BASIC STATISTICAL CONCEPTS
Statistics is a branch of mathematics that focuses on the organization, analysis, and interpretation of a group of numbers.
Psychologists use statistical methods to help them make sense of the numbers they collect when conducting research.
Think of statistics as a tool that has evolved from a basic thinking process employed by every human: you observe a thing; you
wonder what it means or what caused it; you have an insight or make an intuitive guess; you observe again, but now in detail, or you try
making little changes in the process to test your intuition. Then you face the eternal problem: was your hunch confirmed or not? What are
the chances that what you observed this second time will happen again and again, so that you can announce your insight to the world as
something probably true? In other words, statistics is a method of pursuing truth. At a minimum, statistics can tell you the likelihood that
your hunch is true in this time and place and with these sorts of people. This type of pursuit of truth, especially in the form of an event’s
future likelihood, is the essence of psychology, of science, and of human evolution.
The Two Branches of Statistical Methods
There are two main branches of statistical methods.
1. Descriptive statistics: Psychologists use descriptive statistics to summarize and describe a group of numbers from a research study.
For example, one of the first things we want to do with our data is to graph them, to calculate means (averages) and other measures.
2. Inferential statistics: Psychologists use inferential statistics to draw conclusions and to make inferences that are based on the
numbers from a research study but that go beyond the numbers.
For example, inferential statistics allow researchers to make inferences about a large group of individuals based on a research study
in which a much smaller number of individuals took part.
Variables and Constants
A variable is a condition or characteristic that can have different values. In short, it can vary. In our example, the variable was level
of stress, which can have the values of 0 through 10. Height is a variable, social class is a variable, score on a creativity test is a variable,
type of psychotherapy received by patients is a variable, speed on a reaction time test is a variable, number of people absent from work
on a given day is a variable, and so forth.
In statistics, a constant is a value or number that remains unchanged throughout a statistical analysis or calculation. It is a fixed value that
does not vary or change over time, unlike variables, which can take on different values.
Examples of Constants in Statistics
• In a probability distribution, the mean is a constant that represents the average value of the distribution.
• In a statistical model, the standard deviation is a constant that represents the spread of the data around the mean.
Variable:
A variable is a property of an object or event that can take on different values.
Independent Variable (IV):
The independent variable is the variable that is intentionally changed or manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent
variable. It is the variable that is being controlled or altered to test its impact on the outcome. In our example, group membership is an
independent variable, because we control it. We decide what the treatments will be and who will receive each treatment. We decide that
this group over here will receive the stress management treatment and that group over there will not.
Dependent Variable (DV):
The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured or observed in response to the changes made to the independent variable. It is the
outcome or result that is being studied to see how it is affected by the independent variable. On the other hand, the data such as the resulting
self-esteem scores, scores on feelings of personal control, and so on are the dependent variables.
Discrete Variable
A discrete variable is a type of variable that can only take on specific, distinct values. These values are often countable and can be
represented by whole numbers. Discrete variables are typically measured by counting or categorizing data, and they are often used to describe
phenomena that can be counted or categorized, such as:
• The number of items in a collection
• The number of people in a group
• The number of occurrences of an event
• The number of categories or levels of a variable
Continuous Variable:
A continuous variable is a type of variable that can take on any value within a given range or interval. Continuous variables are often measured
using a scale or a ruler, and they are often used to describe phenomena that can be measured or quantified, such as:
• Temperature
• Weight
• Length
• Time
• Concentration