver,
1995). Even though these species are delisted, it does not mean they are not
protected. For example, the alligator is protected in trade through the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) because
trade was a main reason it was threatened with extinction (Environmental Protection
Agency, 1995).

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Symbiotic Relationships
There are a variety of relationships found in nature. Species may help each other,
harm each other, or have no impact on each other. Even negative effects may result
in beneficial outcomes.
In mutualistic relationships, both species benefit. This can occur at both the micro or
macro level. For instance, on the micro level, mycorrhizae in the soil play a large role
by making nitrogen available to plants, while the plant provides the microscopic
fungus with nutrients and protection against parasites (Johansson, Paul, & Finlay,
2004). On a macro level, figs are dependent on specific pollinator wasps. Research of
different levels of forest composition (isolated figs, small groupings of figs, and large
groupings of figs) showed the more isolated the figs, the fewer the pollinator wasps.
However, many domesticated figs undergo a process called parthenocarpy. This
means that the flower does not need to be pollinated to make the fruit (Gibson, n.d.).
Because the majority of figs will still produce fruit without pollination, the concern in
the wild is that non-pollinated flowers decrease the likelihood of new fig trees, which
is hard to determine by just looking for fruit (Rui-Wu, Cheng-Yun, Gui-Fang, & Jun-
Xing, 2005).
Mutualistic associations have become important for the survival of some species.
Another example of this is the yucca moth and the yucca. Yuccas are dependent on
only two species of moths for pollination; moth species are dependent on the yucca
plant in their early lifecycle. First, the moths will mate inside the flower and the eggs
will be deposited on the plant. Once the larva hatch, they will eat the yucca seeds
(Svensson, Pellmyr, & Raguso, 2011). This is a small price to pay for the yucca plant to
pay to allow pollination and survival of the species.
A parasitic relationship harms the host species while benefiting the parasite species.
Parasites can be internal or external. In the case of the fig trees, parasitic wasps will
use the figs as a location for their babies to grow, but they will not provide the benefit
of pollination (Rui-Wu et al., 2005). Other examples of parasites include mosquitoes,
bot flies, ticks, lice, tapeworms, and dwarf mistletoe. In each example, the parasite
takes nutrition from the host species, which weakens the host. However, in the case
of parasitic plants, a small amount may actually benefit the plant by increasing
nutrients. In the example of the dwarf mistletoe, the host tree will develop broad
dense branches in response to the parasite, which may increase nesting sites for
other animals. These additional resting places for animals would increase fertilization
for the tree (Watson, 2009).
Another example that is not as obvious is brood parasitism. Brown-headed cowbirds
historically travel with herds of hooved animals, eating the insects the herd disturbs
while moving. To continue this migratory lifestyle, the brown-headed cowbird will lay
its eggs in other birds' nests to have that species raise its offspring. Multiple studies
have been done to determine the impact this has on songbirds. Research on
cardinals has shown that the season and availability of nest sites determines the
distance from the edge of a nest a cowbird will venture to lay eggs (Stoklosa, Kearns,
& Rodewald, 2014). Parasitism typically does not impact the population level unless

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the parasite numbers reach a point that it leads to the killing of multiple individuals in
the population (Wenk & Renz, 2013).
Commensalism is a relationship where one species benefits while the second species
is not impacted in a helpful or harmful way. Take, for example, a bird nest in a tree or
cactus. The bird benefits from this relationship by having a high location from which
to spot predators. If the species in question has thorns or spines, there is also added
protection from predators. This nest does not impact the tree or cactus much. The
nest might provide some shade and thus reduce photosynthesis, making this
relationship unhelpful, but not harmful. A similar example is moss growing on a tree.
Many scavenger species such as hyenas will eat predators’ leftovers after they are
done. A study in Israel looked at species that are likely to consume human
garbage/road kill and found that these species (omnivore or carnivore) have
increased in size over 50 years (looking at museum specimens), which goes against
the general Bergman Rule that species become smaller in hotter environments (Yom-
Tov, 2003). In general, this relationship is indicative of commensalism; however, there
are times when it is difficult to find food and the relationship can change to one of
competition.
Competition exists when two different species are trying to obtain the same resource
(e.g., food, water, shelter, space). In general, species do not have exactly the same
diet, which then decreases competition. This is called the competitive exclusion
principle. This principle is important to understanding how nonnative species can
outcompete native species. For example, in Europe the beaver population had been
reduced to very low numbers. Beavers (Castor canadensis) from North America were
introduced to Finland in the 1930s to help bring the European beaver (Castor fiber)
numbers up. It is now known that they are two distinct species, and there is a chance
that the North American beaver is causing the extinction of the European beaver as
the North American beaver expands its range (Parker, Nummi, Hartman, & Rosell,
2012).

Keystone
Keystone species impact multiple species within an ecosystem. This species is crucial
for an ecosystem and without it the ecosystem may cease to exist. There are several
typical mechanisms through which this comes about: ecosystem engineers alter the
environment so that it is either beneficial or not for other organisms, pollinators and
seed dispersers affect the local plant life, or a top predator controls the population
size of multiple populations. However, this concept has been contested with respect
to whether it should include other species such as plant life that supply food and/or
shelter for multiple species or mycorrhizae fungi that make nitrogen available to
plants. These additions have been debated, but the concept that some species make
more of an impact on the web of life is not (Paine, 1995). Some examples of keystone
species include prairie dogs, kangaroo rats (Davidson & Lightfoot, 2006), bison,
beavers, bees, wolves, and starfish (Miller & Spoolman, 2012).

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Invasive/Exotic Species
When a species is introduced on purpose or is accidentally brought with migrating
people, there is a chance that species can take over native niches and dominate the
ecosystem because the ecosystem it is introduced to has no limiting factors to control
its population.
An example of an aquatic invasive species is the zebra mussel (Dreissena
polymorpha) that was unintentionally introduced. It was first discovered as a problem
in 1986 in the Great Lakes. This species kills native mussels by attaching to their
shells and changes lake clarity, which can impact other species due to food
availability and temperature. In the greater Chicago area, they also clog pipes that are
used to gather water from the lake. The zebra mussel is successful in survival
because it can reproduce after only three months. Once mature, they release large
numbers of sperm and eggs. They lack predators and can easily spread to new areas
by attaching to the hulls of boats or ballast water. This species has caused negative
and positive effects, including the extinction of native mussels, the filtering of water,
increased algae populations, and clogged pipes to water filtration and electric
generation plants costing over $1 billion per year (Oliver, 2014).
An example of a species deliberately introduced to solve the problem of another
invasive species is the mongoose (Herpestes javanicus). Rats inadvertently traveled
with European explorers to the New World. To decrease this problem, mongooses
were introduced in the 1800s. Unfortunately, the native animals were not adapted for
this type of predator, which resulted in the extinction of multiple species of birds,
amphibians, and reptiles beyond the intended rats (Lowe, Browne, Boudjelas, & De
Poorter, 2000).
The effects of exotic or nonnative species are not all negative. Most people in the
United States are consuming more than native animals and plants such as chicken,
beef, chocolate, and apples. Consuming only native foods would be very limiting. In
addition, even a species known to cause problems can have a positive impact. For
example, the salt cedar, an exotic tree species from Asia that was originally
introduced to prevent erosion, alters the soil chemistry such that it becomes saltier
and outcompetes native vegetation along streams. Nevertheless, it has become a
habitat for the endangered willow flycatcher (a type of bird) in riparian areas of
Arizona where its native habitat was destroyed. Because the birds are using the salt
cedar, removing the tree without replacing the native habitat would harm the willow
flycatcher (T. Sisk, personal communication, 2005).

Energy
Laws of Thermodynamics Within Communities
Energy responds to three laws in biotic communities. The first law of
thermodynamics states that energy can be transformed. As stated in Chapter 2, the
sun is the source of energy for most ecosystems. A food chain tracks the conversion
of energy from producers, herbivores, and omnivores to carnivores. At the top of the
food chain is the apex predator that is at little risk of being consumed by another

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species once it has matured. Following a simple food chain for energy, the sun is first
used by plants for photosynthesis to make energy for the plant, which is passed on to
the organisms that consume it. This conversion of energy from grass (producer) to
caterpillar (herbivore), to grackle (a type of bird that is an omnivore), raccoon
(omnivore), and finally to the great horned owl (carnivore) does not come without a
cost. The quality of energy decreases every time it is transferred between the trophic
levels because it is inefficient. Any time energy is converted to another form, some of
that energy becomes heat; this is called the second law of thermodynamics. In other
words, energy goes in a one-way direction of high-quality energy to low-quality
energy. The third law of thermodynamics states that despite the lower quality energy
and heat being released it is not possible to reach an absolute zero temperature.

“For every carnivore there are hundreds of his prey, thousands of

their prey, millions of insects, unaccountable number of plants.”—
Aldo Leopold

Food Chains and Food Webs

Pyramid of Energy
Expanding on the food chain is the concept of a food web, in which each species
consumes multiple species. Because of the second law of thermodynamics, which
states that energy is a one-way process that decreases the amount of energy and
results in different levels of biomass (dry weight of the organisms) for different
trophic levels. Each level is dependent on the supply of the levels below it and is
composed of multiple food chains (Leopold, 1966). At the bottom of the trophic level
are producers (plants), which comprise the largest amount of biomass in an
ecosystem. The only known exception is in the aquatic biome where the fast lifecycles
of the photosynthetic phytoplankton make up the difference (Wilson, 2010). The next
levels are the consumers, or predators. Primary consumers eat the plants; in the food
chain example this is an herbivore like the caterpillar. Secondary consumers are
typically omnivores, but they may also be carnivores that are preyed on by other
carnivores, such as spiders. Tertiary consumers are typically carnivores that are
vulnerable to becoming the prey of other species such as smaller birds. The apex
predator is at the top of the trophic pyramid and has the least amount of biomass
that is supported by the other levels.

Biomes
"Without knowing it, we utilize hundreds of products each day that owe their origin to
wild animals and plants. Indeed our welfare is intimately tied up with the welfare of
wildlife. Well may conservationists proclaim that by saving the lives of wild species,
we may be saving our own." —Norman Myers

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Terrestrial—Land Bases
In general, forests receive the most precipitation (for example, when it rains or
snows), followed by grasslands, and finally deserts. Precipitation is determined by the
dew point, or how much water is in the atmosphere (Cech, 2003). Biomes are
determined by having a similar climate resulting in similar vegetation that is adapted
to the particular climate and soil type, although there may not be the same species of
animals or plants (Woodward, 2003). For example, the deserts in Africa do not have
agave, which is found in the North American desert, but instead have aloe that looks
very similar.
Land formations impact precipitation. Cool temperatures cannot hold as much water
in the air before it starts to precipitate, therefore, windward sides of mountains, the
sides or direction where the wind is blowing from, tend to have more precipitation
than the leeward sides that are last to receive the breeze. This precipitation
difference is called the rain shadow effect (Miller & Spoolman, 2012). An extreme case
study of this occurs on the big island of Hawaii where the east side of the island
receives some of the highest amounts of rainfall in the United States, while at the
same time, the western side may experience a drought (NOAA, 2011).
On the mainland of the United States, the state of Washington is another great ex

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ample. On the western side (windward side of the Cascades), there are pockets of
lush, temperate rainforests, wetlands, and mostly coniferous forests, while the
eastern side of the Cascades (leeward side) is much drier and hotter, with desert
pockets and more seasonal distinction (Western Regional Climate Center, 2014). In
years when there is more direct wind from the west and the northwest, this rain
shadow effect is stronger (Mass, Johnson, Warner, & Vargas, 2014). For example, the
west side of the mountains may have an average of 60–100 inches of precipitation,
while some areas in the east may have only 15–30 inches (Western Regional Climate
Center, 2014).
Vegetation can also impact precipitation. With the increased deforestation of the
Amazon rainforest, there have been two predictions on the implications for changed
weather patterns. First, with less vegetation, less moisture is being released into the
air, so the climate becomes drier and less precipitation is possible. The alternative
hypothesis is that deforestation increases winds, resulting in increased circulation of
moisture and thus increasing rainfall periodically in different locations. A study
comparing forests to pastures found that current conditions favor the alternative
hypothesis, where soil moisture can also delay rainfall in a region (Ramos da Silva &
Avissar, 2006).
What distinguishes the different land-based biomes among the three main categories
of forests, grasslands, and deserts is temperature. Cold biomes typically have some
time during the year below freezing. Temperate biomes fluctuate between warm and
cold seasons. Meanwhile, tropical biomes have a constant warm temperature year
round. These abiotic factors provide different habitats for life. In general,
temperature is determined by how far the location is from the equator (latitude) and
how high the location is (elevation). The higher up and further from the equator, the
cooler the temperatures. Exceptions to this include large bodies of water that resist
temperature change, warm ocean/air currents from the equator or cool ones from
the poles, and/or geothermal activity (Miller & Spoolman, 2012).

Forests
A forest serves many functions, including cycling nutrients, providing shade or
habitat/homes for wildlife, and forming carbon-based products (leaves, twigs, stems,
bark, etc.), which decrease carbon in the atmosphere and can become food or
products for animals and people. Half of the biomass of a tree is typically carbon,
making the process of planting more trees an effective way to decrease atmospheric
carbon levels (“Trees: The Carbon,” 2015). Forests also provide services such as
preventing erosion, cleaning water, cooling through evapotranspiration (water vapor
released from leaves), preventing floods, and serving as windbreaks.
Trees can be very valuable. In North America, they are used for landscaping, building
material, maple syrup production, and pulp wood for paper products. In the more
tropical regions, the wood products may be cut down for fuel, cleared for farmland,
or exported, such as teak or mahogany. In addition, cash crops, which are crops sold

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to earn a profit such as palms (used to make palm oil) are replacing these trees.
Management practices for trees include replanting the trees and determining cycles
of harvesting. One large concern for U.S. forests is invasive pests and disease. In the
past, Dutch elm disease decimated urban forests. Now there are risks from the exotic
emerald ash borer in the eastern and Midwest states and native bark beetles in the
western states. People can help decrease the spread of insects and disease by not
transporting firewood. Another concern for U.S. forestlands is that the majority of the
forested lands are held as private property (over 50%), and unless small woodlots
provide an economic benefit, the land is likely to be sold and developed (“U.S. Forests
and Trees," 2014).
Some forests are unproductive (i.e., grow too slow like the drier pine forest in
northern Arizona) or are very productive (i.e., grow fast like the tropical rainforests).
Growth rate is determined by species, climate conditions (temperature and
precipitation), and nutrients. Plants are fertilized via decomposition. Shade also
encourages animals to rest and cool at the base of the plant, fertilizing the plant via
deposits of feces.
Boreal forests are dominated by coniferous trees and are found in high latitude and
elevation areas just below the tree line where it is too cold for trees to live.
Coniferous forests include evergreen trees such as pine, cedar, and spruce that are
needle-like. The boreal forest is one biome where these conifers dominate; however,
they are also found in temperate pineland, evergreen, and mountain forests, and in
the Southern Hemisphere. The trees estimated to be the oldest are found in the
mountain boreal forests. The bristlecone pine, found in the Rocky Mountains, is
estimated to be able to live more than 4,000 years, so there has been ongoing
research to determine how the trees have reacted to climate change and to
determine what the climate was like while the trees were growing (Salzer, Hughes,
Bunn, & Kipfmeuller, 2010).
The tropical rainforest is warm year-round and has a high amount of precipitation.
Example ecosystems for the tropical rainforest biome include the Amazon rainforest,
Central African rainforest in the Congo, or the rainforest of New Guinea. The trees are
evergreen and may include many types of deciduous plants (broad leaf trees), but
species will vary based on location. Decomposition rates are high in the tropical
rainforest, so the highest nutrient levels are found in the living trees and other life
(Miller & Spoolman, 2012). The varieties of species found in tropical rainforests are
categorized on the basis of where in the tree the organisms live (high in the canopy,
mid-level, near the ground, or on the ground). Many rainforests have proved valuable
to people as tourist attractions, food sources, and sources of materials for generating
useful pharmaceutical drugs. For example, the saliva from vampire bats that live in
the rainforest is a vital ingredient in a new drug for stroke patients (Kaste, 2006).
Because of the rich diversity rainforests offer, such biomes have encouraged
ecotourism, which focuses on nature. In Peru, however, this function can often place
an undue burden on the rainforest, but the impact on conservation vs. exploitation
varies by company (Doan, 2013). Foods that originated from rainforests include okra,
avocados, Brazil nuts, ginger, mangos, and cane sugar. Other valuable species for use
include bromeliads as ornamental houseplants, teak for furniture, and bamboo for
fiber or wood products (“Rainforests: What They Do," n.d.).

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Temperate rainforests have a large amount of precipitation, but they also have
temperature changes throughout the year and may include conifers or deciduous
trees. Some of the largest and oldest trees in the world are conifers. Redwood trees
can be found in the temperate rainforest biome from southern Alaska down to
northern California (Weigel, 2012). In temperate forests where decomposition is slow,
much of the nutrients are found in the leaf litter (Miller & Spoolman, 2012). Moss and
epiphytes have more biomass here than the leaves and needles of the trees
(“Temperate Rainforests," n.d.).

Grassland Biomes
Grasslands typically receive less precipitation than forests or have limiting factors
such as poor soil (e.g., soil with high clay content) where water does not drain well
and trees become water logged. The land also faces droughts, which may not be
predictable (Asner, Elmore, Olander, Martin, & Harris, 2004). Many of the world’s
grasslands have become agricultural land for crops (tall grasslands such as blue stem
grass in the midwestern United States) or cattle grazing (short grasslands such as
buffalo grass in the western United States that receive less rainfall). Overall,
grasslands are found in the middle of continents. The historical tall grass prairie has a
thick topsoil layer held in place by the roots of the grass. Savannas, in contrast, have
nutrient-poor soil and/or may have toxic metals that inhibit plant growth (Woodward,
2003). Despite these differences, the majority of decomposition happens in the soil
where the grassroots are, unlike forests where decomposition is mainly above
ground. The most common use of land around the world is for agriculture (25%),
which are basically managed grasslands (Asner et al., 2004). Disturbances in the
forms of herbivores eating tree seedlings or fires help minimize tree growth in
grasslands. Fire is also important by increasing the availability of phosphorous, which
is limited in grasslands (Moran, 2008).
Many of the animals found in the temperate grasslands are grazers such as deer or
bison or rodents that live in the soil. The tall grass prairies of the Midwestern United
States (grasses may grow from three feet to the height of a horse) are an example of
a temperate grassland ecosystem. Much of this land is now used for cultivating corn,
wheat, and soy. Current risks to this ecosystem are fragmentation and land
alteration, including suppressed fires, conversion to agriculture, or change in
drainage patterns (Ladd, 1995). Another temperate grassland ecosystem is the South
American Pampas found in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. They are at most risk from
expanding tree plantations, which also have altered bird communities (Dias,
Bastazini, Gonçalves, Bonow, & Müller, 2013).
Tropical grasslands include the savanna of East Africa, which contains grazing
animals, including elephants, zebras, and gazelles. The larger savanna biome is also
where the majority of managed grazing takes place (Asner et al., 2004). Carnivores
include the African lion. Savanna soils typically do not have a rich organic layer. One
species at risk from overconsumption is the elephant, due in large part to the
valuable ivory in their tusks. Because ivory is rare, the ivory trade is very lucrative on
the black market, which is why many are willing to accept the costs of poaching.

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Deserts
Deserts typically have less species diversity because they are limited by minimal
rainfall (yearly amounts are less than 10 inches, but there can be unusually wet years)
and have a high evapotranspiration rate, which is the rate of water lost through
evaporation from the soil surface along with the water lost from plant tissues. Of all
the biomes in the world, the deserts are increasing because of land use practices like
overgrazing and deforestation, which turn those lands into deserts (Asner &
Heidebrecht, 2005). From a human perspective, deserts have been valuable locations
for mining oil, minerals, and metals and, if water can be imported, have become
farmland for crops and grazing. One concern is water mining, which depletes ground
water reserves if population growth and water use increase faster than the
replacement rate from natural precipitation. For example, the Tarim River in
northwest China is part of the largest river basin in the world. It runs from west to
east along the border of the Taklamakan Desert, which is the driest region of Eurasia.
With high demand for water, the Tarim River became overused and now needs to be
restored. Problems included the river changing its path and oxbow lakes drying up.
Restoration efforts have focused on restoring the lakes and the vegetation that has
died around them (Feng, Endo, & Cheng, 2001; Zhang, Chen, & Pan, 2005). Overuse of
water is not limited to China. In the United States, one potential area of overuse is the
Colorado River where California has used higher amounts than it was allocated
(Jacobs & Holway, 2004). Others also question the use of water from large distances
such as the Phoenix Metro Valley’s use of Colorado River water.
The Sahara Desert in North Africa is a tropical desert biome and is the largest desert
in the world. Only 20% of the Sahara is comprised of the sand dunes typically
portrayed in movies. Plant life includes shrubs, succulents that look similar to cacti in
North America (though there is no genetic relationship), grasses, and other low-
growing plants. Animal diversity is rich in rodents such as gerbils, reptiles like the
tortoise and horned viper, and insects. Herbivores include species of gazelles and
quail. Carnivores include jackals and fennec foxes (Woodward, 2003).
The Sonoran Desert, which makes up most of the central and lower part of Arizona, is
the most diverse desert in the United States and is classified as a temperate desert
biome. The increased diversity is the result of two rainy seasons: monsoons in the
summer, where the storms come from the south, and winter rains, with storms from
the west, which allow for less-adapted species to survive (Kelt, 1999). The symbol for
the Sonoran Desert is the saguaro cactus. There have been some concerns about the
saguaro’s decreasing population, but research indicates that it is hard to notice young
saguaros that are hiding underneath nurse plants (native trees, shrubs, and forbs
that shade and provide increased moisture for the young saguaros) (Lazzaroff, 1998).
Plant life is dominated by different species of cacti, shrubs with small leaves like the
creosote bush, and small leaved trees such as the palo verde. Common omnivores
and herbivores include pack rats, hummingbirds, javalina, and quail. Well-known
carnivores include reptiles like the Gila monster and rattlesnake (Lazzaroff, 1998).
There is one land type that varies between the terrestrial and the aquatic—the
tundra. For part of the year, the tundra is covered in permafrost where some low-
growing plants such as lichen, moss, and grasses are able to survive. In the summer,

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this biome melts and becomes a wetland. Because of the low precipitation in the cold
months, some scientists classify the tundra as a cold desert or cold grassland, in
which case it qualifies as a terrestrial biome. As an extreme environment, the food
chains of herbivores to carnivores do not have as much overlap as other biomes.
Herbivores may include artic hare and lemmings. Carnivores might include the snowy
owl and arctic fox. Risks to this biome include oil exploitation, air pollution,
development, and climate change (Woodward, 2003).

Aquatic
Aquatic biomes consist of fresh and salt water and are also referred to as aquatic life
zones. Diversity of species is determined by the distance from the shore and depth of
waters. Water is vital to life; however, in an aquatic system the organisms live in the
water. The main producers include plankton that can only be seen under a
microscope. Phytoplankton, a specific group of plankton, are producers and are the
base of the aquatic food chain, but they are classified in a separate kingdom as
plants. As carbon levels in the water increase, the body of water becomes more
acidic. Phytoplankton act as a negative feedback loop by utilizing the carbon and
buffering the acidity of the water back to appropriate levels. Some phytoplankton
help drive the carbon cycle and produce the oxygen in the water and, ultimately, the
atmosphere (Falkowski, 2012). In addition to supplying the world with oxygen, aquatic
systems are important for climate moderation by serving as a carbon sink. A carbon
sink is where more carbon is held instead of being released into the atmosphere.
Aquatic systems are also a valuable economic resource with respect to tourism, as a
source of food, and as a source of new inspiration, such as looking at the textures of
sharks to decrease drag on an airplane (Miller & Spoolman, 2012; Ritu Vasu, 2013).
Using nature to create new products is called biomimicry.
Freshwater systems include lakes, wetlands, and streams. Many places around the
world are dependent on snowmelt because that is where river water originates in the
mountains (Sharma, 2014). Fresh water is important because it can be a source of
climate moderation (water does not change temperature as readily as air),
groundwater recharge, drinking water, and as transportation routes (Miller &
Spoolman, 2012). The most common animal species include fish, aquatic mammals,
aquatic birds, and aquatic amphibians.
Lakes may be shallow like a pond or deep like Lake Superior. Shallow lakes typically
have more nutrients and high productivity, unless they have had a nutrient load that
is too high and have gone through an algae bloom that depletes the oxygen required
for life. This can be brought about by natural causes such as an increase in sediment
turning the pond into a wetland, or it can be caused by pollution. Lake Erie has faced
problems of algae blooms caused by pollution. After an outbreak in 2014, $12 million
in state and federal aid was requisitioned for a Great Lakes Restoration initiative
focused on clean water and preventing algal blooms (“Funding to Target," 2014).
Wetland ecosystems are classified according to the dominant vegetation. Marshes
have mainly grasses and sedges, and swamps are dominated by trees. Wetlands help
control flooding, are nurseries for many species of birds, and aid in water filtration. In
some places, wetlands have been created to provide these services; however, they

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have historically been at risk from drainage for development and agriculture.
Wetlands connected to streams, rivers, and lakes are federally protected in the
United States, whereas isolated wetlands are protected by local laws. Wetlands can
be valued as providers of reptiles and amphibians for the pet trade and biological
supply companies. One study found a single wetland in South Carolina to have a
commercial value of more than $3 million (Degregorio, Willson, Dorcas, & Gibbons,
2014).
Streams may flow fast and seem almost straight, while others flow more slowly and
move in a back and forth or even braided fashion. The faster flow is closer to the
source of water and the slower flow is typically closer to where the river ends, such as
a delta. A study comparing the diversity of the world’s drainage basins found the
majority of species diversity “in South America, Eastern Africa and South-East Asia
with the notable exceptions of crayfish diversity, which is concentrated in North
America, Southeast Australia and to a lesser extent Europe” (Tisseuil et al., 2013, p.
368).
The saltwater biome is also called the marine life zone, which includes coastal
ecosystems such as estuaries, where the salt and freshwater mix, and the deep sea.
There are also saline lakes, such as the Caspian Sea. The Caspian Sea, which is
bordered by Iran, Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan, is the largest
lake in the world. Sea grass is the dominant plant life yet nonnative species can be
found even in such a unique environment (Ghasemi, 2014).
Coastal life zones include the coral reefs, where the greatest amount of biodiversity is
found; estuaries; sea grass beds; and sandy or rocky shores. Coral reefs may include
nine million species. The highest species diversity is in the Caribbean Sea and the
Indian and Pacific Oceans (Plaisance, Caley, Brainard, & Knowlton, 2011).
The ocean is divided into large zones characterized by different levels of light,
temperature, and pressure that support various types of animals. The deeper levels
seem to have less species diversity, but this has resulted in unique adaptations. The
ocean surface, where there is light, includes phytoplankton (responsible for a large
quantity of photosynthesis in the ocean), fish, and mammals. Going deeper in the
ocean, the next level has less light and is colder and includes shallower ocean
bottoms. The bottom of the ocean in this area may include bacteria, worms, and
clams, as well as crustaceans such as snails or crabs. The lowest level in the ocean is
called the abyssal zone. This ocean level, which includes underwater trenches, is
characterized by darkness, low temperatures, and intense pressure. The bacteria that
form the base of the food chain use hydrothermal vents as a source of energy
instead of the sun. Decaying matter from above also provides nutrients and a food
supply (Jamieson, Fujii, Mayor, Solan, & Priede, 2010).

Genetics
The composition of genes plays a large role in determining features like hair color
and height. Mutations are the source of new genetic traits. As discussed earlier, the
environment selects for the traits that are the most beneficial for the given
environment. At one time it was thought that this environmental pressure was

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random; however, it has been observed that stressed bacteria are more likely to
express beneficial genes than would be predicted by random chance (Garte, 2014).

Endangered Species
Species classified as endangered are at risk of becoming extinct. Threatened species
are those that are at risk of becoming endangered in the near future. Small
populations are at more risk of extinction because there is less genetic diversity.
Many species labeled endangered are classified when there is concern that the
genetic variety is limited (Meffe & Carroll, 1997).

Founder Effect and Other Causes of Low Genetic Diversity

This loss of genetic diversity can lead to a higher rate of genetic problems if the few
genes that are expressed contain harmful mutations or less favorable traits for the
given environment. For example, thick fur is beneficial in a colder environment, while
a trait for a less heavy coat could decrease fitness and survival to the extent that is
not attractive to other members of its species. Knowing the ratio of these negative
traits in a population is required to determine how isolated and small a population
can be before it inbreeds itself to extinction (Lande, 1988; Nei & Tajima, 1981). For
example, if a population has multiple generations of inbreeding (the parents may be
brother and sister), the ability for their children to reproduce is decreased, as has
been observed among wolves, mink, white tigers, and brown bears (Laikre, 1999).
When a few individuals establish a new population, which may represent only a
subset of the original gene pool, it is called the founder effect. This small population
has the added risk of negative gene expression. An example where people have
selected for specific traits, thus causing a human-induced founder effect, is with the
breeding of dogs. Purebred dogs are more likely to have genetic problems. For
example, Labrador Retrievers and Golden Retrievers may make great family pets, but
they are prone to eye tumors, the risk of which increases with age (Donaldson,
Sansom, Scase, Adams, & Mellersh, 2006).

Case Study of Managing for Founder Effect: The California Condor

The current California condor population is descended from only 12 individuals. Because of
the low number of founders, there was a concern for retaining the genetic diversity of the
species. In this way, the species has a better chance to evolve though time. This would also
reduce concerns about the deleterious effects of inbreeding.

The current population of condors descended from some that had a recessive gene for
dwarfism and a heart murmur. If carriers of the recessive gene do not mate, the chances of the
trait being expressed are lessened. The reason for not excluding the carriers from breeding
altogether is that the exact gene responsible for these traits is unknown and there are
concerns that this could lead to the loss of potentially beneficial genes.

The reintroduction sites for California condors are in California and Northern Arizona. Having
two sites is beneficial because, if an unplanned event (such as disease or natural disaster) hits
one population, there is less likelihood the other population will be impacted. Important
aspects to consider when choosing an appropriate area for reintroduction include size, habitat
type, traditional range, factors that could hurt/kill the species, shelter, food, water, etc. Other
considerations can include political achievability (cost of land and public opinion). Typical

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 components of a reintroduction plan may include protecting sites, finding suitable sites, having
systematic site selection (size, buffers, quality), monitoring, restoring habitat, estimating
population size needed, and using an interdisciplinary approach if possible, including recovery
objectives, allowing performance criteria, and obtaining local support. Despite efforts to meet
these needs at both locations, the California condor is still at risk from lead poisoning and
pollution. Condors feed off the dead; thus, when they consume animals killed with lead bullets,
they are at risk of ingesting poisonous lead. Another concern is that the reintroduced species
are fascinated with pollution and try to feed material, such as plastic, to their young (T. Sisk,
personal communication, 2005).

Another reason for a loss in genetic diversity is when there is a bottleneck. A

bottleneck is a severe temporary or permanent reduction where, through random
chance, some genetic variations or rare genes are lost due to a natural disaster or
overexploitation. For example, the last ice age seems to have greatly reduced the
number of cheetahs, resulting in less genetic diversity. Sometimes the reason for this
is anthropocentric, such as the overhunting of the North American elephant seal
(Lowry et al., 2014).
The third reason for genes not being passed on is by random chance called genetic
drift. For example, an individual is walking down the street and steps on some
beetles. The person was not purposely trying to kill the beetles, but that random act
could change the expression of genes in the future. One explanation given for the
wide variation of bears (e.g., polar bears, brown bears, pandas) is that it may be due
in part to genetic drift (Welch et al., 2014).
These genetic changes can change behaviors or features that can isolate populations.
This can be the result of the population breaking off from the larger group and, when
it is reunited with another population, is different enough that gene flow chances are
decreased from attraction or timing. At other times, this can happen within
subpopulations. For example, salmon have changed behavioral characteristics,
causing them to breed at different times and resulting in a different subspecies.
Multiple environmental factors may cause these differences, including temperature
or the length of day. One extreme example occurred when a population of salmon
was introduced into New Zealand and within 30 generations it adapted by changing
breeding time, morphology, and growth rate (Ashley et al., 2003).

Reviewing Learning Outcomes

Organisms are typically grouped together for the benefit of finding mates,
protection, and securing limited resources.
Habitats are found within ecosystems, which reflect specific climate and
species types.
Biomes are general groupings of ecosystems that share a similar
structure and climate.
Biotic limitations include predation, parasitism, and food availability.
Abiotic factors include temperature, chemical levels like nitrogen, and
water availability.

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 Living things interact with each other and the nonliving components
around them.
Biotic factors include plants, animals, and bacteria.
Living things have different relationships with each other from predation,
parasitism, commensalism, to mutualism.
The sun is the planet’s ultimate source of energy.
Because of the second law of thermodynamics, every time energy is
converted from one form of energy to another, it goes from higher
quality energy to lower quality energy.
Genetic mutations result in variations, which support the theory of
natural selection.
The founder effect increases the chances of inbreeding.
Chapter 3 Practice Quiz

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