FLUID POWER AND CONTROL/3

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Fluid Power
Troubleshooting
 FLUID POWER AND CONTROL
A Series of Textbooks and Reference Books

Consulting Editor

Z. J. Lansky
Parker Hannifin Corporation
Cleveland, Ohio

Associate Editor
Frank Yeaple

Design News Magazine

Cahners Publishing Company
Boston, Massachusetts

1. Hydraulic Pumps and Motors: Selection and Application for Hydraulic

Power Control Systems, by Raymond P. Lambeck

2. Designing Pneumatic Control Circuits: Efficient Techniques for Practical

Application, by Bruce E. McCord

3. Fluid Power Troubleshooting, by Anton H. Hehn

4. Hydraulic Valves and Controls: Selection and Application, by John J. Pippenger

5. Fluid Power Design Handbook, by Frank Yeaple

Other Volumes in Preparation

 Fluid Power
Troubleshooting
ANTON H. HEHN
Hehn and Associates
Skokie, Illinois

851075

OLDS COLLEGE LIBRARY

OLDS, ALBERTA TOM IPO

MARCEL DEKKER, INC. New York and Basel

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Hehn, Anton, H., [date]

Fluid power troubleshooting.

(Fluid power and control; 3)

Includes Index.
1. Fluid power technology. 2. Oil hydraulic machinery
— Maintenance and repair. 3. Pneumatic machinery— Main¬
tenance and repair. I. Title. II. Series.
TJ843.H44 1984 621.2'0288 83-20934
ISBN 0-8247-7048-X

COPYRIGHT © 1984 by MARCEL DEKKER, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publisher.

MARCEL DEKKER, INC.

270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016

Current printing (last digit):

10 987654321

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 To my wife
Violet Hofmann Hehn
 Foreword

The servicing of hydraulic systems, including maintenance, troubleshooting,

and repair, has been one of the major problems facing users of hydraulic
equipment.
Although many component manufacturers have prepared and published
excellent data on the diagnostics and repair of specific components which may
be malfunctioning, little has been published on the diagnostics of entire sys¬
tems which may include similar but subtly differing products designed and
manufactured by several competing manufacturers.
In this work the author has addressed the problem on a broad scale.
The material is organized to enable the hydraulic maintenance technician to
determine the probable cause of malfunction in even a relatively complex
system. While many authors have addressed this problem, few have made ade¬
quate reference to or use of the specific maintenance instructions and main¬
tenance suggestions of component manufacturers whose products are included
in a malfunctioning circuit.
The author has taken great care to have much of his material reviewed
by other fluid power experts, especially those best qualified to deal with fluid
circuits which may be malfunctioning for obscure reasons often difficult to
pinpoint. He has incorporated many of the suggestions received into his nar¬
rative. The net result is a volume which will be a most useful tool for the cir¬
cuit designer, providing the insight needed to devise circuits and define the
installation and mounting of the various components to minimize application
problems. Maintenance experts will find the author’s practical, down-to-earth
troubleshooting hints and suggested remedies a welcome change from the
more usual obscure approaches to circuit problems.
Z. J. Lansky
 ’

'

■ ' * (du
 Preface

Industrial fluid power is a relatively young field of energy transmission and

control. The manufacture of hydraulic and pneumatic components for various
industrial applications has expanded very rapidly since the end of World War
II. Modern hydraulic and pneumatic equipment can economically convert me¬
chanical energy into fluid energy, and with simple components this energy
may be regulated to provide direction, speed, and force control. No other
type of power transmission provides the range of control of force, speed, and
direction that is possible with fluid power transmission. The ever-increasing
use of industrial robots and automated machinery in plants is made possible
in part by continuing development in the field of fluid power systems and
controls. Today, fluid power equipment is used in nearly every branch of in¬
dustry: petrochemical, mining, machine tool, plastics processing, material
handling, packaging, pharmaceuticals, and others. Increased use of fluid
power equipment has resulted in an expanded need for technicians, engineers,
managers, and mechanics to become acquainted with the operation, care, and
troubleshooting of this equipment.
This book has been prepared to provide designers and users of fluid
power systems with a reference source in the area of fluid power troubleshoot¬
ing. The material presented is practical in character; theory is kept to a min¬
imum. The information presented will provide the reader with answers to
many of the most common questions pertaining to locating and isolating fluid
power problems within a system.
The author has drawn on the knowledge obtained and information
gathered during many years of designing, maintaining, and troubleshooting
equipment actuated and controlled by fluid power. The arrangement of the

Vll
viii Preface

material follows that developed during the conduct of numerous seminars

dealing with this subject matter.
Chapter 1 presents a review of fluid power principles and a comparison
of pneumatic, hydraulic, and electric systems. Chapters 2 and 3 deal with the
operation, maintenance, and troubleshooting of hydraulic and pneumatic sys¬
tems. Chapter 4 discusses the sources, effects, and control of contaminants
in a hydraulic system. Chapter 5 reviews compressed air filtration, lubrica¬
tion, and moisture control. Chapters 6 through 10 deal with hydrostatic trans¬
missions, the generation and control of heat, selection and care of hydraulic
fluids, fluid conductors and connectors, and seals used in static and dynamic
applications. Chapters 11 and 12 concern themselves with maintenance and
troubleshooting of systems, malfunction detection, and diagnostic instrumen¬
tation. The book concludes with a brief discussion of fluid power system noise
and a review of electrohydraulic servosystems. Some helpful technical infor¬
mation and a detailed list of fluid power symbols are provided in the appen¬
dixes. It is hoped that this material will enable the reader, when troubleshoot¬
ing, to spot quickly a component that is not working properly.
The author wholeheartedly thanks Mr. John J. Pippinger for the edi¬
torial work, revisions, and additions to the text and Mr. Ray Lambeck, Dr.
Zeke Lansky, Dr. J. Slater, Mr. Frank Yeaple, and Mr. Bruce McCord for
their review of the manuscript and the many fine suggestions received from
each. The author extends many thanks to the fluid power equipment manu¬
facturers for their generous contributions of technical information and il¬
lustrations.

Anton H. Hehn
 Contents

Foreword (Z. J. Lansky) v

Preface vii

1 Fluid Power Principles: A Review 1

1.1 Hydraulic Principles 1

1.1.1 Basic Laws of Fluids 1
1.2 Pneumatic Principles 6
1.3 Hydraulic System Operation 11
1.3.1 Comparing Hydraulic Systems 17
1.4 Pneumatic System Operation 28
1.4.1 Compressors 29
1.4.2 Heat Exchangers (Aftercoolers) 32
1.4.3 Storage Tanks 32
1.5 Comparison of Air Systems to Electric and
Hydraulic Systems 33
1.5.1 Air Versus Electric 33
1.5.2 Air Versus Hydraulic 33

2 Hydraulic Systems: Operation, Maintenance,

and Troubleshooting 36

2.1 Hydraulic Pumps 36

2.1.1 Gear Pumps 37
2.1.2 Vane Pumps 39

ix
x Contents

2.1.3 Piston Pumps 44

2.2 Hydraulic Motors 52
2.2.1 Vane Motors 53
2.2.2 Gear Motors 55
2.2.3 Piston Motors 55
2.2.4 Rotary Motion (Fluid Motors and
Rotary Actuators) 57
2.3 Startup, Operation, and Maintenance of Hydraulic
Pumps and Motors 59
2.3.1 General Instructions 60
2.3.2 Troubleshooting 62
2.4 Hydraulic Valves 68
2.4.1 Directional Control Valves 69
2.4.2 Flow Control Valves 74
2.4.3 Pressure Control Valves 80
2.4.4 Servicing, Repair, and Troubleshooting 85
2.5 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Cylinders 97
2.5.1 Description and Terminology 97
2.5.2 Cylinder Cushions 99
2.5.3 Cylinder Piston Seals 102
2.5.4 Installation and Maintenance of Hydraulic
Cylinders 108
2.5.5 Troubleshooting 110
2.6 Hydraulic Accumulators 114
2.6.1 Types and Applications 114
2.6.2 Servicing and Repair 119
2.7 Hydraulic System Reservoirs 124
2.7.1 Construction and Design 124
2.7.2 Accessories 130

3 Pneumatic Systems: Operation, Maintenance, and

Troubleshooting 132

3.1 Air Compressors 132

3.1.1 Reciprocating Piston Compressors 133
3.1.2 Rotary Compressors 140
3.1.3 Troubleshooting 146
3.2 Pneumatic Valves 148
3.2.1 Valve Types 148
3.2.2 Maintenance and Troubleshooting 153
3.3 Air Motors 167
3.3.1 Operation and Characteristics: Vane Motors 168
Contents xi

3.3.2 Maintenance 172

3.3.3 Maintenance of Air Tools 174

4 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System 179

4.1 Sources 179

4.2 Effects 184
4.3 Control 187
4.4 Filter Types 190
4.5 Installation, Maintenance, and Troubleshooting of
Hydraulic Filters 201
4.5.1 Installation 201
4.5.2 Maintenance 202
4.5.3 Troubleshooting 204

5 Compressed Air Filtration, Lubrication, and

Moisture Control 207

5.1 Contaminants in the Air System 207

5.2 Air Line Filters, Lubricators, and Pressure
Regulators 211
5.2.1 Compressed Air Filters 211
5.2.2 Lubricators 218
5.2.3 Pressure Regulators 221
5.2.4 Choosing an F-R-L of Adequate Size 225
5.3 Routine Maintenance of F-R-L Units 228
5.3.1 Troubleshooting 229
5.4 Maintenance of Compressed Air Filters 230
5.5 Aftercoolers and Air Driers 232
5.5.1 Aftercoolers 232
5.5.2 Air Driers 234

6 Hydrostatic Transmissions 244

6.1 Principles of Operation 244

6.1.1 Circuit Development 246
6.2 Transmission Startup Procedure 252
6.3 System Maintenance 254
6.4 Troubleshooting 255
 Contents

7 Temperature Considerations 265

7.1 Heat Generation 265

7.2 Heat Dissipation 270
7.3 Heat Exchangers: Coolers 271
7.3.1 Heat Exchanger Types 272
7.3.2 Adding a Second Heat Exchanger 276
7.3.3 Miscellaneous Tips on Heat Exchangers 278
7.3.4 Tips on Heat Dissipation by Radiation 279
7.4 Maintenance and Service 280
7.4.1 Replacement of Zinc Anodes 280
7.4.2 Cleaning Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 280
7.4.3 Cleaning Air-Oil Heat Exchangers 281
7.4.4 Checking for Leaks 281

8 Hydraulic System Fluids: Selection and Care 282

8.1 Fluid Types and Properties 283

8.2 Maintaining Fluid Performance 288

Fluid Conductors and Connectors 292

9.1 Pipe, Tubing, and Hose 292

9.1.1 Pipe 292
9.1.2 Tubing 293
9.1.3 Hose 295
9.2 Connectors 296
9.2.1 Tube Fittings 296
9.2.2 Straight-Thread O-Ring Fittings 300
9.3 Installation Considerations 302
9.3.1 Pipe Installation 302
9.3.2 Tubing Installation 303
9.3.3 Hose Installation 304
9.4 Plant Air Line Piping Systems 304
9.5 Selection, Use, and Care of Hose and Fittings 307
9.6 Hose Assembly Failures 317
9.6.1 Improper Application 318
9.6.2 Improper Assembly and Installation 319
9.6.3 External Damage 319
9.6.4 Faulty Equipment 319
9.6.5 Faulty Hose 319
Contents xiii

9.6.6 Analyzing Hose Failures 319

9.7 Modular Manifold Hydraulic Systems 327

10 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment 332

10.1 Seal Forms 332

10.2 Dynamic Seal Application and Failures 334
10.2.1 Radial Lip Seals 335
10.2.2 Face Seals 339
10.2.3 Packings 348
10.3 Static Seal Application and Failures 349
10.3.1 Gaskets 349
10.3.2 O Rings 350
10.4 Checking for Leaks 353
10.5 Tips to Avoid Premature Seal Failure 357
10.6 Exclusion Rings, Wiper Rings, or Scraper Rings 358

11 Fluid Power Systems: Operation, Maintenance,

and Troubleshooting 362

11.1 System Design Considerations 364

11.2 System Operation 364
11.3 Knowing the System 365
11.4 Startup and Maintenance of Hydraulic Systems 366
11.4.1 Startup 367
11.4.2 Maintenance 368
11.5 Maintenance Procedures and Hints 369
11.6 Hydraulic System Maintenance Accessories 372
11.7 Troubleshooting Guides 375

12 Fluid Power System Malfunction Detection

and Diagnosis 382

12.1 Malfunction Detection 382

12.1.1 Using a Hydraulic Tester to Troubleshoot 386
12.1.2 Application of a Tester 389
12.2 Diagnostic Instrumentation 397
12.2.1 Ultrasonic Leak Detector 397
12.2.2 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge 399
12.2.3 Viscosity Measurement 401
xiv Contents

12.2.4 Liquid-Level and Temperature Indicators 403

12.2.5 Flowmeters 403

13 Fluid Power System Noise Control 407

13.1 Pump Noise 408

13.2 Reducing Noise at Its Source 409
13.2.1 Vibration Mounts 410
13.3 Noise Measurement 410
13.4 Research to Reduce Noise 412

14 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems, Proportional 416

Valve Systems, and Load-Sensing Systems

14.1 Description 416

14.1.1 Control System Types 418
14.1.2 Electrohydraulic Equipment 420
14.2 Properties of Feedback Control Systems 421
14.2.1 Objectives 421
14.2.2 Open-Loop Versus Closed-Loop SysteAi
Characteristics 421
14.2.3 Stability and Dynamic Response 422
14.3 Electrohydraulic Proportional and Servo Valves 423
14.3.1 Valve Construction 423
14.3.2 Main-Stage Porting 428
14.3.3 Spool Lap Condition 428
14.3.4 Valve Characteristics 429
14.3.5 Flow Control Servo Valves 430
14.3.6 Pressure Control Servo Valves 433
14.4 Installation, Operation, Maintenance, and
Troubleshooting of Servo Valves 434
14.4.1 Installation and Startup 434
14.4.2 Operation 438
14.4.3 Maintenance and Troubleshooting 441
14.5 Servo-System Terminology 444

Appendix A Fluid Power Symbols and Glossary 447

A.l Fluid Power Symbols 447

A.2 Fluid Power Graphic Symbols 452
Contents xv

A.3 American National Standards Institute Symbols 466

A. 4 Glossary of Fluid Power Terms 476

Appendix B Hydraulic Facts and Technical Data 483

B. l Hydraulic Facts 483

B.2 Miscellaneous Technical Data 484
B.3 Helpful Tables for Fluid Power Systems 490

Index 499
1 .
Fluid Power
Troubleshooting
\
 1
Fluid Power Principles:
A Review

1.1 HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES

Proper use and maintenance of hydraulic systems is dependent on a thorough
knowledge of the fluid and of the functions of the mechanical components.
To operate and maintain a hydraulic system, people in the industrial field must
equip themselves with a knowledge of the basic physical laws of fluid power
and should be familiar with the seven basic components of a hydraulic system.
Many hydraulic systems seem exceedingly complicated. However, their
basic design is quite simple. Regardless of the complexity or simplicity of a
hydraulic system, each system contains seven basic components: (1) a reser¬
voir to hold the fluid supply, (2) connecting lines to transmit the fluid power,
(3) a pump to convert input power into fluid power, (4) a pressure control
valve to regulate pressure, (5) a directional control valve to control the direc¬
tion of fluid flow, (6) a flow control device to regulate speed or fluid flow,
and (7) an actuator to convert hydraulic power into mechanical motion.

1.1.1 Basic Laws of Fluids

Although hydraulics is one of the oldest branches of science, it was only in
recent years that knowledge of the physical laws of fluids was put to prac¬
tical use in industry. Ninety years ago it would have been impossible to apply
hydraulics as we do today. Machine tools for producing the required preci¬
sion parts did not exist. Moreover, oil technology had not progressed far
enough to produce a satisfactory hydraulic oil.
One reason for the ever-increasing use of hydraulic apparatus is the fact

OLDS COLLEGE LIBRARY 1

OLDS, ALBERTA TOM IPO
2 Fluid Power Principles

that properly constructed hydraulic systems possess a number of favorable

characteristics: (1) they can eliminate complicated mechanisms such as cams,
gears, and levers; (2) the liquid used is not subject to breakage as are mechan¬
ical parts; (3) the components of a hydraulic system are not subject to great
wear; (4) forces can be rapidly generated and transmitted over considerable
distances with very little loss and can also be carried up and down and around
corners; and (5) hydraulic systems make possible widely variable motions in
both rotary and straight-line transmission of power. It should also be noted
that the increase in automation in industry has produced a tremendous ex¬
pansion in the use of hydraulic and electronic equipment.
The fluid most commonly used in hydraulic systems is petroleum-based,
although, water has found application in a limited number of hydraulic in¬
stallations. Synthetic fluids and fire-resistant fluids are also used in the
hydraulic field, and their use is almost mandatory in operations where fire
hazards exist.
The primary functions of a hydraulic fluid are to transmit force and
to reproduce quickly any change in direction or magnitude in the force (Fig.
1.1). To accomplish this, the fluid must be relatively incompressible. Liquids
possess physical properties which give them the ability to transmit power and
multiply force.
Liquids are nearly incompressible. Even when liquids are subject to
extreme pressures of thousands of pounds to the square inch, the volume of
change is negligible. The practical significance of this fact is that force can
be transmitted undiminished in all directions when the force is applied on one
surface of a confined field. Pascal discovered this principle in 1620, thus pro¬
viding the fundamental law underlying the whole science of hydraulics. Pas¬
cal's law states that “pressure exerted on a confined liquid is transmitted un¬
diminished in all directions and acts with equal force on all equal areas.” This
means that pressure applied to a liquid at one point will be transmitted to
any point reached by the liquid.
Because liquids are incompressible, they possess a distinct advantage
in the transmission of power. Pressure exerted on one surface of a confined
liquid is transmitted undiminished to other surfaces. However, when a blow
is struck on the end of a metal bar, the direction of thrust cannot be al¬
tered. The main force of the flow is carried straight through the bar to
the other end. This happens because the bar is rigid. In this case, only the
use of gears and other complex mechanisms can change the direction of the
force.
When a force is applied to a confined liquid, the liquid exhibits the same
effect of rigidity as a solid. However, the force is transmitted not only straight
through to the other end, but in every direction throughout the confined fluid.
The force is transmitted equally forward, backward, and sideways. The
Sp p.p\ ; . >; . •' •/." ?

V *“ " *
I '•* 1 V-i i /.L *
Hydraulic Principles 3

pressure of a liquid can be directed around corners. It can be bent back on

itself. It can transmit force to any point reached by the confined liquid.
A tremendous force can be effected depending on the difference in area
sizes where the force is applied and where the work is effected. This hydraulic
advantage makes it possible for a small force to lift a great weight. The hy¬
draulic jack demonstrates this principle.
Pascal’s law can be used to multiply force since it states that equal force
is exerted on equal surfaces. This means that a pressure of 10 lb applied on
1 in.2 of surface would be applied equally to each square inch on all surfaces.
Thus a pressure of 10 lb on a 1-in.2 area would act against a 10-in.2 surface
with a total force of 100 lb.
Force can be multiplied successfully by the use of hydraulic principles.
However, it must be noted that to increase pressure, distance is sacrificed.
For example, a 10-in. piston will move one-tenth the distance of a 1-in piston.
This ratio of pressure and distance is continually employed in various hydrau¬
lic components. It is well to remember that when pressure is increased, dis¬
tance is sacrificed, and vice versa. The basic rule for two pistons in a hydrau¬
lic system is that the distances moved are inversely proportional to their areas.
In addition to Pascal’s law, there is another important principle govern¬
ing the behavior of fluids, Bernoulli's theorem. It states: “As liquid flows
through a restriction it gains speed but loses pressure; as it emerges from the
restriction it loses speed but gains pressure.” This is the second important basic
law of hydraulics; it deals with fluids that are in motion. There is a propor¬
tionate relationship between the cross-sectional area of a passageway and the
velocity of flow. In a system, the volume of flow will always be the same
through any line. A given volume will pass through a given distance in the
same time regardless of the cross-sectional area of the supply lines. The only
variable will be a pressure increase or pressure drop.
Some attention must be given to the flow characteristics of fluids in
order to understand better the results of these characteristics on hydraulic
operations. There are two types of flow in fluid power operations: laminar
(or straight line) and turbulent. Laminar flow is a smooth movement of fluid
through the system as a result of proper control of fluid velocity and pres¬
sure drop. Turbulent or “rough flow"is caused by excess velocity, rough in¬
ternal pipe surfaces, obstructions, excessive pressure drop, and the use of ex¬
cessive elbows or bends in the piping system.
In addition to laminar and turbulent flow, it is necessary to mention
other factors that directly affect hydraulic fluid performance. These are:

1. Specific gravity (or weight of the fluid): This is important when

using fire-resistant hydraulic fluids, because some of these fluids
are heavier than conventional petroleum-base fluids.
4 Fluid Power Principles

Figure 1.1 Basic principles of fluids. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co., Waterloo,
Iowa.)
Hydraulic Principles 5

10 SQ.
IN.

Figure 1.1 (continued)

6 Fluid Power Principles

2. Atmospheric pressure: This acts on the fluid whenever it is ex¬

posed to air (important for suction inlet problems).
3. Inertia: Inertia must be considered when moving the fluid from
a rest position to motion.
4. Friction: Considerable heat is generated merely by the fluid pass¬
ing the inside wall of a pipe.
5. Air entrainment: Since air is compressible, any mixture of air with
the hydraulic fluid will affect the compressibility of the fluid, re¬
sulting in soft or spongy hydraulic action.

Before discussing the design and operation of the basic components of a hy¬
draulic system it is necessary to understand the terms used in hydraulics. It
is also important to become aware of some misconceptions regarding hydrau¬
lic operations. The terms pressure, force, work, power, and torque are con¬
tinually used in describing hydraulic functions. They are defined as follows:

Pressure = force per unit area (psi)

Force = psi x area (in.2)
Work = force x distance (ft-lb)
Power = time rate of doing work (given force moving through a given
distance at a given speed) (ft-lb/sec)
Torque = twisting effort developed on the output shaft of a hydraulic
motor or input shaft of driving member (lb-ft)

1.2 PNEUMATIC PRINCIPLES

Each time you take a breath, you are inhaling a little over 3/100 of a cubic
foot of air —a colorless, odorless, tasteless mixture of gases without which
you could not survive for more than 5 or 6 min. The air we breathe is the
same air that we compress and use in an endless variety of ways in industry.
A great many scientists have worked hard to provide us with a thorough
knowledge of the basic laws that govern the behavior of air.
One scientist who was instrumental in extending our knowledge regard¬
ing air was Evangelista Torricelli, a student of Galileo. He suspected that the
suction of a pump (the vacuum in the cylinder) used to get water out from
the bottom of mine shafts was not responsible for pulling up the water. In¬
stead, he suspected that the water was pushed up into the cylinder by the pres¬
sure or weight of the air once a partial vacuum was established by the pump.
In other words, he suspected that the air had a finite weight.
To test this, he filled a glass tube about 36 in. long with mercury. One
Pneumatic Principles 7

end of the tube was sealed. Holding his thumb over the open end of the tube,
he upended the tube into a dish partially filled with mercury. On removing
his thumb, he watched the mercury flow out of the tube into the dish and
then stop flowing when the column fell to a height of about 30 in. The weight
of the air (atmosphere) exerted a force equal to 30 in. of mercury. Since mer¬
cury is 13.6 times as dense as water, this was equal to nearly 34 ft of water.
If a good enough vacuum could be established, 33.9 ft is the highest the at¬
mosphere would lift a column of water. The experiment resulted in the in¬
vention of the barometer.
In another experiment using glass tubes and mercury, Robert Boyle, an
English physicist of the latter part of the seventeenth century, established
the relationship between the pressure and volume of air. He proved experi¬
mentally that when the pressure is doubled, the volume of the air in a con¬
fined vessel is reduced by one-half. This discovery became known as Boyle's
law, which states that “with a constant temperature, volume is inversely pro¬
portional to pressure.”
From his investigation and experiments, a scientist named Charles gave
his name to the other principal law —together with Boyle’s — which makes up
the “ideal gas law.” Charles's law states that “with a constant volume, abso¬
lute pressure is directly proportional to absolute temperature.” Charles’s law
is involved when you are cautioned against throwing empty aerosol cans into
a fire. As the remaining gas in the can is heated, the pressure might increase
sufficiently to explode the container.
Because air cannot be compressed without its temperature changing,
Boyle’s and Charles’s laws do not operate separately in a real pneumatic sys¬
tem. They operate together, according to the Ideal Gas Law, calculated by
the formula

PiXVt _ P2XV2
Ti " T2

This formula uses absolute pressure (psia) and absolute temperatures (°R)
in its calculations. The formula also shows that the pressure, volume, and
temperature of the second state of a gas are equal to the pressure, volume,
and temperature of the first state. However, in actual practice other factors,
such as humidity, heat of friction, and efficiency losses, also affect the
gas.
Absolute temperature is used when applying Charles’s law. Absolute
temperature starts at absolute zero, which is - 459.67°F, or 0°R (zero degrees
Rankine). Rankine was the scientist who discovered absolute zero. On this
basis, 0°F equals 460°R and 60°F equals 520°R (460°R + 60°F).
The dynamics of air are determined by the air’s pressure, temperature,
8 Fluid Power Principles

and water vapor content (relative humidity). Therefore, industry has adopted
a standard on air specifying these three factors. Pressure differentials, pres¬
sure drop, flow, and performance criteria of various pneumatic equipment
and components are based and designed around this “standard” air. A stand¬
ard cubic foot (scf) of air is 1 ft3 in volume at sea-level atmospheric pressure
(14.69 psi), 68°F temperature, and 36% relative humidity (Fig. 1.2). For air
to perform some useful work, there must be pressure differentials. Flowing
air (a function of pressure difference) is measured by the cubic-foot volume
past a given point during some period of time, usually minutes; thus we ar¬
rive at the unit standard cubic feet per minute (scfm). It is well to make a
distinction between the weight of air and the pressure of air. Weight is the
air’s density or mass. Pressure is the force that air exerts against a surface (psi).
Although it is well to know the definition of a standard cubic foot of
air, it will rarely be encountered under these precise conditions. Normally,
we deal with free or “actual” air, with its constantly changing temperature
and relative humidity. The atmospheric pressure also changes as the altitude
increases and decreases.
The amount of water vapor in the air is called the relative humidity.
The capacity for air to hold water in vapor or gaseous form is primarily a
function of its temperature. The higher the temperature, the greater the
capacity to hold water vapor. Briefly, relative humidity is the amount of water
vapor in the air at a given temperature, relative to its total capacity to hold
water at that temperature. By withdrawing heat energy from air, moisture
can be removed; that is, a portion of the water vapor can be condensed. When
the relative humidity of air is 100%, the point where it can hold no addition¬
al water has been reached. This is called the dew point of the air. At this point
the water vapor will begin to transform, or condense, into liquid “dew.”
Air is “springy” or compressible. This compressibility of air means that
more and more air can be squeezed into a constant volume (or storage tank).

Standard Air Air

ft3 at ft3 at ft3 at

Sea Level Atmospheric 60 PSI at 100 PSI
68° F Pressure
36% Relative Humidity

Figure 1.2 Relationship of air volume and pressure.

Pneumatic Principles 9

As more air is forced into this constant volume, the pressure rises (Boyle’s
law). This ratio of free air required to achieve elevated pressure in a constant
volume is expressed by the formula

atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure

compression ratio = ----—-—:-5—-—--
atmospheric pressure

Therefore, if the number of cubic feet of free air that must be pumped into
a 1-ft3 container to get a 100-psi gauge reading are to be determined, the equa¬
tion above can be used. At sea level the atmospheric pressure is 14.69 psi and
the compression ratio to obtain a 100-psig container pressure is

114.69
7.8
14.69

At a 5000-ft elevation with an atmospheric pressure of 12.22 psi, the ratio

would be

112.22
9.18
12.22
This indicates that, at sea level, it takes approximately 8 ft3 of free air to ob¬
tain 1 ft3 of air at 100 psig pressure.
If the volume of compressed air used or needed by a pneumatic actuator
is known and it becomes necessary to convert this value into standard cubic
feet of air, the following formula applies:

free air (scf) = compressed air (ft3) x Ps^ + 14.7

14.7

Pressure gauges normally show only elevated pressures. Gauge pressure is

designated as psig — pounds per square inch gauge. The sum of gauge pressure
and atmospheric pressure is called absolute pressure, designated as psia —
pounds per square inch absolute. Knowing and using the absolute pressure
is also required in calculating flow and pressure drop or losses for various
components, such as valves, fittings, and piping.
In a dynamic system, friction is present between parts that are moving
in relation to one another. In a pneumatic system, air is moving but the pipe
is not. The faster air travels through a system, the more pressure energy is
changed into heat. Transformation of pressure energy into heat occurs in any
dynamic fluid power system as frictional resistance is being overcome. How¬
ever, we do not encounter pneumatic systems running hot. The reason for
this is that air cools as it expands to a point downstream. Cooling from air
expansion has more temperature effect on a pneumatic system than does fric¬
tional resistance.
10 Fluid Power Principles

The volume of air flowing through a pipe in a period of time is a rate

of flow. Flow rate in pneumatic systems is usually measured in cubic feet per
minute (cfm). We know that a cubic foot of air can be under various
pressures. A cubic foot of air can be at 90 psi, 100 psi, or 60 psi. But the cubic
foot of air referred to in “cfm” generally indicates a cubic foot of air as it
enters a compressor. After this air is compressed, it will have a smaller vol¬
ume, depending on how much it has been compressed. As this reduced volume
passes through system piping, it is still referred to as a cubic foot of air since
that is what it is under normal conditions.
Streamline or laminar flow is the ideal type of airflow in a pneumatic
system because the air layers move in nearly parallel lines. Like all fluids, the
layer of air next to the surface of the pipe moves the slowest because of the
friction between the fluid and the pipe. The layer of moving fluid (air) next
to the outermost layer moves a little faster, and so on, until the fluid layers
nearest the center of the flow passage move the fastest.
Turbulent flow conditions usually occur because the flow passage is too
small for the desired flow velocity of the air. The density and viscosity of the
air also affect turbulent flow, but not as much as the flow passage and the
flow velocity. Rough or irregularly formed air passages, sudden enlargement
or reduction in the diameter of the flow passages, and sudden changes in the
direction of flow should all be avoided. When air must pass through a passage
of reduced size, the restriction should be smooth and gradual. Turbulent flow
heats the air, wastes power by requiring higher air pressure, and can damage
the flow passages and ports in the pneumatic equipment.
When air and liquids or other gases come into contact, they can inter¬
mix either via diffusion or dispersion. Diffusion can be described as the rapid
intermingling of the molecules of one gas with another. This should not be
confused with evaporation, which is the changing of a liquid to a gas. To pre¬
vent compressed gases from rapidly diffusing into the surrounding air, they
must be stored in closed containers.
Dispersion can be described as the temporary mixing of liquid particles
with a gas. When air is compressed, compressor lubricating oil is picked up
by the moving air in the compressor and dispersed in fine particles that re¬
main suspended in the air for a time. If enough heat is generated in the com¬
pressor, some of the oil evaporates and is diffused in the air.
Although diffusion and dispersion should be kept to a minimum, liquids
(especially water) are continually evaporating into the surrounding gases. Be¬
cause liquids are heavier than gases, they do not mix readily. Therefore, when
air and suspended water or oil are put in the same tank or flow through the
air lines, the water or oil will settle out and flow to the lowest places. That
is why water usually collects at the bottom of a vertical air line, where it should
be removed through a drain valve.
Hydraulic System Operation 11

The types of energy used in pneumatic systems include the following:

Electrical energy: operates the compressor motor

Pneumatic energy: produced by the compressor
Kinetic energy: produced when the compressed air is lifting an object
Potential energy: which the lifted object now has
Heat energy: produced by friction in the compressor motor, the com¬
pressor, the moving air, and the moving piston

1.3 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM OPERATION

Now that the basic principles of a hydraulic system have been described, let
us look at the function that each component performs in the operation of
the complete system. First, the electric motor is started; it drives the pump
shaft that in turn actuates the pump. Once the pump is in operation, it brings
into play three direct actions on the fluid:

1. A partial vacuum is created in the pump inlet pipe.

2. Atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the fluid in the res¬
ervoir forces the fluid into the inlet pipe to fill the partial vacuum.
3. The mechanical action of the pump forces the fluid from the inlet
to the outlet of the pump and through the hydraulic system.

At this step there is fluid flow through the outlet pipe at a pressure created
by the resistance to flow. It is usually desirable to install a relief valve at the
outlet of the pump (close to the pump) with no other valving between the relief
valve and the pump outlet. The relief valve is set to pass fluid to a lower
pressure area (usually the reservoir) when a predetermined pressure level is
encountered due to resistance to flow of the fluid entering the power trans¬
mission system. Fluid entering the power transmission system (hydraulic cir¬
cuit) may encounter flow rate control devices. The flow may be directed to
the inlet of one or more directional control valves with the rate of flow be¬
ing governed by the directional control valve. Flow control valves can be in
actuator lines or installed in a tee connection to divert a selected flow back
to the reservoir or to another lower pressure area.
Fluid pressure is affected by the design of the directional control valve.
There are two basic types of directional control valves that will be frequently
encountered: closed center and open center in the neutral position. In the
closed center type, fluid flow is blocked in the neutral position of the direc¬
tional control valve. The restriction causes a rise in pressure in the line from
the outlet of the pump to the inlet of the directional control valve. The
12 Fluid Power Principles

pressure will continue to increase until it reaches the pressure setting of the
relief valve. In this situation, fluid is directed through the relief valve to the
reservoir. However, high pressure will be maintained in the line from the
pump to the directional control valve because of the relief valve action of
creating only that passageway size needed to pass the quantity of fluid de¬
livered from the pump back to the tank at the pressure level established by
the spring setting in the valve. In the open-center type of directional valve,
fluid will pass through the directional valve and return to the reservoir at low
pressure when the valve is in the neutral or center position reflecting the energy
needs to pass the fluid through the valve and piping.
For the system to perform work, the directional control valve must be
connected to a cylinder or motor. Using a closed-center valve, there will usual¬
ly be high pressure on the inlet side of the control valve and no pressure value
of any significance on the outlet side, which is connected to the cylinder. When
the control valve is shifted to either extreme position, the restriction to flow
has been reduced and the system pressure will drop to whatever pressure is
necessary to move the piston in the cylinder and the restriction caused by the
interconnecting fluid lines. The fluid in the rod end chamber of the cylinder
will flow through the directional control back to the reservoir usually only
meeting atmospheric pressure. When the valve is shifted to the reverse posi¬
tion, the system pressure will drop to whatever pressure is necessary to reverse
movement of the cylinder piston assembly. The fluid in the unpressurized
chamber of the cylinder will return to the reservoir through the directional
valve. Figure 1.3 reviews the operation of such a system, which is a simple
hydraulic system. In industrial applications there are many components that
may be added to the basic system, such as accumulators, filters, flow meter¬
ing valves, check valves, and heat exchangers.
Various pressures exist during the operation of a fluid power system.
These pressures are directly related to one of the laws of fluid power and can
be described as follows:

1. To cause flow, there must be a pressure differential across an orifice

or restriction. To stop flow, there must be no pressure differential.
When the cylinder moves, there must be a pressure differential
(commonly referred to as a pressure drop) in order to move the
piston.
2. With a closed-center-type directional valve centered, pump delivery
from a constant-displacement-type unit is to the tank over the
relief valve at its pressure setting. Shifting the valve controlling
direction directs pump flow to one side or the other of the piston
and opens the other side to tank. Pressure drops to whatever is re¬
quired to move the piston. Under stall conditions or at the end of
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14 Fluid Power Principles

the piston stroke, even though the directional valve is not centered,
pressure will rise and pump flow will again be diverted to the tank
through the relief valve at its setting.
3. Fluids take the path of least resistance. Fluid is pushed out of a cyl¬
inder because the pipe open to the reservoir through the directional
valve is the path of least resistance for the fluid.
4. Pumps do not create pressure, they cause fluids to flow. Pressure
is the result of resistance to flow.
5. The maximum load that can be placed on a system is determined
by the relief valve setting. When the cylinder reaches the end of tra¬
vel, the flow of fluid is restricted and pressure builds up to the relief
setting. It cannot go any higher because the fluid can escape over
the relief valve when the relief valve setting is reached.
6. During operation of the system, pressure is determined by the load
imposed on the piston plus friction in the system. If external loads
were placed on the piston, the system pressure would increase to
the pressure necessary to move the piston and load.

Next, let us build up a hydraulic system, piece by piece. The basic hy¬
draulic system has two parts:

1. The pump, which moves the oil.

2. The cylinder, which uses the moving oil to do work.

In a hand pump, when you apply force to the lever, the hand pump forces
oil into the cylinder. The pressure of this oil pushes up on the piston and lifts
the weight. In effect, the pump converts a mechanical force to hydraulic
power, while the cylinder converts the hydraulic power back to mechanical
force to do work. But for continued operation of the system, we must add
some new features:

3. Check valves to hold oil in the cylinders between strokes and to pre¬
vent oil from returning to the reservoir during the pressure stroke.
Check-type valves open when oil is flowing but close when the flow
stops. Check-type valves provide free flow in one direction (neglect¬
ing bias springs and/or normal friction) and complete cessation of
flow in the other direction.
4. A reservoir to store the oil. If you keep on stroking the pump to
raise the weight, a supply of extra oil is needed. The reservoir has
an air vent which allows oil to be forced into the pump by gravity
and/or atmospheric pressure when the piston is retracted.

Notice that the pump is usually smaller than the cylinder. This means
that each stroke of the pump would move only enough oil to move the piston
Hydraulic System Operation 15

a small amount. However, the load lifted by the cylinder is much greater than
the force applied to the pump piston. If you want to raise the weight faster,
you must work the pump faster, increasing the volume of oil to the cylinder.
Let us now complete the circuit and add some new features. We will
first add a gear-type pump. This is one of many types of pumps that transform
the rotary force of a motor or engine to hydraulic energy.

5. The directional control valve directs the oil. This allows the operator
to control the constant supply of oil from the pump to and from
the hydraulic cylinder. When the directional control valve (open
center, tandem type) is in the neutral position, the flow of oil from
the pump goes directly through the valve to a line which carries the
oil back to the reservoir. The tandem-type designation indicates a
center spool condition which directs pressure to tank and blocks
both cylinder ports. Thus, the valve has trapped oil on both sides
of the hydraulic cylinder in the neutral position of the flow directing
member preventing hydraulic cylinder movement in either direction.
When the control valve spool is moved, the pump oil is di¬
rected at the option of the signal source to the cavity on one end
of the cylinder piston; if this is the blind end it could be raising a
weight. At the same time, the line at the other end of the cylinder
is connected to the return passage, thus allowing the oil forced from
the one side of the piston to be returned to the reservoir. When the
valve control spool is moved in the opposite direction, oil is directed
to the end of the piston, causing a reversal of the load, and in the
case of a vertical load, the load would provide additional energy
to push the oil through the line and valve to return the piston as¬
sembly to the rest position, at a rate determined by the flow passage
through the directional valve.
6. The relief valve protects the system from excessive pressures. If the
pressure required to lift the load is abnormal, this valve opens and
relieves the pressure by dumping some of the oil back to the reser¬
voir to establish a maximum pressure as set on the relief valve ad¬
justment. The relief valve may also be required when the piston
reaches the end of the stroke. If the piston bottoms out, then the
relief valve is essential. If the piston stops before bottoming out,
the valving may provide the needed pressure relaxation through the
center position of the directional valve.
7. A flow control valve can be used in a hydraulic system to regulate
the volume of oil directed to or from the actuator. This valve can
be a variable restrictor or orifice.
Reducing the orifice size will lessen the volume of oil per¬
mitted to flow to or from the actuator. This will reduce actuator
16 Fluid Power Principles

speed. Thus flow control valves are used to regulate the speed of
an actuator.

This completes our basic hydraulic system. To summarize:

pump = generating force

cylinder = working force
valve = oil control *

reservoir = oil storage

As you have seen in the simple hydraulic system that we have just developed,
the purpose is to transmit power from a source (engine or motor) to the loca¬
tion where this power is required for work.
To look at the advantages and disadvantages of the hydraulic system,
let us compare it to the other common methods of transferring this power.
These would be mechanical (shafts, gears, or cables) or electrical.
Advantages of Hydraulic System

1. Flexibility: Unlike the mechanical method of power transmission,

where the relative positions of the engine and work site must re¬
main nearly constant with the flexibility of hydraulic lines, power
can be moved to almost any location.
2. Multiplication of force: In the hydraulic system, very small forces
can be used to move very large loads simply by providing suitable
cylinder or hydraulic motor sizes.
3. Simplicity: The hydraulic system usually has fewer moving parts
and fewer points of wear, and it lubricates itself.
4. Compactness: Compare the size of a small hydraulic motor with
an electric motor of equal horsepower. Then imagine the size of
the gears and shafts that would be required to create the forces that
can be attained in a small hydraulic press. The hydraulic system can
handle more horsepower for its size than either of the other sys¬
tems.
5. Economy: This is usually the natural result of the simplicity and
compactness, which provide relatively low cost for the power
transmitted. Also, power and frictional losses are comparatively
small.
6. Safety: There are fewer moving parts such as gears, chains, belt,
and electrical contacts than in other systems. Overloads can be more
easily controlled by using relief valves than is possible with the over¬
load devices on the other systems.
Hydraulic System Operation 17

Disadvantages of Hydraulic Systems

1. Efficiency: Although the efficiency of the hydraulic system is usual¬

ly much better than that of the electrical system, it may be lower
than for the mechanical transmission of power. An overall assess¬
ment of power transmission needs must be completed to determine
true machine needs and best power transmission choice.
2. Need for cleanliness: Hydraulic systems can be damaged by rust,
corrosion, dirt, heat, and breakdown of fluids. Cleanliness, proper
design, and maintenance are usually as critical in the hydraulic
system as in the other methods of power transmission.

1.3.1 Comparing Hydraulic Systems

Two major types of hydraulic systems are used today: open-center systems
and closed-center systems. The simple hydraulic system that we developed
earlier is what we call an open-center system (Fig. 1.4). This system requires
that the control valve spool be open in the center to allow pump flow to pass
through the valve and return to the reservoir. The pump we have used sup¬
plies a constant flow of oil and the oil must have a path for return when it
is not required to operate a function. In the closed-center system shown in
Fig. 1.5 the pump is capable of “taking a break” when oil is not required to
operate a function. This is a variable-displacement-type pump. Flow is auto¬
matically reduced to a value just sufficient to maintain desired pressure level.
Therefore, the control valve is closed in the center, which stops (dead-ends)
the flow of oil from the pump —the “closed-center” feature. If the pump does
not “take a break” or reduce pumping rate when the control valve is in the
center position, the oil will recirculate to the tank through the relief valve.
Passing flow across a relief valve creates a great deal of heat in the system
because all the energy put into the oil flow is wasted.
To summarize, in the open-center system the pump runs constantly, with
the valve opened in the center to allow oil to return to the reservoir. In the
closed-center system the valve spool is closed in the center to dead-end the
pump oil supply in neutral.
Let us look at a closed-center system with a variable-displacement pump.
In neutral, the pump forces oil into the system until the pressure rises to a
predetermined level. Then a pressure-regulating mechanism allows the pump
to automatically reduce the volume of fluid delivered into the circuit to main¬
tain pressure to the valve. When the control valve is operated, oil is diverted
from the pump to the bottom of a cylinder or any other destination as re¬
quired in the machine cycle.
The drop in pressure caused by connecting the pump pressure line to
18
PUMP OIL RETURNS TO RESERVOIR

Figure 1.4 Open-center system in neutral. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co., Waterloo, Iowa.)
 Figure 1.5 Closed-center system in neutral. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co., Waterloo, Iowa.)

19
20 Fluid Power Principles

the bottom of the cylinder causes the pump to go back to work, pumping oil
to the bottom of the piston and raising the load. The mechanism that con¬
verts this pressure drop into increased pump flow is called a pressure com¬
pensator and is built into the pump assembly. Its operation is described in
detail in Chapter 2.
When the valve is moved, the top of the piston is connected to a return
line, thus allowing return oil forced from the piston to be returned to the reser¬
voir. When the valve is returned to neutral, oil is again trapped on both sides
of the cylinder and the pressure passage from the pump is dead-ended. At
this time the pump again takes a break as it automatically reduces output flow
to the valve inlet.
Moving the spool in the downward position directs oil to the top of the
piston, moving the load downward. Then oil from the bottom of the piston
is sent into the return line. With the closed-center system, if the load exceeds
the predetermined standby pressure or if the piston reaches the end of its
stroke, the pressure buildup simply tells the pump to take a break, thus
eliminating the need for a relief valve to protect the system. A relief valve
may be in the circuit as a safety valve in the event of a pump compensator
malfunction or as a means to minimize shock conditions which are faster than
the response time of the compensator. As an example, if an accident occurs
which causes an abrupt stop of the moving machine member, a high pressure
shock wave can be created in the fluid column. The compensator cannot react
fast enough to cancel the adverse effects of the shock wave. The relief valve
can, particularly if it is of the piloted type.
We have now built the simplest of open- and closed-center systems.
However, most hydraulic systems require their pump to operate more than
one function. Let us look at how this is done and compare the advantages
and disadvantages of each system. To operate several functions at once,
hydraulic systems may have the following connections:

1. Open-center systems
a. Open-center with series connection (cylinder ports usually
blocked in neutral position).
b. Open-center with series-parallel connection (cylinder ports usu¬
ally blocked in neutral position — pressure port is connected in
parallel with each directional valve inlet and a separate series
bypass is provided. When any spool is shifted it blocks the
bypass).
c. Open-center with flow divider.
2. Closed-center systems
Hydraulic System Operation 21

a. Closed-center with fixed-displacement pump and accumulator.

b. Closed-center with variable-displacement pump.

Next we discuss each of these variations of the basic closed- and open-center
systems.
Open-Center System with Series Connection
In this system, oil from the pump is routed to the three control valves in series
(Fig. 1.6). The return from the first valve is routed to the inlet of the second,
and so on. In neutral, the oil passes through the valves in series and returns
to the reservoir (valve cylinder ports are normally blocked in neutral). When
a control valve is operated, incoming oil is diverted to the cylinder which that
valve serves. Return oil from the cylinder is directed through the return line
and on to the next valve.
This system is satisfactory as long as only one valve is operated at a time.
In this case, the full output of the pump at full system pressure is available.
Figure 1.7 depicts the flow path that exists when raising a load with an
open-center type control valve. When several such valves are connected, it

Figure 1.6 Open-center system with series connection. (Courtesy of John Deere and
Co., Waterloo, Iowa.)
22
Figure 1.7 Open-center system in operation. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co., Waterloo, Iowa.)
Hydraulic System Operation 23

can be seen that flow must pass through the actuator (cylinder) in order to
reach other valves.

Open-Center System with Series-Parallel Connection

This system is a variation of the series-connected type (Fig. 1.8). Oil from
the pump is routed through the control valves in series —but also in parallel.
The valves are sometimes “stacked” to allow for the extra passages. In neutral,
the oil passes through the valves in series. But when any valve is operated,
the return is closed and oil is available to all valves through the parallel con¬
nection. When two or more valves are operated at once, the cylinder that
needs least pressure will operate first, then the next least, and so on. However,
this ability to satisfy two or more functions at once is an advantage over the
series connection.

Open-Center System with Flow Divider

This system is comprised of a fixed displacement pump, relief valve, control
valves, and actuators (Fig. 1.9). A flow divider is connected between the outlet
line of the pump and the control valves. The flow divider splits the flow out¬
put from the pump to provide equal flow to each control valve. This device
performs the flow-splitting function regardless of the pressure in each of its
outlet ports. If a flow divider were not used, then, when both control valves
were actuated simultaneously, the actuator with the least resistance to mo¬
tion would receive the full pump output since this would represent the path
of least resistance for the fluid. The other actuator would receive fluid when
the lower resistance one was satisfied — when it had stopped moving. The flow
divider negates this action. It directs an equal amount of fluid to each ac¬
tuator regardless of the resistance to motion that is encountered by each. Thus
the actuators move in unison —they are synchronized within the capabilities
of the valve and system.

Closed-Center System with Fixed-Displacement Pump and Accumulator

This system is comprised of a pump of small but constant volume which
charges an accumulator (Fig. 1.10). When the accumulator is charged to full
pressure, the unloading valve diverts the pump flow back to the reservoir.
The check valve traps pressure oil in the working circuit. When a control valve
is operated, the accumulator discharges its oil and actuates the cylinder. As
pressure begins to drop, pump flow is directed by the unloading valve to the
accumulator to recharge it.
j,
This system, using a small-capacity purr is effective when operating
oil is needed only for a limited time. However, when the functions need a
lot of oil for longer periods, the accumulator system cannot handle it unless
24
CYLINDERS

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UJ <
UJ o
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UJZ
OO LLI
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UJ Q_
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X oo
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Figure 1.8 Open-center system with series-parallel connection. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co., Waterloo, Iowa.)
Hydraulic System Operation 25

Figure 1.9 Open-center system with flow divider. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co.,
Waterloo, Iowa.)

the accumulator is very large, and then only for a time limited by the ac¬
cumulator capacity.
Closed-Center System with Variable-Displacement Pump
This system is very much like the one discussed immediately above, but now
we are adding a charging pump (Fig. 1.11). This pumps oil from the reservoir
to the variable-displacement pump. The charging pump supplies only the
makeup oil required in the system and provides some inlet pressure to make
the variable-displacement pump more efficient. Return oil from the system
functions is sent directly to the inlet of the variable-displacement pump, as
shown. Design considerations must make provisions for cylinder areas created
26
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
(CLOSED CENTER)

Figure 1.10 Closed-center system with fixed-displacement pump and accumulator. (Courtesy of John Deere
and Co., Waterloo, Iowa.)
Hydraulic System Operation 27

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

(CLOSED CENTER)

VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT PUMP

CHARGING PUMP

RESERVOIR

Figure 1.11 Closed-center system with variable-displacement pump. (Courtesy of

John Deere and Co., Waterloo, Iowa.)

by rod displacement and make certain that capacities of the reservoir and
charge pump are adequate to accept the extra fluid as the cylinders retract
and the makeup fluid as the rods extend.
We saw earlier that the open-center system is the simplest and least ex¬
pensive for hydraulic systems which have only a few functions. But as more
functions are added with varying demands for each function, the open-center
system requires the use of flow dividers to proportion the oil flow to these
functions. The use of these flow dividers in an open-center system reduces
efficiency, with resulting heat buildup.
Today’s machines need more hydraulic power and the trend has been
to the closed-center system because the machines tend to have mulitiple func¬
tions. In most cases, each of these functions has a requirement for different
quantities of oil. With the closed-center system, the quantity of oil to each
function can be controlled by line size, valve size, or by orificing with less
heat build-up when compared to the flow dividers necessary in a comparable
open-center system.
28 Fluid Power Principles

Other Advantages of Closed-Center Systems

1. There is no requirement for relief valves in a basic closed-center sys¬
tem because the variable displacement pump simply reduces flow
when standby pressure value is reached. This prevents heat buildup
in systems where relief pressure is frequently reached. The reduc¬
tion in pump output is achieved with a pressure-compensating type
of pump control. A relief valve should be added for safety purposes
if pressure shock is anticipated.
2. The size of lines, valves, and cylinders can be tailored to the flow
requirements of each function.
3. By using a larger pump, reserve flow is available to ensure full hy¬
draulic speed at low engine rpm. More functions can also be served.
4. On functions such as brakes, which require force but very little
movement on a piston, the closed-system is very efficient. By hold¬
ing the valve open, standby pressure is constantly applied to the
brake piston with no loss of efficiency because the pump has re¬
turned to standby.

In a similar open-center system, the pump would operate at maximum system

pressure, with the fluid that is not required by the system for motion passing
through the relief valve back to the reservoir to maintain this pressure. This
causes an unacceptable amount of heat to be generated in the system.

1.4 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM OPERATION

So far, we have reviewed the physical discoveries made to help us understand

the behavior of air. Let us now review what a typical pneumatic system con¬
sists of (Fig. 1.12). First, an air compressor assembly driven by an electric
motor or internal combustion engine is needed to supply a source of pres¬
surized air. A pressure control is used to limit the maximum air pressure. A
filter screens out the dirt and grit from the air to protect the sensitive control
components. A pressure regulator provides a means for adjusting the pres¬
sure to any desired value. The lubricator adds a clean mist of oil into the air-
stream to reduce friction and wear. The directional control and functional
control components provide a method for controlling the speed and move¬
ment of the actuator.
The air compressor assembly is made up of a number of components —
not just a compressor. A typical system consists of a compressor, drive
motor, heat exchanger, filter, safety valve, and storage tank. Piping is also
part of the unit.
Pneumatic System Operation 29

Figure 1.12 Typical pneumatic system.

1.4.1 Compressors

Compressors convert the mechanical energy transmitted by a prime mover

(i.e., electric motor, internal combustion engine) into potential energy of com¬
pressed air. To perform any appreciable amount of work with a pneumatic
system, a device is needed which can supply a receiver tank with a sufficient
amount of air at a desired pressure. This device is a positive-displacement
compressor.
The volumetric efficiency of a compressor is the ratio of the actual air
delivered to the total displacement. For the compressors under consideration,
this efficiency is from 4 to 4.2 scfm/hp. In other words, the electric motor-
driven compressors will draw free air at the intake, pressurize it to a nominal
100 psig, and discharge it at the rate of approximately 4 scfm per input horse¬
power. A 50-hp compressor, for example, has a 200-scfm capacity at 100 psig.
30 Fluid Power Principles

The figure 4 scfm at 100 psig per hp can be used with reasonable assurance
for calculating the drive power needed for a compressor or for quickly deter¬
mining the compressor capacity when the drive motor horsepower is known.
The most common type of positive-displacement compressor found in
an industrial pneumatic system is a reciprocating piston compressor. This type
of compressor is basically a piston inside a bore. The piston is connected to
a crankshaft, which in turn is connected to the prime mover. Valves control
inlet and outlet flow through the compressor. As the crankshaft of a recipro¬
cating piston compressor rotates, the piston moves within the bore. When
the crankshaft pulls the piston in one direction, an increasing volume is
formed within the bore. With the resulting less-than-atmospheric pressure and
the intake valve open, atmospheric air fills the chamber. At the end of the
piston stroke, the chamber is filled with air and the intake valve closes. Start¬
ing its upward travel, the piston compresses the air. When air pressure in the
bore reaches a high level, the outlet valve is opened. Compressed air discharges
from the compressor into an air receiver tank.
The operation described above is that of a single-stage piston compres¬
sor, that is, a compressor which compresses air in a single stroke before it
is discharged. Single-stage compressors are generally used in systems that re¬
quire compressed air between 40 and 100 psig. When a gas is compressed,
as in a compressor, it generates heat. In a single-stage compressor, when air
is compressed above 80 psi, the heat created (heat due to air being compressed)
and the energy required to compress the hot air become excessive. However,
many industrial systems operate above 80 psi. For this reason, two-stage com¬
pressors are usually found in industrial pneumatic systems.
A two-stage piston compressor consists basically of a large and a small
piston each in its own cylinder bore and each connected to the same crank¬
shaft, associated inlet and outlet valves, and an intercooler. The piston with
the large diameter performs the first stage of compression. The smaller piston
compresses air in the second stage. As the crankshaft is turned by the prime
mover, the large-diameter piston strokes downward. Air enters the chamber
from the atmosphere through the open inlet valve. When the piston starts its
upward movement, the inlet valve closes. Air is compressed (and heated) until
a preset pressure is reached. The outlet valve then opens, discharging hot,
compressed air. This air is directed by means of a finned tube, called an in¬
tercooler, to the smaller, second-stage piston. During the travel time from
first to second stage, the air is cooled by means of air blowing over the tube
or water flowing across the tube. By the time the air reaches the second-stage
piston, a great portion of the heat of first-stage compression has been dissi¬
pated. The air is now cooler and ready to be compressed a second time. With
compressed air at its inlet, the smaller-diameter piston is pulled downward.
Compressed air fills the chamber and inlet valve closes. The piston is stroked
Pneumatic System Operation 31

upward, compressing the air further. The compressed air, as it discharges

from the compressor, is at an elevated temperature. But this excess tempera¬
ture above the ambient is not nearly as great as if one stage were used in the
compressing process. Two-stage compressors do not use or waste as much
energy in compressing air as do single-stage units.
Another type of positive-displacement compressors is the vane-type
compressor. Vane compressors generate a pumping action by causing vanes
to track along a circular housing. The compressing mechanism of a vane com¬
pressor basically consists of housing, rotor, and a series of floating vanes.
The vanes are typically made of carbon, cloth impregnated with phenolic
resin, or a similar rigid, low-friction material. For oil-free models, bronze
and carbon vanes are often used.
The rotor of the vane compressor houses the vanes and the rotor is at¬
tached to a shaft which is connected to a driver motor. As the motor turns
the rotor, the vanes are thrown out by centrifugal force and track along the
housing. As the vanes make contact with the housing, a seal is formed be¬
tween the vane tip and ring. The rotor is positioned off center with respect
to the housing. As the rotor is turned, an increasing and decreasing volume
is formed within the housing, thereby creating the pumping and compression
action.
A more complex positive displacement compressor is the helical or screw
type. A helical compressor generates compressed air by running two meshing
rotors on one another like two screws. The compressing mechanism consists
of two helical screws. Air is drawn in from one end and exits the other. There
are two basic types: oil flooded and dry.
The dry helical compressor used the timing gears to turn the two screws.
This maintains a constant clearance, which means that lubrication is usually
not needed. These units have a high efficiency when run at high speed. In
the oil-flooded type of compressor timing gears are not needed. However,
lubrication is needed because the screws are run on each other. Efficiency is
higher because the lubricating oil provides a good air seal between the two
rotating members and the housing. However, oil separators are needed to re¬
move the oil from the air downstream of the compressor.
Still another type of compressor is the lobed-rotor compressor. This con¬
stant displacement compressor is very much like the dry helical type. A tim¬
ing mechanism is employed to eliminate problems with lobe and housing clear¬
ances. Because the rotors do not touch, a certain amount of “slip” exists. The
slip increases as output pressure increases. This device should be operated at
maximum speed for the highest efficiency.
Centrifugal compressors are not constant displacement types. Centrif¬
ugal types are best suited for moving large volumes of air at relatively low
pressures. The compressing mechanism consists of an impeller, a diffuser sec-
32 Fluid Power Principles

tion where velocity energy is converted to pressure, followed by a collector

where air velocity is further reduced, again increasing pressure. With centrif¬
ugal compressors, air demand should never be allowed to drop much below
the rated flow. If this is allowed to happen, the compressor will be unloaded
and will surge. In this condition, the pressure at the outlet becomes unsta¬
ble. If continuous operation in this condition occurs, bearings, blades, and
even the housing may be damaged.
*

1.4.2 Heat Exchangers (Aftercoolers)

A common type of heat exchanger used to cool the compressor discharge air
is the type using water as the cooling medium. These are water-to-air heat
exchangers. Smaller, tank-mounted compressors use air-to-air heat exchangers
almost exclusively, but air-to-air exchangers are available for large compres¬
sors also.

1.4.3 Storage Tanks

The size of the storage tank is usually commensurate with the compressor
capacity. Tank capacities are usually specified in liquid gallons rather than
cubic feet; if you wish to convert from gallons to cubic feet, multiply the
gallons by 0.1337.
Storage tanks perform two basic functions in the air systems: (1) as a
energy accumulator, and (2) to dampen severe pulsations. Storage tanks are
constructed in accordance with strict safety codes and are rated to withstand
safely the system pressure. As a further safeguard against a catastrophic ex¬
plosion, these tanks are fitted with safety relief valves. To establish the size
of the storage tank for a given compressor capacity, the following formula
can be used:

„ compressor output (cfm x psia)

receiver size (ft3) =-:-
output pressure (psig + psia)

With a variable demand application, where the compressor is not able to meet
the intermittent high flow demands, the formula is modified as follows:

y = t(Qaut ~ Q,n) x Pa
Pi-Pi
where

V = receiver tank size, ft3

t = time to charge or fill tank to maximum pressure, min
Qouf = maximum flow rate out of tank, scfm
Qin = maximum flow rate from compressor, scfm
Comparison of Systems 33

Pa = atmospheric pressure, psia

Pi = maximum tank pressure, psig
P2 = minimum working pressure, psig

Always be sure that the receiver tank has a drain, preferably an automatic
one, at its lowest point. If the receiver tank is mounted horizontally, it is a
good practice to tilt it slightly to ensure good drainage.

1.5 COMPARISON OF AIR SYSTEMS TO ELECTRIC

AND HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

1.5.1 Air Versus Electric

Air-powered tools and equipment have four major advantages over elec¬
tric-powered equipment.

1. Flexibility: Due to its ability to provide a source of power by

means of portable compressors, air tools can be operated in remote
areas where other power sources are unavailable. Air tools run
cooler and have the advantage of variable speed and torque— no
damage from overload or stalling.
2. Light weight: The air tool is lighter in weight and lends itself to
a higher rate of production per hour with less worker fatigue.

3. Safety: Air equipment reduces the danger of fire and explosion

hazard in such industries as painting and mining; there are no elec¬
trical connections and it is both spark- and shockproof.
4. Low-cost operation and maintenance: Because they have fewer
moving parts, accessibility, and simple design, air-powered tools
usually have good service records and can be inexpensive to main¬
tain.

1.5.2 Air Versus Hydraulic

On many jobs it will be immediately apparent which medium, air or hydrau¬

lics, is more suitable. But some jobs could be done with either medium, or
with vacuum, and the following points should be considered to help make
the best decision.

1. Power level: Branch air circuits usually operate in the range lA

to 1 Vi hp, while most hydraulic systems operate from 1 Vi hp up.
This is a general rule, as there are higher-powered air systems and
lower-powered hydraulic systems. But a 100-hp air compressor in
a large plant is usually feeding numerous branch circuits which are
34 Fluid Power Principles

operating independently of one another, and a 100-hp hydraulic sys¬

tem is usually operating only one machine, although this machine
may have several branch circuits dependent on one another.
2. Noise level: If the air exhaust noise is properly muffled, an air
system usually operates much quieter than a hydraulic system of
the same horsepower rating. In between cycles, an air system is com¬
pletely silent, while in a hydraulic system the pump remains rotating
in an unloaded condition. Where a hydraulic system must be used,
and where noise must be reduced to a minimum, the pump should
be operated at the minimum speed (rpm) that will deliver sufficient
oil, and the pressure in the system should also be kept as low as
possible.
3. Cleanliness: Normally, an air system is very clean provided that
the air line oiler is not feeding an excessive amount of oil into the
air, later to be blown out through the control valve exhaust. A hy¬
draulic system that is carefully designed and constructed can be
clean, but there may come a time when a cylinder rod packing may
start to leak, or a line must be disconnected to replace a compo¬
nent, or a filter element must be replaced. At these times there is
a possibility of oil being spilled around the machine.
4. Speed: Lightweight mechanisms can usually be operated faster
with compressed air because a large volume of air can be drawn
from the storage tank, for short periods, to give a very fast cylinder
speed. A hydraulic system, to match the speed of an air system,
might have to have a very large pump, large valving, and large
plumbing, since the power is usually generated by the pump at the
rate of use, with no reserve supply. Of course, accumulators can
be used in a hydraulic system, but these make a low power system
expensive.
5. Operating cost: A hydraulic system usually costs considerably less
to operate than a compressed air system with the same mechanical
power from the cylinder, because hydraulics is more efficient or can
be. As air is compressed it is also heated. This heat of compression
radiates from the walls of the compressor, the storage tank, and
the plumbing system; or it is removed by an aftercooler. This is an
escape of power from the fluid system which can never be recov¬
ered. We have heat losses, too, in a hydraulic system, but these are
not as serious and can be minimized by good design, but the heat
losses from air compression cannot be avoided or minimized.
6. First cost: If the cost of the compressor is considered, a com¬
pressed air system is more costly to build .than a hydraulic system.
Comparison of Systems 35

But some times a low power air circuit can be added to an existing
compressor which has reserve capacity, and this can be done at less
cost than a hydraulic system.
7. Rigidity: Some applications must have rigidity in the fluid stream,
and require the use of hydraulics rather than compressed air. Ex¬
amples are lifts and elevators to be stopped at an intermediate point
in the cylinder stroke for adding or removing a part of their load;
the feeding of a cutting tool at a slow speed; slow movement of a
machine slide or other mechanism having a large area of sliding fric¬
tion; press applications where two or more cylinders are attached
to an unguided or inadequately guided platen, particularly where
the load is not distributed evenly over all cylinders; any system
where close control of cylinder speed or position must be main¬
tained, or where the cylinder must be accurately stopped at a precise
position in midstroke. These and similar applications, whether high
or low power, can be accomplished satisfactorily only with hydrau¬
lics.
 2 *

Hydraulic Systems: Operation,

Maintenance, and Troubleshooting

2.1 HYDRAULIC PUMPS

Hydraulic pumps convert the mechanical energy transmitted by a prime mover

(e.g., electric motor, internal combustion engine) into hydraulic working
energy or hydraulic horsepower. The initial flow of fluid in a hydraulic system
is from the reservoir to the pump. When a hydraulic pump is operated, its
mechanical action creates a partial vacuum at the pump inlet that enables at¬
mospheric pressure in the reservoir to force liquid through the inlet line into
the pump. In addition, its mechanical action forces the fluid into the hydraulic
system.
Basically, the function of the pump is to move the fluid. Pumps do not
pump pressure. The pressure encountered in a hydraulic system is created by
resistance to flow, the load resistance, and so on. Another form of resistance
that creates pressure is the work load imposed on the system. Pumps rated
as high-pressure pumps are so rated because of their ability to withstand high
pressures or loads.
A pump can produce the flow necessary to the development of pressure,
but a pump cannot provide resistance to its own flow. Resistance to flow is
caused by a restriction or obstruction in the path of the flow. Without some
form of resistance in a system there can be no pressure. It must be emphasized
that a pump cannot, itself, produce pressure.
Pumping action is the same for every pump. All pumps generate an in¬
creasing volume at the suction side and a decreasing volume at the pressure
side. However, the elements that perform the pumping action are not the same
in all pumps. Based on their design, pumps may be classified into positive-

36
Hydraulic Pumps 37

and nonpositive-displacement categories. In industrial hydraulics, the pos¬

itive-displacement types are prevalent. Examples of nonpositive-displacement
pumps are centrifugal types. In the positive-displacement category, three types
of designs are in predominant use. They are: (1) gear type, (2) vane type, (3)
piston type. The performance characteristics of these pumps are very adapt¬
able to industrial applications, which accounts for their predominance. They
are available in a variety of designs and construction features from many
manufacturers. Another reason for their use is that they are economical to
maintain, repairable, durable, and relatively low in cost.

2.1.1 Gear Pumps

There are two types of gear pumps: external gear and internal gear. The ex¬
ternal gear type consists of two gears enclosed in a closely fitted housing. The
gears rotate in opposite directions and mesh at a point in the housing between
the outlet and inlet ports. This type of pump may use spur, helical, or herring¬
bone gear tooth forms (see Figs. 2.1 and 2.2). As the gears rotate, a vacuum
is formed as the teeth unmesh, which causes liquid to be forced in through
the inlet port by atmospheric pressure on the surface of the oil in the reser-

2. which is picked up
and carried in these 3. where mating
spaces to outlet side teeth displace oil
or pump. . . and force it through
outlet.

1. Parting gears create

suction here to draw

Figure 2.1 External gear pump operation. (Courtesy of Sun Oil Co., Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.)
38 Hydraulic Systems

Figure 2.2 External gear pump construction. (Courtesy of Hydreco Div., Kalama¬
zoo, Michigan.)

voir with possible help from gravity. The liquid is then trapped in the space
between the teeth of the two revolving gears and the housing. Fluid from the
discharge side cannot return to the intake side because of the close meshing
of the two gears and the small clearance between the gears and housing. The
close meshing of the gear teeth provides a seal between the inlet and outlet
ports. Fluid is displaced as the teeth mesh at the outlet side and is forced out
of the pump into the hydraulic system.
The internal gear pump has the same characteristics as the external gear
pump just described. The pump consists of two gears; one is an external gear,
the other an internal gear. The internal gear gets its name from the fact that
the gear teeth point in toward the axis instead of away from it. The external
Hydraulic Pumps 39

gear is mounted on a shaft and is positioned within the internal gear. As the
pump operates, the inner gear drives the outer gear; each gear rotates in the
same direction. The teeth of both gears engage at only one point in the pump.
As the teeth separate, pockets are formed by the gear teeth; it is the change
in volume of these pockets that creates a pumping action. Immediately after
meshing of the teeth, the volume of the pockets increases, causing fluid to
be drawn through the inlet port. Thus the fluid is trapped in the pockets. As
the gears rotate, the volume of the pockets decreases and the fluid is forced
out of the pump. The inlet side is in the area where the pockets increase and
the discharge side is in the area where the pockets decrease (see Fig. 2.3).
A gerotor pump is an internal gear pump with an inner gear and an outer
gear. The inner gear has one less tooth than the outer gear. If the inner gear
is turned by a prime mover, it rotates the larger outer gear. On one side of
the pumping mechanism, an increasing volume is formed as gear teeth un¬
mesh. On the other half of the pump, a decreasing volume is formed. A ge¬
rotor pump has an unbalanced design similar to a spur gear pump.
The output volume of a gear pump is determined by the volume of fluid
each gear displaces, and by the rpm rate at which the gears are turning. Conse¬
quently, the output volume of gear pumps can be altered by replacing the orig¬
inal gears with gears of different dimensions or by varying the rpm rate. Gear
pumps, whether of the internal or external variety, do not lend themselves
to a change in displacement while they are operating.

2.1.2 Vane Pumps

A vane pump makes use of centrifugal force and it makes use of variable-
volume chambers. Centrifugal force moves the pump vanes into position to
form the chambers. The expanding and diminishing of these chambers
develops the flow of the fluid in and out of the pump. Vane pumps are used
extensively in industry to provide hydraulic power. Wear does not appreciably
decrease efficiency, because the vanes always maintain close contact with the
cam ring within which they rotate.
The principal parts of the pump are a slotted rotor, vanes, a cam ring
with an elliptical inner contour, end caps, and bearings. The rotor is slotted
and is driven by a shaft. The slots in some designs may be cut at a slight angle
to the outer circumference of the rotor. If so, they are slanted toward the di¬
rection of rotation. Current design has generally eliminated tilted slots. Each
slot of the rotor serves the purpose of holding a flat, rectangular vane. The
vanes are free to move radially in the slot. Specifically, they can move in and
out from the axis of rotation. However, they are prevented from moving side¬
ways by end caps that retain the pump assembly.
The vanes are flat rectangular pieces of material. Each vane has three
40 Hydraulic Systems

1. Oil is drawn into 2. because this volume increases

pump through this

I
port . . .
3. as this eccentrically
mounted gear ...
n
4. turns this
internal gear.

this volume
decreases .

7. and thus oil is forced

8. through this port. out of pump . ..

1. Oil drawn 6. through this port

in here..

2. by the constant
withdrawal of
teeth on this
gear . . .

5. to this pi
constant
3. from the spaces between of two g
the teeth of this internal oil . . .
gear . . .

is carried in
these spaces

Figure 2.3 Internal gear pump operation. (Courtesy of Sun Oil Co., Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.)
Hydraulic Pumps 41

squared edges and one beveled edge. The beveled edge rides along the ellip¬
tical-contoured surface of the cam ring casing, with the beveled edge trail¬
ing. As the rotor turns, centrifugal force ejects the vanes outward to contact
and follow the elliptical cam ring. By this action, the vanes divide the area
between the rotor and the ring into a series of chambers. These chambers
vary in volume according to their respective positions about the rotor.
The ring that encloses the rotor and the vanes is circular in its outer con¬
tour, whereas the inner contour is oval or elliptical. The ring is anchored se¬
curely in the housing of the pump; it does not move. Since wear must be mini¬
mized, the cam-shaped ring is made of hardened and ground steel. It is the
ring contour that makes it possible for each chamber to change in volume
as it moves around the ring. Because of the ring contour, each chamber
formed by the vanes changes in volume as it moves around the ring. Fluid
is drawn into the pump as each chamber increases in volume, and as each
chamber decreases in volume the fluid is ejected from the pump. Inlet and
outlet ports are located at points to accommodate the intake and discharge
areas of the pump (see Figs. 2.4 and 2.5).
Various arrangements of vane pumps are possible. They may be ar¬
ranged in parallel or in series. When mounted in parallel or series the pumps
are driven by a common shaft; each pump may be contained in its own hous¬
ing. Each pump can have its own inlet and outlet ports, which may be com¬
bined by use of manifolds or piping to satisfy the flow requirements of a single
circuit, or double pumps in parallel may be used to provide flow for two sep¬
arate circuits. Many double pumps have a common intake and independent
discharge ports.
The pumping mechanism of industrial vane pumps is often an integral

Figure 2.4 Unbalanced vane pump. (Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Michigan.)
42 Hydraulic Systems

Figure 2.5 Balanced vane pump. (Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Michigan.)

unit called a cartridge assembly. A cartridge assembly consists of vanes, rotor,

and a cam ring sandwiched between two port plates (see Fig. 2.6). An ad¬
vantage of using a cartridge assembly is easy pump servicing. After a period
of time when pump parts naturally wear, the pumping mechanism can be easi¬
ly removed and replaced with a new cartridge assembly. Also, if for some
reason the pump’s volume must be increased or decreased, a cartridge assem¬
bly with the same outside dimension, but with the appropriate thickness to
change the volume, can be quickly substituted for the original pumping
mechanism.
Hydraulic Pumps 43

Figure 2.6 Cartridge vane pump. (Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Michigan.)

Variable-Volume Vane Pumps

The amount of fluid that a vane pump displaces is determined by the differ¬
ence between the maximum and the minimum distances the vanes are extended
and the width of the vanes. While the pump is operating, nothing can be done
to change the width of a vane. But a vane pump can be designed so that the
distance the vanes are extended can be changed. This is known as a variable-
volume vane pump. Variable-volume vane pumps are unbalanced pumps.
Their rings are circular and not cam-shaped. However, they are still referred
to as cam rings.
The pumping mechanism of a variable volume vane pump basically con¬
sists of a rotor, vanes, a cam ring which is free to move, a port plate, a thrust
bearing to guide the cam ring, and something to vary the position of the cam
ring. When the rotor is turned, an increasing and then a decreasing volume
is generated and thus pumping occurs. With the screw adjustment turned out
slightly, the cam ring is not as off-center to the rotor as before. Increasing
and decreasing volume is still being generated, but not as much flow is being
delivered by the pump. The exposed length of the vanes at full extension has
decreased.
With the screw adjustment backed completely out, the cam ring natural¬
ly centers with the rotor. No increasing and decreasing volume is generated. No
pumping occurs. With this arrangement a vane pump output flow can be
changed anywhere from full flow to zero flow by means of the screw adjust¬
ment.
Generally, variable-volume vane pumps are pressure compensated. A
44 Hydraulic Systems

pump that is pressure compensated decreases flow at a preset pressure level.

A pressure-compensated vane pump consists of the same parts as a variable-
volume vane pump. But, in addition, an adjustable spring and/or pilot con¬
trol piston assembly is used to offset the cam ring. When the pressure acting
on the inner contour of the cam ring is high enough to overcome the force
of the spring and/or the pilot piston assembly, the ring centers and, except
for leakage, pumping ceases. System pressure is therefore limited by the set¬
ting of the compensator spring and/or pilot assembly. In effect, this takes the
place of a system’s relief valve for pressure level control.

2.1.3 Piston Pumps

Piston pumps generate a pumping action by causing pistons to reciprocate

within a piston bore. There are two main types of piston pumps: radial and
axial. The radial type is one in which the pistons and cylinders radiate from
the axis of a circular cylinder block like the spokes of a wheel. The axial type
is one in which the pistons and cylinders are parallel to each other and parallel
to the axis.
A piston moving back and forth in a cylinder can draw liquid in and
then push it out. One piston in a pump may not be practical; however, a num¬
ber of pistons can be put in the same cylinder block. The radial piston pump
usually consists of a number of pistons arranged around a hub in a metal
block, which is bored with accurately machined cylindrical compartments to
accommodate the pistons. All cylinder holes are bored an equal distance apart
and they connect with a hole that is bored in the center of the block (Fig. 2.7).
The pump consists of a pintle which remains stationary and is actually
a valve, a cylinder block which revolves around the pintle and contains the
cylinders in which the pistons operate, a rotor of hardened steel against which
the piston heads press, and a slide block which houses and supports the rotor.
The slide block does not revolve; but the rotor revolves due to the friction
set up by the sliding action between the piston heads and the inner contour
of the rotor. The slide block, which in effect is a casing or housing, contains
the rotor, which is free to revolve.
The center point of the rotor is different from the center point of the
cylinder block. It is that difference that produces the pumping action. If the
rotor has the same center point as that of the cylinder block, there will be
no pumping action since the piston does not move back and forth in the cyl¬
inder as it rotates with the block. Figure 2.8 details the construction of a radial
piston pump.

Axial Piston Pumps — Bent-Axis Design

In bent-axis piston pumps the pistons and cylinders are parallel to each other
and rotate as a group on the shaft (Fig. 2.9b). The piston barrel revolves as
Hydraulic Pumps 45

3. in this circular housing. 4. Assumi rig clockwise ro¬

tation, oil is drawn in
through these ports. . .

2. this rotating cylin¬

der block mounted ec¬ These parts
centrically ... do not rotate.

1. Pump pistons re¬ 5. and discharged

ciprocate as they are through these ports.
carried around by ...

Figure 2.7 Radial piston pump operation. (Courtesy of Sun Oil Co., Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.)

the pistons are driven back and forth in their bore according to the angle of
deflection of the barrel assembly (no flow is created when the cylinder bar¬
rel is parallel to the drive shaft). The principal parts of the pump are the hous¬
ing, the control lens, and a rotating group. The assembly, called the rotating
group, consists of a drive shaft, pistons, and a cylinder barrel. The drive shaft
is supported by bearings and is free to rotate when driven by an external force
(See Fig. 2.14, the bent-axis motor, for similar construction.)
The valve plate is used to direct fluid in and out of the cylinder barrel
(Fig. 2.9c). There are two kidney-shaped passages cut in the plate, one in each
half of the plate, through which liquid passes from the intake or to the dis¬
charge.
The block that contains the cylinders is called a cylinder barrel. Its face
may rest squarely against the face of the valve plate. The high-pressure design
shown in Fig. 2.9b-e uses a concave/convex valve plate that improves the
pump performance and provides an excellent geometric pattern for most ef¬
ficient pressure support and good piston thrust characteristics. The barrel is
connected to the drive shaft by means of a universal link and knuckles.
Each piston is joined to the socket ring by means of a connecting rod.
The rod has a ball end which is the ball part of a ball-and-socket joint (Fig.
2.9b), permitting the piston to move freely in its cylinder. Thus the base of
each piston is connected to the drive-shaft flange assembly, which is secured
to the drive assembly. The ball ends of the piston rods permit tilting of the
pistons, piston rods, cylinder block, and so on. When the rotating group is
46 Hydraulic Systems

Figure 2.8 Radial piston pump. (Courtesy of Oilgear Co., Milwaukee, Wisconsin.)
 Hydraulic Pumps 47

HARNESS PLATE

SPLIT CYLINDER

PUSH ROD

WEAR PLATE

PORT PLATE

ROCKER
BEARING

HIGH
PRESSURE
PORTS THROUGH
DRIVE SHAFT

ROLLER BEARING

PISTON SHOES THRUST PLATE

Figure 2.9a Variable-displacement axial piston pump. (Courtesy of Oilgear Co.,

Milwaukee, Wisconsin.)
 48 Hydraulic Systems

Pump Housing Piston/Piston Rod Plug (venting) Qmin Stop

Drive Shaft Cover

End Plate

Pressure Spring

Adjusting Piston

Spring Plate
Adjustment Pin
Control Bush
Control Piston
Cup Springs
Center Pin
Cylinder Adjustment Spring
Control Lens
Q Stop Adjustment Screw
max (for start of control)
Adjusting Piston

Figure 2.9b Bent axis pump with pressure compensation. (Courtesy of the Rexroth
Corporation, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.)

tilted and held at a fixed angle, the rotation of the flange induces an in-and-
out movement of the pistons in their cylinder and creates a fixed flow per
revolution. The pump of Fig. 2.9b is structured to react to a pressure signal
to reduce flow from an established maximum to an established minimum or
to a flow value to maintain pressure within the circuit. The pump of Fig. 2.9d
and Fig. 2.9e is structured to permit flow in either direction through the pump
by moving the rotating group either direction from the in-line no-flow posi¬
tion. Thus direction of fluid flow can be determined by the pump rotating
group, which can control both direction and rate of flow passing through the
pump assembly.
Many different control assemblies can be fitted to both the bent-axis
type pump and the swash-plate type pump of Fig. 2.9a.

Axial Piston Pump — In-Line Swash Plate Design

\

Another type of axial piston pump that is widely used in industry is construct¬
ed differently from the bent-axis pump just described. This second style is
Hydraulic Pumps 49

Figure 2.9c View of bent axis pump showing rear cover and valve plate as viewed
from section at bottom of cylinder barrel. (Courtesy of the Rexroth Corporation,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.)

the swashplate pump. The pumping mechanism consists basically of a cylinder

barrel, piston with shoes, swashplate, shoeplate, shoeplate bias spring, and
a port plate (Fig. 2.9a).
The cylinder barrel has several piston bores (usually five or seven), each
fitted with one piston. The swashplate is positioned at an angle relative to
the piston axis to create a reciprocating motion. If the swashplate is at a right
angle to the drive shaft and cylinder barrel, there will be no displacement and
consequently no fluid flow through the pump. The shoe attached to the piston
rides on the surface of the swashplate. As the cylinder barrel is rotated, the
piston shoe follows the surface of the swashplate. Since the swashplate can
be positioned at a predetermined angle to provide the desired pump flow, this
50 Hydraulic Systems

Figure 2.9d Overcenter bent axis pump. (Courtesy of the Rexroth Corporation,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.)

results in the appropriate piston reciprocation in the bore. In one half of

the circle of rotation, the piston moves out of the cylinder barrel and generates
an increasing volume. In the other half of the circle of rotation, the piston
moves into the cylinder barrel and generates a decreasing volume.
A shaft is attached to the cylinder barrel, which connects it with the
prime mover. This shaft can be located at the end of the barrel where the port¬
ing is taking place. Or, more commonly, it can be positioned at the swashplate
end. In this case, the swashplate and shoeplate have a hole in their centers
to accept the shaft. If the shaft is positioned at the other end, the port plate
has a shaft hole.
The construction of the swashplate-type pump allows for a through
shaft which is widely used to drive a charge pump for a hydrostatic transmis-
Hydraulic Pumps 51

Counterclockwise
Swivel (Left)

Port B Clockwise
Swivel (Right)

Figure 2.9e Top view of an overcenter bent-axis pump. (Courtesy of the Rexroth
Corporation, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.)

sion. The hydrostatic transmission usually has the charge pump as an integral
part of the input variable delivery pump assembly. Our next subject matter
will discuss this pump usage in more detail.
Variable-Volume Axial Piston Pump. The displacement of an axial
piston pump, or any piston pump, is determined by the stroke, which is the

© Stroking time orifice (2 per pump)

© Control piston

© Heavy duty roller bearings

o Rocker cam swashplate

o Inclined pistons

o Spherical control plate

© Control module

o Spline coupling

o Internal gear charge pump

Figure 2.9f Swashplate type axial piston pump with charge pump. (Courtesy of the
Rexroth Corporation, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.)
52 Hydraulic Systems

distance the pistons are pulled in and pushed out of the cylinder barrel. Since
the swashplate angle controls this distance in an axial piston pump, we need
only to change the angle of the swashplate to alter the piston stroke and pump
volume (see Fig. 2.9a). The cross-section view of Fig. 2.9f illustrates a swash-
plate-type pump with a concave/convex-type valve plate similar to the bent-
axis pump. This pump also includes an integral charge pump driven from the
input shaft. With a large swashplate angle, the pistons have a long stroke with¬
in the cylinder barrel. Conversely, with a small swashplate angle, the pistons
have a short stroke within the cylinder barrel. Varying the angle of the swash¬
plate changes the pump’s displacement and thus the volume of fluid pumped.
Several means of varying the swashplate angle are available from various man¬
ufacturers. These range from a simple hand-lever device to a sophisticated
servo-valve control.
Some variable-displacement piston pumps have the capability of allow¬
ing the swashplate or the cylinder barrel in the bent-axis pump to be moved
beyond the centered position. It should be noted that when these elements
are centered, the pump will develop no flow. Crossing over the center posi¬
tion results in the increasing and decreasing volumes being generated at op¬
posite ports. Thus flow through the pump reverses. Over-center axial piston
pumps are used extensively in hydrostatic transmissions to control the direc¬
tion of rotation as well as the speed of the hydraulic drive motors.
Axial piston pumps also have the ability to be made pressure compen¬
sated. The displacement mechanism (swashplate or bent-axis cylinder barrel)
of the pump is connected to a piston which senses system pressure. When sys¬
tem pressure becomes higher than the spring setting of the compensator pis¬
ton, the piston moves the displacement mechanism into the centered posi¬
tion—generally against a mechanical stop. In this position, the pistons do not
reciprocate in the cylinder barrel. The result is no flow to the system.

2.2 HYDRAULIC MOTORS

Hydraulic motors convert hydraulic working energy into rotary mechanical

energy, which is applied to a resisting object by means of a shaft. The rotary
or turning effort capability of the motor is called torque. Torque indicates
that a force is present at a distance from the motor shaft. One unit for meas¬
uring torque is lb-in., and the expression that describes torque is:

torque (lb-in.) = force (lb) x distance (in.)

A resisting object attached to a motor shaft generates a torque. This is a resist¬

ance for the motor which must be overcome by hydraulic pressure acting on
the motor’s operating mechanism.
Hydraulic motors operate by causing an imbalance which results in the
rotation of a shaft. This imbalance is generated in different ways, depending
Hydraulic Motors 53
4

on the motor type. Hydraulic motors used in an industrial system can be di¬
vided into vane, gear, and piston types just as pumps were. Motors used in
industrial hydraulic systems are nearly always designed to operate in both di¬
rections. Even motors that operate in a system in only one direction are usually
reversible motors in design. To protect its shaft seal, vane, gear, and piston,
reversible motors are generally externally drained.

2.2.1 Vane Motors

A vane motor develops an output torque at its shaft by allowing hydraulic

pressure to act on vanes which are extended. The rotating group of a vane
motor consists basically of vanes, rotor, ring, shaft, and a port plate with
kidney-shaped inlet and outlet ports.
In a vane motor, the imbalance necessary to cause shaft rotation is the
result of the difference in vane area exposed to hydraulic pressure. The rotor
is positioned off-center in the motor housing or cam ring, which causes the
area of the vanes exposed to pressure to increase toward the top and decrease
at the bottom. When these unequal areas of the vanes are exposed to pressur¬
ized fluid entering through the inlet port, torque is developed at the motor
shaft. The larger the exposed area of the vanes, or the higher the pressure,
the more torque will be developed at the shaft. If the torque developed is large
enough, the rotor and shaft will turn.
In a hydraulic motor, two different pressures are involved: system work¬
ing pressure at the inlet and tank line pressure at the outlet. This results in
side loading the shaft, which could be severe at high system pressures. To
avoid shaft side loading, the inner contour of the cam ring can be changed
from circular to cam-shaped. With this arrangement, two pressure quadrants
oppose each other and the forces acting on the shaft are balanced. Shaft side
loading is eliminated. This type of motor is called a balanced design and is
the one generally used in industrial hydraulic systems (see Fig. 2.10 and Fig.
2.11).
The rotating group of industrial vane motors is usually an integral cart¬
ridge assembly. The cartridge assembly consists of vanes, rotor, and a cam
ring sandwiched between two port plates or, in certain types, between the
pressure plates and the body. An advantage of using a cartridge assembly is
easy motor servicing. After a period of time when motor parts naturally wear,
the rotating group can be easily removed and replaced with a new cartridge
assembly. Also, if the same motor is required to develop more torque at the
same system pressure, a cartridge assembly with the same outside dimensions,
but with a larger exposed vane area may be available and can be quickly sub¬
stituted for the original.
Before a vane motor will operate, its vanes must be extended. Unlike
a vane pump, centrifugal force cannot be depended on to throw out the vanes
54 Hydraulic Systems

Major arc where fluid

works to push vane
Port A ramp where
unloaded vane moves
outward for CW
rotation

Port B
Minor arc ramp where
where vane works unloaded vane
to seal inlet moves inward
pressure from for CW rotation
outlet port

Rotor Cam ring

Figure 2.10 Balanced vane motor operation. (Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy,
Michigan.)

VANE

SPRING ROTOR
CLIP RING

ROTOR
DRIVE
SHAFT

Figure 2.11 Balanced vane motor with spring-actuated vanes. (Courtesy of John
Deere and Co., Waterloo, Iowa.)
Hydraulic Motors 55

and create a seal between the cam ring and vane tip. The vanes are spring
loaded so that they are extended continuously.

2.2.2 Gear Motors

A gear motor develops an output torque at its shaft by allowing hydraulic

pressure to act on gear teeth. A gear motor consists basically of a housing
with inlet and outlet ports, and a rotating group made up of two gears. One
gear is attached to a shaft that is connected to a load. The other gear is the
driven gear.
In a gear motor, the imbalance necessary for motor operation is caused
by gear teeth unmeshing. The inlet is subjected to system pressure and the
outlet is at return line pressure. As the gear teeth unmesh, all teeth subjected
to system pressure are hydraulically balanced except for one side of one tooth
on one gear. This is the point where torque is developed. Consequently, the
torque developed by a gear motor is a function of one side of one gear tooth.
The larger the gear tooth or the higher the pressure, the more torque is pro¬
duced.
An internal gear motor consists of one external gear which meshes with
the teeth on the inside circumference of a larger gear. A popular type of in¬
ternal gear motor in industrial systems is the gerotor motor. This motor is
an internal gear motor with an inner drive gear and an outer driven gear which
has one more tooth than the inner gear. The inner gear is attached to a shaft
which is connected to a load. The imbalance in a gerotor motor is caused by
the difference in gear area exposed to hydraulic pressure at the motor inlet.
Fluid pressure acting on these unequally exposed teeth results in a tor¬
que at the motor shaft. The larger the gear or the higher the pressure, the
more torque will be developed at the shaft. Fluid entering the rotating group
of a gerotor motor is separated from the fluid exiting the motor by means
of a port plate with kidney-shaped inlet and outlet ports.

2.2.3 Piston Motors

A piston motor develops an output torque at its shaft by allowing hydraulic
pressure to act on pistons. The rotating group of a piston motor consists basi¬
cally of swashplate, cylinder barrel, pistons, shoeplate, shoeplate bias spring,
port plate, and shaft. The pistons fit inside the cylinder barrel. The swashplate
is positioned at an angle and acts as a surface on which the shoe side of the
piston travels. The piston shoes are held in contact with the swashplate by the
shoeplate and bias spring. A port plate separates incoming fluid from the dis¬
charge fluid. A shaft is connected to the cylinder barrel (Fig. 2.12).
To describe how a piston motor works, let us observe the operation of
one piston in a cylinder barrel. With the swashplate positioned at an angle,
56 Hydraulic Systems

Figure 2.12 Axial piston motor operation.

the piston shoe does not have a very stable surface on which to position itself.
When fluid pressure acts on the piston, a force is developed which pushes
the piston out and causes the piston shoe to slide across the swashplate sur¬
face. As the piston shoe slides, it develops a torque at the shaft attached to
the barrel. The amount of torque depends on the angle of slide caused by the
swashplate and the pressure in the system. If the torque is large enough, the
shaft will turn.
Torque continues to be developed by the piston as long as it is pushed
out of the cylinder barrel by fluid pressure. Once the piston passes over the
center of the circle, it is pushed back into the cylinder barrel by the swash¬
plate. At this point, the piston bore will be open to the outlet port of the port
plate. A single piston in a piston motor develops torque for only half of the
full circle of rotation of the cylinder barrel and shaft. In actual practice, a
cylinder barrel of a piston motor is fitted with many pistons. This allows the
motor shaft to rotate continuously as well as obtain maximum torque.
The displacement of an axial piston motor, or any piston motor, is de¬
termined by the distance the pistons are reciprocated in the cylinder barrel.
Since the swashplate angle controls this distance in an axial piston motor,
changing the angle of the swashplate will alter the piston stroke and motor
displacement. With a large swashplate angle, the pistons have a long stroke
within the cylinder barrel; and, with a small swashplate angle, the pistons have
a short stroke. By varying the angle of the swashplate, the motor’s displace¬
ment can be changed. A fixed stop is usually provided to establish a minimum
stroke to prevent overspeeding and/or mechanical lockup. Major changes of
speed and direction are usually the function of the drive pump supplying fluid
to the motor. Any change of speed related to the motor is generally associated
with an overdrive function. Torque is then sacrificed for an increase in out¬
put speed.
Some axial piston motors have the piston and cylinder block assembly
tilted or bent with respect to the drive shaft. The angle of the bore compared
Hydraulic Motors 57

to the drive shaft determines the stroke or motor displacement. As the angle
is changed, the stroke or displacement is varied. Thus the motor speed is var¬
iable by changing the tilt angle within a safe working range. Figure 2.13 and
2.14 provide some construction details for the bent-axis piston motor.

2.2.4 Rotary Motion (Fluid Motors and Rotary Actuators)

Torque
Torque is defined as rotary force. In rotary motion it is the exact equivalent
of the thrust or force produced by a cylinder. The effect of torque is to pro¬
duce a force or thrust at the end of its radius arm. But since the motor is pre¬
vented from rotating, it is producing nothing but torque. There is no work
done or power produced because there is no movement involved.
Torque, unlike linear thrust, can only be measured or used because of
the force produced at the end of a radius arm of (so many) pounds at a dis¬
tance of (so many) inches from the shaft centerline. This is always true no
matter whether the motor is driving a fan, a winch, a vehicle wheel, a convey¬
or, or any other device. The combination of the length of radius arm and the
force produced at the end of it is called a moment.

T(torque) = F (force) xD (distance)

In a similar manner, if motor torque and length of radius arm are known,
the formula above may be transposed to solve for force, F:

Force = torque h- distance

Figure 2.13 Bent-axis motor operation.

 58 Hydraulic Systems

SHAFT BEARINGS

UNIVERSAL LINK
DRIVE SHAFT
VALVE
BLOCK

DRIVE
SPLINE

CYLINDER BLOCK

Figure 2.14 Cross section of bent-axis hydraulic motor. (Courtesy of Rexroth Corp.)

If the motor torque and linear force that it produces are known, the length
of the radius arm can be solved by transposing the formula to read

distance = torque -f- force

Fluid Motor Torque

The amount of torque that can be produced with any given motor does not
depend directly on its speed, although its speed may have a slight effect due
to an unrelated cause known as porting loss and due to internal friction. The
torque depends on only two factors: (1) the psi pressure level in the fluid, and
(2) the number of cubic inches of fluid displaced by the working elements in
one revolution. Only the psi pressure level can be varied by the designer or
the machine operator, as the working area or displacement has already been
fixed in the motor design. On motors, then, the amount of torque produced
is in direct proportion to the psi in the fluid. If we double the psi, the torque
doubles, and so on. It is a directly proportional effect.
A quick estimate of the approximate horsepower that will be needed
in a system can be made by figuring the power output in mechanical units
using pounds of weight or force to be handled, distance in feet that the load
has to be moved, then dividing by the length of time in which the work must
be done. Then a suitable markup must be added to take care of system losses.
If this is done before attempting to select a pump or cylinder size, it will give
Startup, Operation, and Maintenance 59

a good approximate starting point in sizing the system. This formula may be
used to calculate the necessary system horsepower in mechanical units:

^ _ distance (feet) that the load is moved x load force (pounds)

time (minutes needed to move this load this distance) x 33,000
Relationship Between Horsepower, Torque, and Speed
There is a basic relationship between horsepower, torque, and speed that holds
true for all rotary motion of any kind, whether hydraulic motor, hydraulic
pump, air motor, oscillating motor, electric motor, waterwheel, or what not.
It is expressed by the formula

torque (ft-lb) x speed (rpm)

5252

This formula is, of course, valid only for units of feet, pounds, and minutes.
If the data are expressed in other units, they will have to be converted.
A close look at this formula should reveal how it may be used in the
selection and use of both air and hydraulic motors:

1. Remember that in a fluid motor it is the applied pressure in psi

which determines the level of torque. Example: A certain motor
connected to an oil supply of 1000 psi is developing 75 ft-lb of
torque. If the supply pressure is reduced to 250 psi, the torque will
reduce in the same proportion, to 18.75 ft-lb).
2. Also remember that the speed is proportional to the flow (cfm or
gpm) supplied. Double the cfm or gpm and the speed doubles, and
so on. Example: If a motor is operating at 900 rpm on a fluid supply
of 5 gpm, it will speed up to 2700 rpm if the supply is increased
to 15 gpm. This is always true if slippage is neglected.

Using the basic formula given above, the horsepower, the speed, or the torque
can be found if the other two are known. We can transpose the formula into
these three forms, any one of which may be used:

To find hp: hp = (T x rpm) -r- 5252 T must be in foot-pounds

To find torque: T = (hp x 5252) -r- rpm T will be in foot-pounds
To find speed: rpm = (hp X 5252) -f- T T must be in foot-pounds

2.3 STARTUP, OPERATION, AND MAINTENANCE

OF HYDRAULIC PUMPS AND MOTORS
To guarantee efficient operation of pumps or motors it is important to re¬
view carefully the operating instruction and installation hints supplied with
the unit or the information given in the relevant catalog sheet. It is impera-
60 Hydraulic Systems

tive that all internal parts be kept clean during all modes of operation, but
particularly during installation. The fluid used in the system must be of a rec¬
ommended type, and adequate filtration must be provided. The following gen¬
eral instructions apply for most types of hydraulic pumps. However, in some
cases additional instructions may be needed. Maintenance and operation are
dependent on actual operating conditions.

2.3.1 General Instructions

Installation
It is recommended that the unit be flushed out with the proper hydraulic fluid
being used, to remove any anticorrosive agent that may be present. Installa¬
tion should be carried out in accordance with the drawings and instructions
supplied, and particular attention must be paid to the associated pipework
system. Unnecessary stresses resulting from incorrectly fitted pipes or mis¬
aligned drive assemblies should be avoided. Pump or motor leakage lines must
end below the oil level in the tank and be adequately sized to ensure that the
back pressure at the housing does not exceed the maximum permissible value.
The leakage line must be connected so that the housing always remains filled
with oil, so that no siphoning effect is obtained in the tank.
It is essential that suction lines be designed and installed per the manu¬
facturer’s instructions. Caution must be exercised to assure that the maximum
suction vacuum pressure, or preload pressure, does not exceed the limits spec¬
ified by the manufacturer. Filters or valves fitted must be given equal con¬
sideration. All pipe connections must be sealed (airtight) to prevent entry of air
into the pump which will cause noisy operation and possible pump damage.

Initial Startup
When aligning the pump or motor housing mechanically, the possibility of
torsion due to uneven foundations or irregular mounting points must be elim¬
inated. Similarly, the alignment of the input/output drive shaft with the con¬
necting part must be checked carefully. Verify that all required voltage and
current of electrical control and regulating devices are in accordance with the
available supply.
Checking for correct direction of rotation is carried out by loosening
the drive coupling either before starting the drive assembly or after filling the
unit to be tested with hydraulic oil and quickly switching the drive (for pumps
and motors) on and off. This is called jogging the unit. If a leakage or drain
line is provided, the housing must be filled with hydraulic fluid to give inter¬
nal lubrication.
In view of the many designs of pumps and motors available, it is al¬
ways wise first to read the manufacturer’s instructions. Most units must be
started without load; certain designs, however, are started with load. Others
Startup, Operation, and Maintenance 61

must be started according to a particular procedure. This is particularly the

case with boost or auxiliary units on the same shaft. In the case of pumps,
prefilling may also be necessary; this depends on the suction head and the
frictional losses in the suction line. Before initiating startup, be certain that
all valves in the system (particularly on the suction or inlet side) are in the
“free-flow” position. The motor should be repeatedly jogged on and off alter¬
nately without reaching full speed until it is seen that the unit is operating
quietly and efficiently.
At initial startup it may be necessary to prefill the pump with oil or to
vent the pump discharge lines to obtain unrestricted inflow of the hydraulic
fluid and to reduce the noise level. This can be carried out at a suitable point
in the outlet pressure piping or by loosening the outlet pressure piping con¬
nection until the flow appears free of air bubbles. If not otherwise indi¬
cated, it is customary to set pumps or motors with variable displacement,
at approximately half stroke, to facilitate initial suction. When a system is
started for the first time (and the system is filled with the hydraulic fluid)
the fluid level in the tank must be continuously checked during the startup
to ensure that it does not fall below the required fluid level, as shown on the
sight gauge.
Certain hydraulic systems contain pressure relief valves which must be
set according to the pressure indicated by the manufacturer. In such cases
this should be carried out per the manufacturer’s recommendations or the details
shown on the schematic, for adjustment to be made to the minimum setting.
For initial setting, pressure must be gradually increased until the system is
operating efficiently. The pressure must not be higher, to prevent unnecessary
waste of energy, and overheating of the fluid. After a short run at the rec¬
ommended operating speed and normal operating pressure, check that the
bearings, bushings, and fluid, have not exceeded the normal operating tem¬
perature.

Preventive Maintenance
The frequency of maintenance cannot be specified. It is determined purely
by experience. The regularity with which it is carried out is important, how¬
ever. The following points should be checked at regular intervals, as speci¬
fied by the manufacturer, or based on experience.
Alignment. It is advisable periodically to check the correct alignment
of the system components at operating temperature and (if possible) at oper¬
ating pressure. It is also advisable to check mounting bolts, screws, couplings,
pipes, connections, and so on.
Filtration. All filters (particularly suction filters) in the hydraulic sys¬
tem must be checked at suitable intervals and filter elements cleaned or re¬
placed as required.
62 Hydraulic Systems

2.3.2 Troubleshooting
*

Hydraulic pumps and motors will give many years of trouble-free service when
correctly installed and used. If a fault should develop, however, it is impor¬
tant to locate the cause and eliminate it as quickly as possible. Troubleshoot¬
ing is simplified if a schematic of the hydraulic system is available. Specific
pump troubleshooting guidelines are provided in the following chart.

Problem Cause Solution

Insufficient system 1. System relief valve not Set adjusting screw to obtain
pressure set high enough desired minimum operating
pressure
2. Oil bypassing to Inspect circuit pressure pro¬
reservoir gressively; watch for open
center valves or other valves
open to reservoir
3. Pressure being relieved Relief valve is usually not re¬
through relief valve quired with pressure-compen¬
sated vane pumps; relief
valves may create additional
heat and present another pres¬
sure to set
4. Vane or vanes stuck in Dismantle pump and inspect
rotor slots for wedged chips or sticky oil
5. Pump running too Check minimum pump speed
slowly recommendations
6. Defective pressure gauge Install good pressure gauge in
or gauge line is shut off; a line open to pump pressure
dirt may plug gauge ori¬
fice
Excessive pump 1. Pump-motor coupling Realign pump and motor ac¬
noise misalignment curately; align to within 0.005
in. total indicator reading
2. Oil level low Fill reservoir so that surface
of oil is well above end of
suction line during all of
work cycle; about 1 Vi pipe
diameters minimum
3. Pump running too fast Reduce speed; speeds above
rating are harmful and cause
early failure of pumps; refer
Startup, Operation, and Maintenance 63

Problem Cause Solution

to pump rating for maximum

speed
4. Wrong type of oil Use a good, clean hydraulic
oil having viscosity in ac¬
cordance with manufacturer’s
recommendations; antifoam¬
ing additives preferred
5. Air leak in suction line Pour hydraulic oil and/or
Air leak in case drain grease joints around shaft
line while listening for change
Air leak around shaft in sound of operation; tighten
packing or replace
6. Direction of pump rota¬ Arrow on pump housing must
tion not correct agree with direction of rota¬
tion
7. Reservoirs not vented Allow reservoir to breathe so
oil level may fluctuate as re¬
quired
8. Air-bound pump Air is locked in pumping
chamber and has no way of
escape; stop pressure line or
install special bypass line back
to tank so that air can pass
out of the pump; an air bleed
valve need is indicated
9. Restricted flow through Check suction piping and fit¬
suction piping tings to make sure full size is
used throughout; make sure
suction line is not plugged
with rags or other foreign ma¬
terial
10. Pump case drain does Extend slip line piping so that
not terminate below oil it terminates below the oil
level surface when oil is at its low¬
est during any part of one
machine cycle
11. Pressure ring (on vane Replace; this condition caused
pumps) is worn by hot, thin, dirty oil or no
oil at all; an air-bound condi-
(continued)
64 Hydraulic Systems

Problem Cause . Solution

tion will also contribute to the

worn pressure ring
12. Air bubbles in intake Provide reservoir with baffles;
line all return lines to reservoir
must end below oil surface
and on opposite side of the
baffle from intake lines;
check for reservoir design vio¬
lations
13. Restricted filter or Clean filter or strainer
strainer
14. Sticking vane (on vane Remove cover assembly and
pumps) check rotor and vane for
presence of metal chips or
sticky oil; some pump models
have chamfered edges on the
vanes; see pump drawings for
proper installation
15. Worn or broken parts Replace
16. Reservoir air vent Air must be allowed to circu¬
plugged late in the reservoir; clean
and/or replace breather
System excessively 1. Pump operated at Reduce pump pressure to
hot higher pressures than minimum required for desired
required performance
2. Pump discharging Check for mechanical binding
through relief valve in the machine being driven
In fixed-displacement pump
systems make sure the relief
valve is set at a suitable mar¬
gin above normal system
operating pressure levels
For variable-displacement
pump circuits make certain
relief is set approximately
25% higher than compensator
pressure level
3. Pump slippage too high Inspect pumping element; re¬
place if worn or damaged
4. Cooling inadequate Check for relief set too high;
check
* for pressure compen-
Startup, Operation, and Maintenance 65

Problem Cause Solution

sator set too high; look for

internal leaks evidenced by
“hot spots”; only then add oil
cooler and/or increase reser¬
voir capacity
5. High ambient temper¬ Relocate power unit or baffle
ature against heat source
6. Excessive friction Internal parts may be too
tight; packing may be incor¬
rectly installed or over-
tightened
7. Oil in reservoir low Raise oil level to recommend¬
ed point; look for external
leaks; look for leaks into
coolant reservoir
8. Pump drain or return Separate the drain return and
line too close to pump suction lines by a baffle in the
suction reservoir; place the drain line
in a location where it must
travel the farthest distance
practical before the oil reen¬
ters the pump
9. System leakage exces¬ Check progressively through
sive the system for losses
Leakage at oil seal 1. Seal installed incorrectly Correct installation
2. Pressure in pump case Observe case drain line for
restriction; check drain line
circuitry for excessive back¬
pressure arrangement
3. Poor coupling align¬ Realign pump and motor
ment shafts; align to within 0.005
in. total indicator reading
4. Packing damaged at in¬ Replace oil seal assembly; slip
stallation; damaged or packing carefully over
scratched shaft seal keyway, avoiding cuts
5. Abrasives on pump Protect shaft from abrasive
shaft dust and foreign material
Bearing failure 1. Abuse during coupling Most pumps are not designed
installation to pump to handle end thrusts against
(continued)
66 Hydraulic Systems

Problem Cause Solution

the drive shaft; eliminate all

end play; couplings should be
a slip fit onto the pump shaft
2. Overhung load Many pumps are not designed
to handle any overhung load
or side thrust on the drive
shaft; see manufacturer’s rec¬
ommendations
3. Incorrect fluid See manufacturer’s oil recom¬
mendations
4. Excessive or shock load Reduce operation pressure if
possible; observe maximum
rating of operating pressure;
make necessary circuit
changes; install shock ab¬
sorber in appropriate area
5. Chips or other foreign Make sure clean oil is used;
matter in bearings (con¬ essential for efficient oper¬
tamination) ation and long life of bearings
6. Coupling misalignment Realign pump and motor
Pump not deliv¬ 1. Wrong direction of Observe arrow on pump case
ering oil pump rotation or nameplate; direction of ro¬
tation must correspond
2. Oil level low in reservoir Maintain oil level in reservoir
well above bottom of suction
line at all times
3. Air leak in suction line Apply good pipe compound
nonsoluble in oil, and tighten
joints
Replace line if necessary;
consider flexible suction hose
4. Pump running too Increase speed; check manu¬
slowly facturer’s minimum speed rec¬
ommendations to be sure of
proper priming
5. Suction filter or plugged Filters must be cleaned of lint
line or dirt soon after first start of
unit; periodic checks should
be made as a preventive main¬
tenance precaution
Startup, Operation, and Maintenance 67

Problem Cause Solution

6. Bleed-off in other por¬ Check for open center valves

tion of circuit or other controls connected to
tank
7. Oil viscosity too high Thinner oil should be used
for proper priming per recommendations for
given temperatures and serv¬
ice
8. Pump shaft, vanes, Replace broken parts; study
rotor, or other parts for signs of excessive shock,
damaged dirt, foreign material, or
other probable causes of
failure
9. Sheared key at rotor or First determine cause and
coupling make necessary repairs, then
replace sheared key
10. Pump cover too loose Tighten bolts on pump cover
to recommended torque value

Troubleshooting guidelines for hydraulic motors are indicated below.

Problem Cause Solution

Motor turning in 1. Piping between control Check manufacturer’s litera-

wrong direction valve is incorrect ture and circuit to determine
correct piping
Motor not turning 1. Driven mechanism bind- Remove motor and check
over or not devel- ing because of misalign- torque requirement of
oping proper speed ment driven shaft
or torque 2. Free recirculation of oil Check circuit, valving and
to reservoir valve position
3. Sticky relief valve Remove dirt from under pres¬
(open) sure adjustment ball or piston
Clean and polish sticky spool
4. Motor adjustment Set hand wheel to proper
mechanism not set at motor displacement angle
proper angle (on adjust¬ Set to maximum angle to start
able motors) unit and decrease angle to
desired speed and torque
(continued)
68 Hydraulic Systems

Problem Cause Solution

5. Setting overload relief Check system pressure and

valve not high enough reset relief valve
6. Pump not delivering Check pump delivery, pres¬
sufficient pressure or sure, and motor speed
volume
7. Motor innards bound Remove stoppage or reshim if
applicable
Will not hold load 1. No external brake Hydraulic motors have inher¬
ent internal leakage; an ex¬
ternal brake should be consid¬
ered
2. External brake not Check for causes of brake
holding slipping or other malfunction

2.4 HYDRAULIC VALVES

There are three different classifications of valves.

1. Directional control: to start, stop, and reverse cylinders and

motors
2. Volume control: to regulate rate of fluid flow or speed of an
actuator
3. Pressure control: to regulate or limit force

Valves are mechanical devices consisting of a body internally bored with cylin¬
drical chambers and passageways. The chambers may contain pistons, spools,
poppets, balls, or springs. The valve may also be equipped with an adjust¬
ment screw. The arrangement of the passages in the block together with the
movement of the piston or spool causes the diversion of fluid flow. As the
spool moves in its chamber, some ports are closed while others are opened.
Each position of the spool changes flow direction. Volume of flow and
pressure are also affected by the movement of components within the valve
block and by the adjustment devices. Various methods or a combination of
methods are used to activate a valve. They may be operated manually, me¬
chanically, electrically, pneumatically, and hydraulically.
The name of the individual valve is based on its usual function. For ex¬
ample, a relief valve is one that limits the system pressure and relieves excess
pressure. The operation, construction, and application of the various valve
Hydraulic Valves 69

types to perform specific functions within a hydraulic system are described

next for each valve type.
'f*

2.4.1 Directional Control Valves

A directional control valve consists of a body with internal flow passages

which are connected and disconnected by a movable part. This action results
in the control of fluid direction. Various valve configurations are utilized de¬
pending on the component to be controlled and the control actions or posi¬
tions desired. The number of passages in the valve establishes the number of
ways that the flow can be diverted; the number of positions the valve can be
shifted to is determined by the configuration as well as the valve actuation
mechanism (Fig. 2.15).
A two-way directional valve consists of two passages which are con-

To reservoir To reservoir

Valved oil lines

connected here
provide hydraulic
control of valves

To reservoir

Figure 2.15 Direction control valve operation. (Courtesy of Sun Oil Co., Philadel¬
phia, Pennsylvania.)
70 Hydraulic Systems

nected and disconnected. In one extreme spool position, the flow path through
the valve is open. In the other extreme, the flow path is blocked. A two-way
directional valve gives an on-off function. This function is used in many sys¬
tems to serve as a safety interlock and to isolate and connect various system
parts (see Fig. 2.16).
A three-way directional valve consists of three passages within a valve
body: a pressure passage, one actuator passage, and one tank or exhaust pas¬
sage. The function of this valve is to pressurize and drain one actuator port.
When the spool of a three-way valve is in one extreme position, the pressure
passage is connected with the actuator passage. When it is in the other ex¬
treme position, the spool connects the actuator passage with the tank line (see
Fig. 2.17). A three-way directional valve is used to operate single-acting ac¬
tuators such as rams and spring-return cylinders. In these applications, a three-
way valve directs pressurized fluid to one end of the cylinder. When the spool
is shifted to the other extreme position, the actuator passage is connected to
the tank-exhaust passage. The actuator is returned by a spring or weight.
Four-way directional valves are capable of reversing the motion of a
double-acting cylinder or reversible hydraulic motor. They have a pressure
passage, two actuator passages, and one tank connection. To perform the
reversing function, the spool connects the pressure passage with one actua¬
tor passage. At the same time, the remaining actuator passage is connected
to the tank connection by the valve spool (see Fig. 2.18).
The directional valve spool can be positioned in one extreme position

Valve

Flow' Path
Open

Flow Path
Closed

Figure 2.16 Two-way valve configuration.

Hydraulic Valves 71

Valve
Body Actuator Spool

PumP Tank
Passage Passage

A A

T
P T P T

Figure 2.17 Three-way valve configuration.

or the other. The spool is moved to these positions by mechanical, electrical,

pneumatic, hydraulic, or manual power. Directional valves whose spools are
moved by muscle power are known as manually operated or manually ac¬
tuated \ alves. Various types of manual actuators include levers, pushbuttons,
and pedals. A very common type of mechanical actuator is a plunger. Equip¬
ped with a roller at its top, the plunger is depressed by a cam which is attached
to an actuator. Manual actuators are used on directional valves whose opera¬
tion must be sequenced and controlled at an operator’s discretion. Mechan¬
ical actuation is used when the shifting of a directional valve must occur at
the time an actuator reaches a specific position.
Directional valve spools can also be shifted with fluid pressure either
pneumatic or hydraulic. In these valves, pilot pressure is applied to the spool
ends or to separate pilot pistons. One form of two-way valve is a check valve,
shown in Fig. 2.19. This valve allows free flow in one direction and prevents
flow in the reverse direction. A spring holds the movable member in the closed
position. Fluid pressure must overcome the spring force to cause the valve
to open. The strength of the spring establishes the magnitude of pressure nec¬
essary for the valve to open.
One of the most common ways of operating a directional valve is with
a solenoid. A solenoid is an electromagnetic device which consists basically
72 Hydraulic Systems

Passage A Passage B

Passage

A B

Figure 2.18 Four-way valve configuration.

of a plunger, frame, and wire coil. The coil is wound inside the frame. The
plunger is free to move inside the coil. When an electric current passes through
a coil of wire, a magnetic field is generated. This magnetic field attracts the
plunger and pulls it into the coil. As the plunger moves in, it contacts a push
pin and moves the directional valve spool to an extreme position.
A two-position directional valve generally uses one type of actuator to
shift a directional valve spool to an extreme position. The spool is generally
returned to its original position by means of a spring. Two-position valves
of this nature are known as spring offset valves in hydraulic systems. Spring
offset-returned two-way and three-way valves can be either normally open
or normally closed; that is, when the actuator is not energized, fluid flow may
or may not pass through the valve. In a two-position three-way valve, since
there is always a passage open through the valve, normally closed usually in-
Hydraulic Valves 73

dicates that the pressure passage is blocked when the valve actuator is not
energized.
If either of two actuators is used to shift the spool of a two-position
valve, detents are sometimes used. A detent is a locking device which helps
keep a spool in the desired shifted position. The spool is equipped with notches
or grooves. Each notch is a receptacle for a spring-loaded movable part. The
movable part can be a ball. With the ball in the notch, the spool is held in
position. When the spool is shifted, the ball is forced out of one notch and
into another notch.
As noted previously, one of the most common means of operating a
directional valve is with a solenoid. However, a disadvantage is that the shift¬
ing force which can be developed by a solenoid of reasonable size is limited.
In large valves, the force required to shift a spool is substantial. As a result,
only smaller valves use solenoids for shifting directly. Larger hydraulic direc¬
tional valves (35 gpm and larger) use pilot pressure for shifting. In these larger
directional valves, a small directional valve is often positioned on top of the
larger valve. Flow and pressure from the small valve are directed to either
side of the large valve spool when shifting is required. These valves are desig-

Figure 2.19 In-line check valve. (Courtesy of RegO Corp., Chicago, Illinois.)
74 Hydraulic Systems

nated solenoid-controlled, pilot-operated directional valves. They are com¬

monly referred to as piggy-back valves (Fig. 2.20). In referring to the various
possible flow paths available through a directional valve, only the flow paths
as the spool was in either extreme were considered. But there are intermedi¬
ate spool positions.
Hydraulic four-way valves are quite often three-position valves consist¬
ing of two extreme positions and a center position. The two extreme posi¬
tions of four-way directional valves are directly related to the actuator’s mo¬
tion. They are the power positions of the valve. The center position of the
*

directional valve is designed to satisfy a need of the system. For this reason,
a directional valve’s center position is commonly referred to as a neutral con¬
dition.
There are a variety of center positions available with four-way direc¬
tional valves. Some of the more popular ones are the open center, closed cen¬
ter, tandem center, and float center. These center positions can be achieved
within the same valve body simply by using the appropriate spool. Several
spool designs are shown in Fig. 2.21. A directional valve with an open-center
spool has P, T, A, and B passages all connected to each other in the center
position. An open center allows free movement of an actuator while pump
flow is returned to the tank. The closed-center spool has P, T, A, and B
passages all blocked in the center position. A closed center stops the motion
of an actuator and allows each individual actuator in the system to operate
independently from one power supply (Fig. 2.22).
A tandem-center spool has P and T passages connected and A and B
passages blocked in the center position. A tandem-center condition stops the
motion of an actuator, but allows pump flow to return to tank without go¬
ing over a relief valve.
A directional valve with a float-center spool has the P passage blocked
and the A, B, and T passages connected in the center position. A float-center
condition allows independent operation of actuators tied to the same power
source and allows free movement of each actuator.
Directional valves with three positions must have the ability to hold the
spool in the center position. Spring centering is the most common means of
centering a directional valve spool. A spring-centered valve has a spring
located at each end of the valve spool. When the valve is actuated, the spool
moves from the center position to one extreme, compressing a spring. When
the valve is not actuated, the spring returns the spool to the center position.

2.4.2 Flow Control Valves

In any machine system, it is necessary to control the energy that the system
delivers. This control must be capable of varying the size of the force, the
direction of the force, and the speed at which the force is applied.
Hydraulic Valves 75

Spring Offset, Solenoid Controlled,

Pilot Operated, 4-Way
Directional Control Valve

(a)

T A P B
Spring Centered Valve

X5 xnr

AM J [ T.X- AA
Simplified Symbol

Solenoid Controlled, Pilot Operated

Directional Valve

<b)

Figure 2.20 Pilot-operated directional control valves.

76 Hydraulic Systems

Land

2-Land Spool

4-Land Spool

Figure 2.21 Valve spool configurations.

If the system uses the medium of fluid power to transmit its energy, the
controls are a function of pressure (force), direction of flow, and volume
(speed). A simple hydraulic system could use a relief valve to control pressure
and a control valve to control direction of flow. Other methods of fluid vol¬
ume control are:
Vary the speed of the pump’s prime mover.
Use a variable-displacement pump and control system to change pump
displacement to match speed requirements.
Depend on the throttling ability inherent in most directional control
valves typical of many mobile circuits.
Use a flow control valve for throttling or metering so that actuator speed
meets design requirements. Consider use of compensated flow control
valve, which uses reducing valve structure or relief valve function to
maintain a uniform pressure drop across the orifice regardless of up¬
stream or downstream pressure values.
Use a servo or closed-loop control system.

When flow rates must be changed, the simplest method is to add a flow con¬
trol valve in the system at an appropriate place. A flow control valve is a de¬
vice that controls flow rate through use of an orifice. In simpler valves, the ori¬
fice and its associated pressure drop provide the throttling effect. In others,
an orifice is used to detect changes in rate of flow, and the changing pressure
drop through the orifice operates a valve member which controls the flow.
Types of Flow Controls
The simplest way to control the flow of a fluid is by introducing a restriction
in a line. This restriction may be as uncomplicated as a length of conductor
with an inside diameter of reduced size. Or the restriction may be a holed
CM
CM
CM
<V
1-
3
CO
£

77
78 Hydraulic Systems

plate. A piece of bar stock with a hole in it, machined to fit the conical nose
of a 37° or 45° flare fitting will act as an orifice to provide the pressure drop
for flow control. The size of hole will determine the pressure drop across this
fixed orifice, depending on rate of flow.
These types of orifices cannot be purchased and, within their limita¬
tions, function very well. Because they will produce a pressure drop regard¬
less of direction of flow, they cannot be placed indiscriminately throughout
the system. In fact, this sort of hardware can easily be lost in a system and
steps should be taken to document or mark their locations. A paint mark on
the smaller fluid line or on the fitting is one way to “find” them. Most serv¬
ice people prefer to attach a metal tag permanently to the orificed device and
make certain it is marked on the original of the machine circuit drawing. Some
maintenance directors make it mandatory to include a circuit drawing in the
electrical control cabinet so that information of this type is immediately avail¬
able to service personnel.
Needle Valve. One of the simplest, adjustable flow controls is the nee¬
dle valve. These valves are available in all shapes and sizes, and can be pur¬
chased with or without an integral check valve. Adding an integral check valve
permits free flow in one direction and throttled or metered flow in the other.
Usually, valves that have free-flow capability have an arrow or some other
marking on the valve body to indicate the direction of free flow, and are called
flow control valves. Without the check valve, the are usually called needle
valves (Fig. 2.23).
An adjustable stem changes the needle position relative to its orifice for
a greater or lesser degree of throttling. Some stems have slots that accommo¬
date screwdrivers; other valves have some type of handwheel for needle ad¬
justment. A third variety has a calibrated stem which resembles a micrometer
barrel for precise reset capability. Another manufacturer combines the cali¬
brated stem with color codes, for easy reset. All stems have a setscrew or nut
which locks the needle in place once it is set.
The geometry of the needle varies widely, depending on the desired
change in orifice configuration as the valve is adjusted. Some needles have
one “standard” taper; others have multiple tapers on the same stem. Another
type of needle has V notches of varying widths on the needle, a V notch on
a cylinder, or even a helix-ended sleeve. The purpose of these different con¬
figurations is to provide coarse or fine adjustment, depending on the distance
of the stem from its seat, or to provide rapid closure or opening; other special
configurations provide special flow responses.
Pressure Compensation. Most fluid power applications do not tolerate
the wide range of actuator speed adjustment provided by a needle valve. To
provide actuator speed regulation within closer limits, pressure-compensated
flow control valves were developed. Over a somewhat limited range of
Figure 2.23a Adjustable flow control valve. (Courtesy of RegO Corp., Chicago,
Illinois.)

Inlet A Hydrostat

Figure 2.23b Cross section of pressure-compensated flow control. (Courtesy of the

Rexroth Corporation, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.)

79
80 Hydraulic Systems

pressure drop, a pressure-compensated flow control valve uses a fixed or man¬

ually adjusted orifice to control hydraulically the size of a second or throt¬
tling orifice. This type of valve provides a specified pressure drop as long as
the inlet pressure to the valve falls within its operating limits (Fig. 2.23b).
Temperature Compensation. Changes in oil temperature alter flow
rate through orifices because of changes in viscosity which occur as oil is
heated or cooled. Usually, when a hydraulic system is first started, fluid
temperature is lower than it will be after a period of operation. This means
that not only will oil viscosity decrease as temperature increases, but system
component clearances and tolerances will change as well. These changes cause
flow differences which affect the operational characteristics of the hydraulic
system.
To compensate for this flow rate change, some flow control valves use
sharp-edged control orifices. These orifices are viscosity insensitive and do
not alter flow rates with temperature and viscosity changes. Flow accuracies
of 2% are possible with viscosity changes of as much as 250 seconds Saybolt
Universal (SSU).
Another compensating method uses the phenomenon of different expan¬
sion rates of dissimilar metals. As oil temperature increases, the flow con¬
trol is made smaller as a temperature-compensating rod changes the size of
the orifice opening. This metal expansion must match the viscosity change
of the oil so that the net result is a constant flow rate.

2.4.3 Pressure Control Valves

A number of pressure control valves are used in hydraulic systems, each per¬
forming a different function. These valves can be listed as follows:

Relief valve
Sequence valve
Counterbalance valve
Pressure-reducing valve
Unloading valve

In their simplest form, pressure controls are two-way valves that are either
normally closed (no flow through the valves) or normally open (flow through
the valve). Most pressure control valves have infinite positioning: they can
assume an infinite number of positions between their fully open and fully
closed positions, depending on flow rates and pressure differentials.
Relief, unloading, sequence, and counterbalance valves are normally
closed. They open partially and/or fully, while performing their intended
functions. A reducing valve is normally open. It restricts and ultimately blocks
Hydraulic Valves 81

flow to a secondary circuit. In either case, a restriction is usually necessary

to produce the required pressure control. One exception is the externally
piloted unloading valve, which depends for its actuation on an external signal.

Relief Valve
Relief valves are devices installed in a circuit to make certain that system
pressure does not exceed safety limits. Relief valves are intended to relieve
occasional excess pressures arising during the course of normal operation.
Excess fluid is allowed to return to the reservoir through an outlet port in
the valve while full adjusted pressure is maintained in the system. For safe¬
ty, the relief valve is usually installed as close as possible to the pump, with
no other valving between the relief valve and pump. Relief valves can be di¬
vided in two categories: direct-acting and pilot-operated.
Direct-Acting. A direct-acting valve may consist of a poppet or ball
held exposed to system fluid pressure on one side and opposed by a spring
of preset force on the other. In a fixed, nonadjustable relief valve, when the
valve is normally closed, the force exerted by the compression spring exceeds
the force exerted by system fluid pressure acting on the ball or poppet. The
spring holds the ball or poppet tightly seated. A reservoir port on the spring
side of the valve returns leakage fluid to reservoir.
When system pressure begins to exceed the setting of the valve spring,
the fluid unseats the ball or poppet, allowing a controlled amount of fluid
to bypass to reservoir, keeping system pressure at the valve setting. The spring
reseats the ball or poppet when enough fluid is released (bypassed) to drop
system pressure below the setting of the valve spring.
Because the usefulness of fixed relief valves would be limited to one set¬
ting of its spring, most relief valves are adjustable. This is commonly achieved
with an adjusting screw acting on the spring. By turning the screw in or out,
the operator compresses or decompresses the spring. The valve can be set to
open at any pressure within a desired range. Aside from the adjustable feature,
this valve works just like the fixed valve.
The pressure at which a relief valve first begins to open to allow fluid
to flow through is known as cracking pressure. When the valve is bypassing
its full rated flow, it is in a state of full-flow pressure. The difference between
full-flow pressure and cracking pressure is sometimes known as pressure
differential, or pressure override.
Direct-acting relief valves can be made in various designs, including pop¬
pet, guided piston, and differential piston designs.

Poppet design: Spring-loaded poppet valves are generally used for

small flows. They do not leak below cracking pressure and have a fast
response, making them ideal for relieving shock pressures. They are
often used as safety valves to prevent damage to components from high
82 Hydraulic Systems

surge pressures, or to relieve pressures caused by thermal expansion in

locked cylinders. If poppet relief valves must operate frequently, chat¬
ter caused when the valve relieves may damage the seat.
Guided piston design: Another type of direct-acting relief valve is the
guided piston. In this valve a sliding piston, rather than a poppet, con¬
nects the pressure and reservoir ports. System pressure acts on the piston
and moves it against a spring force. As the piston moves, it uncovers
a reservoir port in the valve body. These valves have a fast response but
may be prone to chatter. They can be damped to eliminate chatter, but
this slows valve reaction time. They are reliable and can operate with good
repetitive accuracy if flow does not vary widely. Valves with hardened
steel pistons and sleeves have a very long service life. They may leak
slightly below cracking pressure unless seals are used to seal the pistons.
Differential piston design: A variation of the guided piston relief valve
is the differential piston relief valve. It is so called because the pressure
acts on an annular area which is the difference between two piston di¬
ameters. The annular area is smaller than the valve’s seat area. This per¬
mits using a smaller spring than would be needed if pressure acted on
the entire seat area. They have a lower pressure differential than pop¬
pet or guided piston relief valves.

Pilot-Operated. For applications requiring valves that must relieve

large flows with small pressure differential, pilot-operated relief valves are
often used. The pilot-operated relief valve operates in two stages. A pilot stage
which consists of a small, spring-biased relief valve (generally built into the
main relief valve) acts as a trigger to control the main relief valve. However,
the pilot may also be located remotely and connected to the main valve with
pipe or tubing (Fig. 2.24).
The main relief valve is normally closed when the pressure of the inlet
oil is below the setting of the main valve spring. An orifice in the main valve
permits system pressure fluid to act on a larger area on the spring side of the
poppet so that the sum of this force and that of the main spring keep the pop¬
pet seated. At this time, the pilot valve is also closed, and pressure in the pas¬
sage is less than the setting of the pilot valve spring.
As system pressure rises, the pressure in the passage rises as well and
when it reaches the setting of the pilot valve, the pilot valve opens. Oil is re¬
leased behind the main spool or control chamber in which the main spool bias
spring is located faster than it can enter through the orifice through the skirt
of the main spool and the main spool is no longer balanced. The oil passing
through the pilot valve is directed back to tank. Thus the unbalanced condi¬
tion of the main spool permits excess fluid passage back to tank at a rate suf-
Hydraulic Valves 83

PRESSURE ADJUSTMENT

I
DISCHARGETOTANK

Figure 2.24 Pilot-operated hydraulic relief valve. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin

Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)

ficient to maintain the desired set pressure. The pilot valve acts as a master
adjustment and the piloted main relief valve poppet spool follows in a mir¬
ror image pattern to that of the pilot to provide the desired pressure value.
The valve closes again when inlet oil pressure drops below the setting of the
pilot valve. Pilot operated relief valves have less pressure override than do
direct-acting relief valves.
Because these valves do not start opening until the system reaches 90%
of full pressure, the efficiency of the system is protected because less oil is
released. The operation of a pilot operated relief valve is as fast as a direct-
acting relief valve and pilot-operated relief valves maintain a system at a more
constant pressure while relieving (Fig. 2.25).

Sequence Valve
Sequence valves control the sequence of operation between two branches of
a circuit. They are used to regulate the operating sequence of two separate
working components in predetermined order based on pressure signals. Fluid
is directed only to that part of the system that is connected with the primary
84 Hydraulic Systems

Figure 2.25 Cracking pressure characteristics for hydraulic relief of valves. (Cour¬
tesy of John Deere and Co., Waterloo, Iowa.)

port of the valve until the pressure setting is reached. The valve then directs
fluid to the secondary branch with no variation in pressure on the primary
side of the system.
Sequence valves are normally closed valves. They remain closed until
pressure at their inlet port reaches a pressure set by adjusting a spring. At
this pressure they open and allow fluid flow through the valve while main¬
taining pressure at least equal to its setting on the primary side of the system.
They are similar to compound relief valves except that their spring chambers
are drained externally to the system reservoir instead of internally to the outlet
port as in relief valves. A check valve is generally built into the sequence valve
to permit free reverse flow through the valve.

Counterbalance Valve
Counterbalance valves are used in a circuit to maintain an adjustable resist¬
ance against flow in one direction but permit free flow in the opposite direc¬
tion. The function of the valve is to prevent uncontrolled movements or to
support a weight in one part of the system while fluid is made available for
working components in other parts of the same system.
Counterbalance valves have built-in check valves, which allow free re¬
verse flow through the valve. Flow is shut off at the valve until pressure at
Hydraulic Valves 85

its inlet port reaches the value set on the valve’s spring. Fluid then flows
through the valve and returns to the system reservoir. If counterbalance valves
are set for too high an operating pressure, the system is inefficient. The cor¬
rect setting is preferably 10% above the pressure setting required to counter¬
balance or hold a load.

Pressure-Reducing Valve
Pressure-reducing valves are used to drop the normal operating pressure of
a main circuit as it is directed into the branch circuit to the required pressure
in the branch circuit. The desired lower pressure can be obtained by adjusting
the regulating device on the valve. As soon as the desired pressure is reached
in the secondary system, the valve partially closes so that just enough fluid
flows through to maintain this desired pressure.
Pressure-reducing valves are normally open valves. An adjustable spring
holds the spool open or an integral pilot mechanism quite similar to that used
for a pilot-operated relief valve. Downstream or branch pressure acts on the
spool to close the valve. Fluid flows unrestricted through the valve until force
from the downstream or branch circuit pressure equals the spring or pilot set¬
ting. The spool moves, compressing the bias spring assembly and restrict¬
ing flow through the valve.
Unloading Valves
Unloading valves are often used in two-pump circuits where a large quantity
of oil at low pressure is required for one portion of a cycle and a relatively
small amount of high pressure during another cycle. Two pumps are used dur¬
ing low-pressure, high-speed operations, the delivery of the large one being
diverted to the tank through the unloading valve when the system pressure
exceeds its setting.
Remote system pressure is used to open and close the valve automatically
at the proper time. Usually, an accumulator, or small pump, supplies the nec¬
essary pilot pressure for actuation of the valve. An adjusting screw is pro¬
vided to regulate pressure. The valve contains a compression spring that acts
against the fluid pressure force. It also contains an external pilot connection.
Fluid force and spring force move the spool and direct fluid flow according
to the requirements of the system.

2.4.4 Servicing, Repair, and Troubleshooting

Valve Servicing
Hydraulic valves are precision made and must be very accurate in control¬
ling the pressure, direction, and volume of fluid within a system. Generally,
no packings are used on valves since leakage is slight as long as the valves
are carefully fitted and kept in good condition.
Contaminants such as dirt in the oil are the major villains in valve fail-
86 Hydraulic Systems

ures. Small amounts of dirt, lint, rust, or sludge can cause annoying malfunc¬
tions and damage valve parts extensively. Such material will cause the valve
to stick, plug small openings, or abrade the mating surfaces until the valve
leaks. Any of these conditions will result in poor machine operation or even
complete stoppage. This damage may be eliminated if operators use care in
keeping out dirt.
Use only the oils specified for use in the hydraulic system. Follow the
recommendations in the operator’s manual. Because oxidation produces rust
particles, an oil that will not oxidize must be used. The oil should be changed
and the filters serviced regularly.
For successful valve service, observe the following precautions.

1. Disconnect the electrical power source before removing hydraulic

valve components to eliminate accidental starting or tools shorting
out.
2. Move the valve control lever in all directions to release hydraulic
pressure in the system before disconnecting any hydraulic valve
components.
3. Block up or lower all hydraulic working units before disconnecting
any parts.
4. Clean the valve and surrounding area before removing any part for
service. Do not allow water to enter the system. Make certain that
all hose and line connections are tight.
5. As a cleaning agent, use fuel oil or other suitable solvent. Never
use paint thinner or acetone as a cleaning agent. Plug port holes
immediately after disconnecting lines.

Valve Disassembly Hints

1. Do not perform hydraulic valve internal service work in the shop,

on the ground, or where there is danger of dust or dirt being blown
into parts. Use only a clean area. Make certain that all tools are
clean and free of grease and dirt.
2. During disassembly, be careful to identify the parts for reassembly.
Spools are selectively fitted to valve bodies and must be returned
to the same bodies from which they were removed. Valve sections
must be reassembled in the same order.
3. When it is necessary to clamp a valve housing in a vise, use extreme
caution. Do not damage the component. If possible, use a vise
equipped with lead or brass jaws or protect the component by wrap¬
ping it in a protective covering.
Hydraulic Valves 87

4. All valve housing openings should be sealed when components are

removed during service work. This will prevent foreign material
from entering the housing.
5. On spring-loaded valves, be very careful when removing the backup
plug, as personal injury may result. When springs are under high
preload, use a press to remove them.
6. Wash all valve components in a clean mineral oil solvent (or other
noncorrosive cleaner). Dry parts carefully with compressed air and
place on a clean surface for inspection. Do not wipe valves with
waste paper or rags. Lint deposited on any parts may enter the hy¬
draulic system and cause trouble.
7. Do not use carbon tetrachloride as a cleaning solvent, as it causes
deterioration of rubber seals.
8. After parts are cleaned and dried, coat them immediately with a
rust-inhibiting hydraulic oil. Be sure to keep the parts clean and free
of moisture until they are installed.
9. Carefully inspect valve springs during valve disassembly. Replace
all springs that show signs of being cocked or crooked, or that con¬
tain broken, factured, or rusty coils.

Valve Repair
Directional Control Valve Repair. Directional control valve spools are
installed in the valve housing by a select hone fit. This is done to provide the
closest possible fit between housing and spool for minimum internal leakage
and maximum holding qualities. To make this close fit, special factory tech¬
niques and equipment are required. Therefore, most valve spools and bodies
are furnished for service only in matched sets and are not available individual¬
ly for replacement.
When repairing, inspect the valve spools and bores for burrs and scor¬
ing. Spools may become coated with impurities from the hydraulic oil. When
scoring or coating is not deep enough to cause objectionable leakage, the sur¬
faces can be polished with crocus cloth. Do not remove any of the valve ma¬
terial. Replace the valve body and spool if scoring or coating is excessive.
If the action of the valve was erratic or sticky before removal, it may be un¬
balanced due to wear on the spools or body and the valve should be replaced
(Fig. 2.26).
Flow Control Valve Repair (Fig. 2.27)

1. On valve spools with orifices, inspect for clogging by dirt or other

foreign matter. Clean with compressed air or a small wire.
88 Hydraulic Systems

INSPECT FOR

Figure 2.26 Inspecting directional control valve spools and bores.

2. Rewash all parts thoroughly to remove all emery or metal particles.

Any such abrasive could quickly damage the entire hydraulic sys¬
tem.
3. Check the valve spool for freedom of movement in the bore. When
lightly oiled, the spool should slide into the bore from its own weight.

Pressure Control Valve Repair. Check for weak relief valve spring with
spring tester if system checks have indicated low pressure. This may be rem¬
edied by replacing the spring (Fig. 2.28).
Valve Seats and Poppets. Check valve seats for evidence of leak-by
and scoring. Replace the valve if flat spots appear on the seat or on poppets.

CHECK ORIFICE INSPECT VALVE

FOR CLOGGING SPOOL FOR SCORING

INSPECT
SPRING

CHECK FOR BURRING

AT EDGES OF PORTS

Figure 2.27 Volume control valve repair.

Hydraulic Valves 89

CHECK MATING SEATS LOOK FOR

• SCORING ON
VALVE

n
&AAAAAAAAA/f

MMM
II

INSPECT FOR
BURRING IN
HOUSING BORE

Figure 2.28 Inspecting pressure control valve.

Metal valve seats and poppets may be surface-polished with crocus cloth if
scoring is not deep. Do not remove any valve material. Some seats and valve
poppets are made of nylon. This material is long-wearing and sufficiently
elastic to conform perfectly to mating surfaces, giving a tight seal. The nylon
seats on poppet valves will take wear, with no damage to the mating metal
point. When repairing these valves, always replace nylon parts with new nylon
service parts.
Direction valves can be checked for internal leakage while still assem¬
bled provided that they have a spool configuration that blocks the inlet and
outlet ports (pressure port from tank port). In such valves, loosening the outlet
connection and observing the amount of fluid coming from this connection
will give an indication of leakage. The procedure is shown on Fig. 2.29. If
more than dripping is observed, the valve is suspect and should be removed
from the system for further inspection.
Assembly of Valves

1. When assembling valves, be sure that they are kept absolutely clean.
Wash parts in a solvent such as kerosene, blow dry with air, then
dip in hydraulic oil with rust inhibitor to prevent rusting. This will
also aid in assembly and provide initial lubrication. Petroleum jelly
can also be used to hold sealing rings in place during assembly.
2. Double check at this time to make sure that valve mating surfaces
are free of burrs and paint.
3. Replace all seals and gaskets when repairing a valve assembly. Soak
new seals and gaskets in clean hydraulic oil prior to assembly. This
will prevent damage and help seal the valve parts.
4. Be sure to insert valve spools in their matched bores. Valve sections
must also be assembled in their correct order.
5. When mounting valves, be sure there is no distortion. This may be
90 Hydraulic Systems

LOAD ON CYLINDER

Figure 2.29 Checking control valve for leaks.

caused by uneven tension on the mounting bolts and oil line flanges,
uneven mounting surfaces, improper location of the valve, or in¬
sufficient allowance for line expansion when oil temperature rises.
Any of these may result in valve spool binding.
6. After tightening bolts, check the action of the valve spools. If there
is any sticking or binding, adjust the tension of the mounting bolts.

Hydraulic Valve Troubleshooting

The following troubleshooting steps may be used to diagnose most hydrau¬
lic valve difficulties. When working on a specific machine, refer to the ma¬
chine technical manual for more detailed diagnostic information.

I. Pressure control valves

N

A. Relief valves
1. Low or erratic pressure
a. Incorrect adjustment
Hydraulic Valves 91

b. Dirt, chip, or burr holding valve partially open

c. Worn or damaged poppet or seat
d. Sticking valve piston in main body
e. Weak spring
f. Spring ends damaged
g. Valve cocking in body or on seat
h. Orifice or balance orifice partially blocked
2. No pressure
a. Orifice or balance orifice plugged
b. Poppet not seating
c. Loose fit between valve body and spool or poppet
d. Valve binding in body or cover
e. Spring broken
f. Dirt, chip, or burr holding valve partially open
g. Worn or damaged poppet or seat
h. Spool or poppet cocked in body or on seat
3. Excessive noise or chatter
a. Oil viscosity too low
b. Faulty or worn poppet or seat
c. Fluctuating return line pressure
d. Pressure setting too close to that of another valve
in the circuit
e. Improper spring used behind valve
4. Unable to adjust properly without getting excessive sys¬
tem pressure
a. Improper spring
b. Drain line restricted
5. Overheating of system
a. Continuous operation at relief setting
b. Oil viscosity too high
c. Leaking at valve seat
B. Pressure-reducing valves
1. Erratic pressure
a. Dirt in oil
b. Worn poppet or seat
c. Restricted orifice or balance hole
d. Valve spool binding in body
e. Drain line not open freely to reservoir
f. Spring ends not square
g. Improper spring
h. Fatigued spring
92 Hydraulic Systems

i. Valve needs adjustment

j. Worn spool bore
C. Pressure sequence valves
1. Valve not functioning properly
a. Improper installation
b. Improper adjustment
c. Broken spring
d. Foreign matter on plunger seat or in orifices
e. Leaky or blown gasket
f. Drain line plugged
g. Valve covers not tightened properly or installed
wrong
h. Valve plunger worn or scored
i. Seat of valve stem worn or scored
j. Orifices too large, causing jerky operation
k. Binding from coating of moving parts with oil im¬
purities (due to overheating or improper oil)
l. Bottom cover piston position wrong (upside down)
2. Premature movement to secondary operation
a. Valve setting too low
b. Excessive load on primary cylinder
c. High inertia load on primary cylinder
3. No movement or slowness of secondary operation
a. Valve setting too high
b. Relief valve setting too close to that of sequence
valve
c. Valve spool binding in body
D. Unloading valves
1. Valve fails to completely unload pump
a. Valve setting too high
b. Pump failing to build up to unloading valve pressure
setting
c. Valve spool binding in body
d. Oil leakage from accumulator side of circuit
II. Directional control valves
A. Spool valves, rotary valves, and check valves.
1. Faulty or incomplete shifting
a. Worn or binding control linkage
Hydraulic Valves 93

b. Insufficient pilot pressure

c. Burned-out or faulty solenoid
d. Defective centering spring
e. Improper spool adjustment
2. Actuating cylinder creeps or drifts
a. Valve spool not centering properly
b. Valve spool not shifted completely
c. Valve spool body worn
d. Leakage past piston in cylinder
e. Valve seats leaking
3. Cylinder load drops with spool in centered position
a. Pilot operated check stuck open
b. Counterbalance valve leaking
c. Leaky piston packing
d. Safety anti-intensification valve leaking
e. Leaking directional control valve spool
4. Cylinder load drops slightly when raised
a. Defective check valve spring or seat
b. Spool valve position improperly adjusted
5. Oil heats (closed-center systems)
a. Valve seat leakage (pressure or return circuits)
b. Improper adjustment of valves
III. Volume control valves
A. Flow control and flow divider valves
1. Variations in flow
a. Valve spool binding in body
b. Leakage in cylinder or motor
c. Oil viscosity too high or too low
d. Insufficient pressure drop across valve
e. Dirt in oil
2. Erratic pressure
a. Worn valve poppet or seat
b. Dirt in oil
3. Improper flow
a. Valve not adjusted properly
b. Restricted valve piston travel
c. Restricted passages or orifice
d. Cocked valve piston
94 Hydraulic Systems

e. Circuit relief valve leaking

f. Oil too hot
4. Oil heats
a. Improper pump speed
b. Holding hydraulic functions in relief mode
c. Improper connections

A guide for troubleshooting pressure control valves follows.

Problem Cause Solution

Pressure not 1. Spool stuck open Free spool

adjustable 2. Some other relief valve Check other relief valve see¬
set lower ing same pressure
Pressure too high 1. Spool stuck closed Free spool
2. Incorrect reference Check line restrictions
pressure
3. Drain line plugged Check valve
(internal)
Reduced pressure 1. Incorrect setting Adjust setting at valve
too high 2. Stuck spool Clean valve
3. Gauge broken Replace gauge
Reduced pressure 1. Pump pressure too low Check relief or compensator
2. Main valve setting too Adjust
low
3. Vent relief setting too Adjust vent relief
low
System excessively 1. Excessive pump slippage Check clearances and orifice
hot size of pilot section; consider
control power losses
2. Duty cycle too frequent Reduce duty cycle
3. Inadequate cooling Check cooling system or add
heat exchanger/cooler

Details of relief valve troubleshooting are given in the following chart,

Problem Cause Solution

Lack of pressure 1. Valve stuck open Free ball, poppet, or spool

2. Pump not pumping See troubleshooting guidelines
in Sec. 2.3
Hydraulic Valves 95

Problem Cause Solution

3. Incorrect setting or Readjust or replace

broken spring
Valve too slow 1. Wrong relief valve type Change to faster-acting type
to open
Valve noisy or 1. Incorrect design Correct type
erratic performance 2. Reseat pressure too low Change valve type
3. Dirty valve Clean
4. Air in system Remove cause; bleed system

Troubleshooting directional control valves is covered in the following

chart.

Problem Cause Solution

Valve spool fails 1. Solenoids inoperative Check electrical supply for

to move over- and undervoltage or
solenoid burnout
2. No pilot pressure Check source of pilot pres¬
sure; also check for proper
pilot source (internal or
external)
3. Blocked pilot drain Check plugs, dirt, fittings,
and lines
4. Dirty Disassemble, clean, and flush
5. Improper reassembly Review parts drawing for
after overhaul proper assembly
6. Distortion Align body and piping to re¬
move strains; check bolt-
down torque
7. Manufacturing burr Remove spool; check spool
and bore
8. Silted Remove spool and clean with
emery paper; be sure to clean
Valve spool 1. Startup oil viscosity too Change oil; use tank heater or
response sluggish high run pump for oil warmup
2. Restricted drain Remove restriction or
replace with larger line
3. Distortion in valve body Align body piping to remove
strains; check bolt-down
torque
96 Hydraulic Systems

Problem Cause Solution

4. Malfunctions of Check for proper source

solenoids voltage and frequency; re¬
move solenoid and check
coils; look for double-sole¬
noid energization
5. Dirt in system Drain and flush system; tear
down and clean, if required
6. Pilot pressure low Check pilot pressure source
Valve produces 1. Improper installation Check drawings for piping
undesired response connections and energization
in actuator 2. Improper assembly of Compare drawings and parts
valves
3. Spool end for end Reverse spool

The following chart gives guidelines for troubleshooting check valves.

Problem Cause Solution

Flow stoppage 1. Valve installed back¬ Correct installation

ward or free-flow arrow
has incorrect direction
2. Parts broken Disassemble and check
3. Pump not pumping See troubleshooting guide¬
lines in Sec. 2.3
Incorrect pressure 1. Valve too small Change valve
drop 2. Incorrect spring (in the Correct
case of pilot pressure
relief)
Fails to hold 1. Seat is damaged (shock) Change seat or to correct seat
pressure type; eliminate cause of
damage
2. Seat is eroded Change to larger size
3. Excessive leakage in Check leakage in the cylinder
component that is being or hydraulic motor; see
“held” troubleshooting guidelines in
Sections 2.3 and 2.5
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Cylinders 97

2.5 HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS

2.5.1 Description and Terminology

Cylinders are used more often than any other device for taking the pressure
or power in a fluid system and converting it into mechanical force, work, or
horsepower. Cylinders produce a straight-line motion, but this can be con¬
verted into a limited rotary motion with a lever. Although there are many
variations in cylinder construction, the essential parts of a cylinder are shown
in Fig. 2.30.
A cylinder consists of a cylinder body, a piston, and piston rod attached
to the piston. End caps are attached to the cylinder body with threaded tie
rods, or they are welded. As the cylinder rod extends and retracts, it is guided
and supported by a bushing called a rod gland. The side through which the
rod sticks out is called the head. The opposite side without the rod is termed
the cap. Inlet and outlet ports are located in the head and cap ends (Fig. 2.30).
The inside of the barrel is honed to a fine finish to make a tight fluid
seal and to preserve the piston packings, which would be worn out in a short
time against a rough surface. For efficient operation, a leak-free seal must
exist across the cylinder’s piston as well as at the rod gland. Hydraulic cylin¬
ders often have cast iron piston rings as a piston seal. Piston rings provide
a durable seal but they have some leakage flow due to the clearances between
the piston ring and cylinder body tube.
For pneumatic systems and hydraulic systems that cannot tolerate any
leakage flow, use a resilient piston seal. Resilient seals do not leak under nor¬
mal conditions, but are less durable than piston rings. Rod gland seals come
in several varieties and are generally resilient seals. Some cylinders are equip¬
ped with a multilip or U-, V-, or cup-shaped primary seal and a rod wiper
which prevents foreign materials from being drawn into the cylinder.
As well as being a bearing, a rod gland bushing is a fulcrum for the pis¬
ton rod. If the load attached to the piston rod of a long-stroke cylinder is
not rigidly guided, then at full extension, the rod will tend to pivot or jack¬
knife at the bushing, causing excessive loading. A stop tube is used to pro¬
tect the rod gland bushing by distributing any loading at full extension be¬
tween the piston and bushing. A stop tube is a solid, metal collar which fits
over the piston rod. A stop tube keeps the piston and rod gland bushing sepa¬
rated when a long-stroke cylinder is fully extended. Cylinders can be mounted
in a variety of ways, among which are flange, trunnion, side lug and side
tapped, clevis, tie rod, and bolt mounting.
A number of common types of cylinders are used in industry. Follow¬
ing is a list of these together with a brief description.

Single-acting cylinder: a cylinder in which fluid pressure is applied to

the movable element in only one direction.
98
z
o

Q
111

X
LU
<
ill
cc
o

o
Q
t-
o
o

Figure 2.30 Typical cylinder construction. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Cylinders 99

Spring-return cylinder: a cylinder in which a spring returns the piston

assembly.
Ram cylinder: a cylinder in which the movable element has the same
cross-sectional area as the piston rod.
Double-acting cylinder, a cylinder in which fluid pressure is applied
to the movable element in two directions.
Single-rod cylinder, a cylinder with a piston rod extending from one
end.
Double-rod cylinder: a cylinder with a single piston and a piston rod
extending from each end.
Telescoping cylinder: a cylinder with multiple tubular rod segments
which provide a long working stroke in a short retracted envelope. The
tubular rod segments fit into each other to provide the telescoping ac¬
tion.
Tandem cylinder: two or more cylinders mounted in line with pistons
connected by a common piston rod. These cylinders provide increased
output force when the bore size of a cylinder is limited but not its stroke.
Duplex cylinder: two cylinders mounted in line with pistons not con¬
nected. Duplex cylinders give a three-position capability.

The piston should have two packings facing in opposite directions to seal the
fluid in both directions of motion.
On most cylinders the piston rod comes out at only one end. It must
be sealed against leakage of the fluid to the outside. A bearing is usually pro¬
vided to support the rod against possible side thrust of the external load. The
piston rod should have a highly polished finish, not only to make a good fluid
seal but to avoid excessive wear on the rod seals (packings). The rod should
be protected against mechanical damage. Nicks, scratches, dents, and wrench
marks will cause the cylinder to leak and may ruin the rod seals. In order to
provide an indication of the various construction styles used for differing ap¬
plications and service environments, Figs. 2.31 to 2.34 are presented.

2.5.2 Cylinder Cushions

Whenever the extension or retraction of the cylinder at a rapid rate causes

it to slam into the end, as the piston is stopped, a cushioned cylinder must
be considered. The cushion acts as a shock absorber in that it slowly
decelerates the piston; it comes to a smooth, gradual stop.
A cushion consists of a needle valve flow control and a plug attached
to the piston. The plug can be on the rod side, in which case it is called a
Figure 2.31 Lip seal cushioned cylinder. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corp., Cleve¬
land, Ohio.)

Figure 2.32 Heavy-duty hydraulic cylinder. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corp.,

Cleveland, Ohio.)

Figure 2.33 Welded construction cylinder. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corn.

Cleveland, Ohio.)
100
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Cylinders 101

Figure 2.34 Pneumatic cylinder construction. (Courtesy of C&C Mfg., Inc.,

Rockford, Illinois.)

cushion sleeve. Or it can be on the cap end side, in which case it is called a
cushion spear or plunger.
In order to understand how a cushion works in a cylinder, let us review
the operation. Assume that the cylinder is extending. When the cushion spear
enters the cushion cavity, the spear blocks part of the cavity opening; the ef¬
fect is similar to that of a valve that is shifted and begins to close. As the spear
penetrates farther into the cushion cavity, the annular area around the spear
decreases, allowing less fluid to flow around the spear from the bore area of
the cylinder into the cushion cavity. The piston slows gradually and stops
when the spear completely blocks the cavity.
During cushioning, the fluid trapped in the cushion cavity by the spear
is pressurized by the force the piston exerts on the fluid. Total force exerted
by the piston is the combined force of that generated by the inertia of the
load and the force from the fluid. When the pressure of the trapped fluid rises
to where the fluid exerts a force equal to these combined forces, a state of
equilibrium is reached, and the piston stops. To regulate cushioning (as a func¬
tion of varying load, for instance) the cylinder is equipped with a needle valve,
which can be adjusted to control deceleration rate over the length of the spear.
It is very important that the needle valve be set properly for efficient
operation. If set too wide open, there will be little cushioning, if any; the pis¬
ton will bottom too fast, resulting in shock. If the needle valve is set too
closed, the piston will slow suddenly, then move very slowly, unnecessarily
prolonging the time required to complete a work cycle, decreasing produc¬
tivity.
When the piston starts to reverse, fluid flows through the check valve
for quick startup. The cushioning process at the retracted end of the cylinder
work stroke is identical. The check valve remains seated because force ex-
102 Hydraulic Systems

erted by the pressure fluid acting on the check valve from the spring end ex¬
ceeds that on the opposite side of the check valve. If there were no check valve,
the rate at which the piston would retract would be controlled by the setting
of the adjusting needle valve, which would regulate how much oil could flow
into the cylinder. Some cylinders are designed without check valves, yet do
provide fast reversal.
The shape of the cushion plunger or spear controls the rate at which
the opening through which the fluid passes is blocked. Tapered, parabolic,
and stepped cushions are available and each type provides a gradual open¬
ing area change which smoothly decelerates the cylinder piston (Figs. 2.35
and 2.36).

2.5.3 Cylinder Piston Seals

In the early days, before 1900, hydraulic machinery was used in several Euro¬
pean countries: England, France, Germany, Russia, and perhaps others. For
example, water power helped England manufacture fine goods for world
trade. Steam-driven water pumps, with crude stuffing box packings, pumped
water from the Thames River into a central hydraulic system using piston ac¬
cumulators with weight-loaded pistons. A heavy cast iron pipeline distributed
the pressurized water to nearby factories. Simple valving worked the large
press ram, and the exhaust water was discharged back into the river. These
systems were very temperamental, the packings were leaky and had to be fre¬
quently and critically adjusted to prevent excessive leakage and galling of the
rams.
Today, cylinder manufacturers carefully select the type and material for
piston and rod seals according to design requirements: whether for air or hy¬
draulic use, the kind of hydraulic fluid, pressure and temperature range, tight¬
ness of seal required, duty rating, and other factors. Composition and hard¬
ness of rubber seals is often important for a particular application, and the
mechanic should select replacement seals exactly like the originals. Since var¬
ious grades of rubber cannot always be correctly identified, original factory

Figure 2.35 Constant taper spear and straight cavity cushion.

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Cylinders 103

Figure 2.36 Inverted parabola spear and straight cavity cushion.

replacement seals should be obtained if possible. If this is not practical, the

mechanic can select substitutes if the advantages and limitations of each pack¬
ing type are understood.

Seal Materials (Fig. 2.37)

Leather. This is probably the material used in the first self-adjusting
packings. It proved to be remarkably good and still has limited use in cylin¬
ders, and wide use in devices such as door checks, water pumps, and tire
pumps. It will operate in barrels which are too rough for satisfactory life from
a rubber seal. It has lower breakaway and running friction than rubber, and
requires less lubrication. It hones the barrel on every stroke and the second
set of “leathers” often outwears the first. Wax was originally used to fill the
leather pores and to stiffen it so that the packing would hold its shape. This
limited the operating temperature to 180°F. Polyurethane rubber is used to
impregnate the leather for operation to 250°F. The supply of good-quality

Temperature
Seal material Recommended for: range (°F)

Leather, wax impregnated Air, oil, water at limited - 65 to +180

temperature
Leather, rubber impregnated Air, oil, water at higher -65 to +250
temperature
Corfam Air, oil, water -65 to +250
Buna-N, Hycar Air, oil, water, water/glycol - 40 to + 250
Viton Air, oil, water, water/glycol, - 40 to + 250
phospate ester

Figure 2.37 Typical cylinder seal materials.

104 Hydraulic Systems

genuine leather today is limited because most cowhides have numerous blow¬
fly holes, and this makes the production of large-diameter seals impractical.
Leather substitutes such as Corfam are now being used, and have less porosity
than leather. Backup rings, U seals, and cup seals are the most popular uses
for leather.
Synthetic Rubbers. The ones that appear to be most popular are buna-
N and polyurethane for hydraulic oil, Viton for high-temperature oil, buna-
N for air, buna-S for water, butyl and Viton for phosphate ester fire-resistant
fluids, and neoprene for water-/glycol fire-resistant solutions. Polyurethane
is a relatively recent addition to the rubber family and is becoming widely
used for hydraulic oil because it will outwear buna-N if the barrel has a fine
finish and if the oil is kept well filtered. Because of its higher friction it is
not the best compound for air or water service.
Natural Rubber. Seals made from natural rubber should not be used
in petroleum oil; they are for nonpetroleum-base fluids, for example automo¬
tive brake fluid. Not used with air.
Teflon. Because of its hardness it may not be leaktight as a moving
seal. Unlike rubber, it may not return to original shape after being distorted.
A spring is sometimes used behind it. As a moving seal it has low breakaway
and running friction, long life, and will stand high temperature. Used widely
in backup rings to protect other seals, and as a thin piston ring with rubber
expander to obtain low breakaway friction.

Seal Types
Ring Seals. Automotive-type piston rings are considered the best for
long life and ability to withstand high surges and shock loads. They are still
used in most cylinders designed for machine tool applications. The rings are
usually cast iron working in a steel barrel. Light-duty cylinders may have only
two rings, while machine tool cylinders may have four to six rings. Ring seals
are not leaktight and are not good for use with pneumatic cylinders.
Multiple-V. Sometimes called chevrons. They are used in sets of two
up to six or eight rings, depending on the pressure to seal. One ring is used
for every 500 to 700 psi, with a minimum of two rings. When used as piston
seals on double-acting cylinders, two sets must be used, one set facing each
direction, with the lips facing the pressure. They are held in tight contact with
the surface to be sealed by preloading and by fluid pressure. For rod seals
or for single-acting cylinders, one set is sufficient.
Multiple-V packings, when carefully installed and properly adjusted,
are considered to be one of the finest soft seals available. They are valued
for their leak-tightness and dependability. Seldom do they fail suddenly. They
give sufficient warning, by leaking slightly, long before actual failure. This
gives time for replacements to be procured. But in spite of their good per-
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Cylinders 105
4

formance, cylinder manufacturers are phasing them out as piston seals in

favor of single-lip cups, which are cheaper, less critical to install, need no pre-
loading adjustment, and are less likely to leak when the cylinder is repacked.
O-Ring Seals. Although not extensively used on industrial cylinders,
O rings are almost universally used on agricultural and mobile cylinders be¬
cause of their low cost, simplicity, and the simple machining required to
mount them. On these applications their high breakaway and running fric¬
tion, poor sealing at low pressure, and relatively short life are of little con¬
cern. Their excellent sealing at high pressures is very desirable, and their life,
though short, is adequate for agricultural and mobile cylinders, which are
not intended to make as many cycles per day as industrial cylinders.
For reasons of economy O rings may be used as piston seals on low-
cost air cylinders, but are not recommended for general air use because of
their high friction. If not kept well lubricated they wear out rapidly. Cup seals
are preferred for most air cylinders. O rings are not recommended for vacuum
applications because of high friction and difficulty of lubrication.
Cup Packings. The base of a cup packing is usually bolted between
the head of the piston or backing plate, and a follower plate, with the seal¬
ing lip facing the pressure medium. To get a good seal, the packing must be
centered and fastened firmly between the follower plate and backing plate
with a bolt, or stud and nut, which must be tight enough to seal against leak¬
age. The clearance between the cylinder wall and the back support must be
kept at an absolute minimum to prevent extrusion. The back support should
have a flat surface with a square corner on the pressure side, because the pack¬
ing will take the shape of the back support and develop a square shoulder
under pressure. The follower plate should have a flat surface on both sides,
with the corner on the packing side rounded enough to avoid cutting the pack¬
ing. The diameter of the follower plate should allow a clearance equal to about
25 or 30% of the packing thickness between the plate and the inside wall of
the packing.
Flange Packings. The design of the packing and gland recesses greatly
influence the effectiveness of a flange seal. The glands may be either bolted
or threaded. Differences between requirements for bolted and threaded glands
are minor, but should be considered when using a flange packing. For an ef¬
fective seal with bolted gland, the clearance between the outside diameter of
the gland nose and the gland nose diameter should be comparatively small.
A tight fit is not necessary for a threaded gland because the threads center
the gland. The fit between the rod or shaft and the gland should be close
enough to prevent extrusion. A backup ring may be necessary in some appli¬
cations. The circumferential edge on the gland nose inner diameter, directly
over the shoulder of the packing, should be kept square to prevent further
106 Hydraulic Systems

extrusion. The gland nose should be squared off with a smooth, flat sur¬
face at the base. It should be long enough to develop a seal on the base of
the packing when the gland is tightened, but compression should not exceed
25% of packing thickness. To simplify installation, the gland nose recess
should be deep enough to allow for a chamfer. The straight section below
the chamfer should be as deep as the packing thickness, plus enough wall to
center the gland accurately.
U Packings. A recess for a U packing may be cut into either a cylinder
wall or a piston head. Most effective sealing will result if the cross-sectional
width of the U packing is kept to a minimum. This tends to reduce the area
under pressure and lighten the load on the gland and the studs and on the
nuts holding the packing. The fit between the shaft and gland should be close
enough to prevent extrusion, and the gland nose should be squared off with
a smooth, flat surface at the base. If a supporting ring is used, the top edges
should be slightly rounded to avoid cutting the packing. The recess should
be deep enough to hold both ring and packing, with the packing slightly
squeezed between the ring and the gland nose when the gland is fully tight¬
ened. In addition, centering lugs should be fastened on the support ring to
center it in the packing. These lugs should be heavy enough to center the rings,
but should not interfere with packing lips. Figure 2.38 presents a pictorial
summary of the various lip-type pressure energized seals used in hydraulic
and pneumatic cylinders.

Some Causes of Piston Seal Failure

If a single-acting piston or piston rod seal is fitted in the wrong direction in
relation to operating pressure, it will be ruined very quickly. A simple rule
to remember for installing a seal in the right direction is:

The side of the seal which is softer (the unreinforced part of solid seals)
or open (the sealing lip side with U rings and V rings) should face the
operating pressure.

Under unfavorable conditions, working temperature can exceed the highest

temperature for which the system was designed. Also, perhaps the specified
hydraulic fluid has been replaced with one of unsuitable quality. The result
is that the seal swells and softens. It can then be damaged by extruding into
the clearance between the metal parts, where, due to piston rod movement,
pieces of the seal are torn away.
The type of failure most difficult to avoid is seal erosion from piston
rod damage. Cylinders on earth-moving machinery are particularly prone to
piston rod damage from impact by rocks or stones or by contact with elec¬
tric cables. Slight damage to the piston rod can often be remedied by rub-
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Cylinders 107

Type Application Characteristics

Flexible lip pro- Friction fairly high

ides self-ener¬ at low pressures,
gising seal, pre¬ increasing with in¬
load pressure en¬ creasing pressure.
sures static seal. Friction relieved on
return stroke.

Piston Seals, etc., Good sealing at low

with or without pressures.
follower ring. Gen High friction at high
erally suitable for pressures.
pressures up to High wear at heel.
1500 psi. Round or square base.

Reciprocating Light preload applied

A A seals, gland seals, on assembly. Low

A A etc., where suffic¬

ient space is avail¬
friction at low pres¬
sures, increasing

A
A
A
A
able. Very efficient
and suitable for
with increasing
pressure.
high pressures

Excellent unidir¬
Cup Almost exclusively
ectional sealing
used for piston
properties with
seals. Available in reciprocating
a large range of
motions. Low
standard sizes. friction on return
stroke.

Flange Preloading pressure may

Widely used for in¬
(Hat Washer) be increased with spring
ternal sealing on
shaft or piston at expander. More compact
moderate pres¬ than U or V rings but
sures. Compact. less efficient as a seal.

Similar to Flange Improved resist¬

rings. ance to wear and
scuffing by virtue
of modified
section.

Figure 2.38 Flexible lip seals. (Courtesy of Machine Design Magazine, Cleveland,
Ohio.)

bing it with fine emery, to allow the machine to continue operating. However,
the cylinder should be replaced at the earliest opportunity.
Severe damage to seals can be caused by contamination, such as metal
particles or other foreign materials introduced during cylinder maintenance.
For example, when screwing the nipples into connectors, fragments of the
threads may break loose. The foreign material is trapped between the mov¬
ing parts and scores the bore sealing surface. The seal is then worn away by
the damaged sealing surface. Seal life varies with the quality of the sealing
surface finish of the cylinder bore and on the piston rod. Other factors that
108 Hydraulic Systems

affect seal performance are operating speed, pressure, temperature, and fluid
viscosity.
The lubricating film formed between the seal and the sealing surface
tends to become thinner with rising temperature, increasing friction, and re¬
ducing seal life. While the piston is at rest, the fluid film is broken by the
initial interference pressure. On startup, wear will take place at the seal face
before the lubricating film can form. In the ideal condition, there is an un¬
broken oil film between the seal and the sealing surface.

2.5.4 Installation and Maintenance of Hydraulic Cylinders

To guarantee efficient operation of cylinders it is important to take note of

the operating instructions supplied with the unit or the information given in
the relevant catalog sheet when undertaking repairs. During assembly and
installation the internal parts must be kept clean. The fluid used in the
system must be of a recommended type and adequate filtration must be
provided.

Installation
In general, the mounting position of hydraulic cylinders is optional. During
installation particular attention must be paid to cleanliness. The cylinders must
be installed free of tension, and in particular free of radial forces, to prevent
functional faults and premature wear.
The pipe connections and thread depths are suitable for all standard
connections. The spot faces are designed so that connections with sealing
edges or O-ring seals may be used. The thread must not rest on the bottom
of the bore. Sealing agents such as hemp and putty must not be used, since
they can cause contamination and subsequent functional faults. Before in¬
stallation pipework must be free of dirt, swarf, sand, chips, and so on. If pos¬
sible, the pipes should be pickled. Cleaning rags should not be used. The pipes
should be laid free of tension.

Startup
For hydraulic cylinders proven hydraulic oils with a mineral oil basis should be
used if possible. Before using other types of fluid, prior consultation with
the manufacturer is necessary. Before connecting the cylinder, the hydraulic
system must be thoroughly flushed. The cylinder connection lines should be
shut off during this process. It is recommended to continue flushing for ap¬
proximately Vi hr. Thereafter the cylinders should be first connected to the
pipe system.
Before startup the cylinder should be vented at both ends if necessary.
This may be carried out by loosening the connections or alternatively by means
of special bleed screws. After thorough venting (the oil must be free of bub-
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Cylinders 109

bles and there must be no further foaming) the cylinder connections are re¬
tightened. A gage connection (a quick coupler half or needle valve) at the cyl¬
inder ports is convenient for troubleshooting in the future. Placed at the high
point the connection can also serve to bleed air from the entire branch cir¬
cuit, assuming that it is the high point in the circuit.
Maintenance
Generally speaking, hydraulic cylinders require little maintenance. With heavy
impact stress, however, an important point to watch is that the bearing points,
such as swivel bearings, are lubricated. Particularly after startup of a new
system the cylinders should be checked at frequent intervals for correct func¬
tion and for leakage. Inspect for proper alignment frequently during startup.
If misalignment is suspected, disconnect rod from machine member and cy¬
cle the cylinder. Does it freely reenter the interface connection? If not, re¬
align cylinder body or machine member.
It is essential that the hydraulic oil be kept clean. When filling the hy¬
draulic oil into the system a filter of less than 60 //,m should be used. Oil should
be pumped into the reservoir through a filter. Provisions should be made to
tee into a convenient return to tank line with a ball valve dedicated to reser¬
voir fill function. Oil filters incorporated in the system should initially be
cleaned at least every 100 hours of operation, thereafter monthly or at least
at each oil change. Many filters are equipped with indicators to signal satura¬
tion condition and need for change or cleaning. The oil change is dependent
on the operating conditions, the condition of the fluid, and the filling capacity
of the system. Many large reservoirs are equipped with sophisticated fluid
conditioning equipment because of the difficulty of changing fluids and the
associated costs. Longer fluid life can be assured with suitable fluid condi¬
tioning equipment and an adequate supply of fluid to ensure suitable cool¬
ing and filtration. Overworked or aged fluid or contaminated fluids cannot
be improved by topping with fresh fluid. It is usually recommended that a
complete change be effected. All fluid should be drained from the system
while it is at operating temperature if possible. Reservoir should be thoroughly
cleaned when oil is renewed.

Storage
It is recommended to store the cylinders in a dry, damp-free place. The storage
area must be free of corrosive substances and vapors. Basically, when cylinders
are stored as spares they should be provided with a suitable protective oil,
as, for example, is used for diesel engines. Specific information can be ob¬
tained from the oil recommendation sheets of the individual oil companies.
For example, Texaco recommends an engine oil EKM 152 or the more vis¬
cous EKM 162 for the protection of hydraulic cylinders. The application of
the protective oil is best carried out by running the cylinders briefly on the
110 Hydraulic Systems

oil. Thorough cleaning before filling up with the final hydraulic oil is not nec¬
essary, since this protective fluid is compatible with pure mineral hydraulic
oils. It is, however, recommended that the first oil change be made earlier
than usual.
Cylinder ports should be securely plugged when in storage. Rods must
be protected from mechanical damage or oxidation.
When using fluids such as chlorinated or unchlorinated phosphate ester
or glycols, it is necessary to wash out the system thoroughly, followed by
flushing with appropriate compatible fluids. Normal seals used with petro-
leum oils are not usually compatible with these fluids.
Care is necessary when changing from one fluid to another. Follow
equipment and fluid manufacturers recommendations. Some changes require
replacement of all elastomeric seals. Certain fluids will attack unprotected
metal. Stainless steel tanks and plumbing may be necessary or epoxy coatings
under certain circumstances.

2.5.5 Troubleshooting

Problems with cylinders fall into two general categories: erratic action and
cylinder fails to move the load. There are several other problems, such as leak¬
age, seal wear, and drifting. These problems are all interrelated. Following
is a description of each problem area, the causes, and the remedy.

Cylinder Drifts
1. For piston seal leaks, pressurize one side of the cylinder piston and
disconnect the fluid line at the opposite port. Observe leakage. One
to three cubic inches per minute is considered normal for piston ring
leakage. Virtually no leak should occur with soft seals on the piston.
Replace seals as required. Note that certain types of designs may
allow the flat face of the piston to be pressed against the face of
the cap or head and thus act as a seal. To avoid errors, the actual
leakage past piston seals should be determined with the piston and
rod assembly blocked so that the piston faces are not in contact with
either end. This procedure is shown in Fig. 2.39.
2. For other circuit leaks, check for leaks through the operating valve
and correct if necessary. Correct leaks in connecting lines.
3. A conventional single rod cylinder will creep if restriction on tank
port is sufficiently high when used with an open center valve be¬
cause the rod area will function as a simple ram.
4. A closed center valve can cause similar results except that creep will
be according to the amount of clearance flow in the valve. Proper
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Cylinders 111

DISCONNECT
AND PLUG
HOSE HERE

PACKING LEAK

Figure 2.39 Checking double-acting cylinder for leaks.

notching of the valve spool can prevent pressure buildup in the cyl¬
inder lines between cycles.
5. Spools with pressure blocked and cylinder ports completely relaxed
will also prevent drift if the moving element is not affected by grav¬
ity or vibration.
6. Pilot-operated check valves can positively lock the fluid in the
cylinder lines. Care must be exercised to ensure adequate pilot pres¬
sure when rod differential may cause intensification.

Cylinder Fails to Move the Load When Valve Is Actuated

1. Binding in machine linkage: Check linkage to ensure that excessive

friction loads are not present.
112 Hydraulic Systems

2. Pressure too low: Check the pressure at the cylinder to make cer¬
tain that it is in accordance with circuit requirements. Review re¬
corded pressure values on machine history chart to see if there has
been any change in pressure values.
3. Piston seal leak: Operate the valve to cycle the cylinder and observe
fluid flow at the valve exhaust ports when the cylinder is at the end
of the stroke. Replace seals if flow is excessive.
4. Cylinder undersized for load: If this is a new system, recalculate
force needs and install appropriate size cylinder to carry the load.
Make certain machine members are properly lubricated and machine
ways are not tightened excessively restricting movement. Make sure
machine linkage can accept added force. If the cylinder is on an
older machine which worked well in the past, the trouble should
be correctable without changing the cylinder size.
5. Piston rod broken at piston end: Disassemble and replace piston
rod. Check alignment and inspect the rod bearing carefully to make
certain excessive side thrust is not present.
6. Contamination in the hydraulic system, resulting in scored cylinder
bore: Disassemble and replace necessary parts. The contamination
must be cleaned from the system before putting it back into service.

Erratic Cylinder Action

1. Valve sticking or binding: Check for dirt or gummy deposits. Check

for contamination of oil. Check for air in the system. Check for
worn parts. Excessive wear may be due to oil contamination.
2. Cylinder sticking or binding: Check for overtightened packing on
rod seal or piston. Check for dirt, gummy deposits, or air leaks as
above. Check for misalignment, worn parts, or defective packings
or seals.
3. Sluggish operation during warm-up period: Viscosity of oil too high
or pour point too high at starting temperature. Change to oil with
a lower viscosity or a better viscosity index and a lower pour point.
An immersion heater in the oil may help under severe cold condi¬
tions. (Provide for suitable oil circulation if heater is installed — oil
does not circulate easily from thermal causes and tends to stratify).
4. Pilot pressure too low: The control line may be restricted. The
metering choke valve may not be adjusted properly. Pilot pressure
source may not be adjusted properly. Pilot pressure source may
have been tampered with. Check source of pilot pressure and make
certain correct level is set as indicated on circuit drawing.
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Cylinders 113

5. Internal leakage in cylinder. Repair or replace worn parts and

packing. Check the oil to see that the viscosity is not too low. Check
for excessive contamination or wear.
6. Air in system: Bleed the air and check for leaks. Check to see that
the oil intake is well below the surface of oil in the reservoir. Check
the pump seals and line connections on the intake side by pouring
hydraulic oil over the suspected leak. If the noise stops, the leak
has been located. Tighten the joints or change the seal or gasket
where necessary. Look for saturated suction strainer.

Cylinder Body Seal Leak

1. Loose tie rods: Torque the tie rods to manufacturer’s recommen¬

dations for that bore size.
2. Excessive pressure: Check the maximum pressure rating on the
cylinder nameplate. Reduce the pressure to the rated limits. Replace
the seal and retorque the tie rods. Use transducer to record poten¬
tial shock pressures. The transducer should be connected to measure
the maximum internal pressures developed in the cylinder. The
deceleration of large, fast-moving loads can create internal pressures
many times greater than the circuit pressure measured at cylinder
ports. Consider use of shock suppressing devices.
3. Pinched or extruded seal: Replace the cylinder body seal and re¬
torque the tie rods to manufacturers specifications. Check for tran¬
sient shock conditions as in item two.
4. Seal deterioration—soft or gummy: Check the compatibility of
seal material with the fluid used or the lubricant used if an air cyl¬
inder is involved. Replace with a seal that is compatible with the
operating fluid.
5. Seal deterioration — hard or loss of elasticity: Usually, this is due
to exposure to elevated temperatures. Protect the seal from heat
by shielding the cylinder from the heat source. Replace the seal.
6. Seal deterioration — loss of radial squeeze due to flat spots or wear
on the inside or outside diameter. Can occur as normal wear due
to high cycle rate or length of service. Replace seals.

Rod Gland Seal Leak

1. Torn or worn seal: Examine the piston rod for dents, nicks,
gouges, or score marks. Replace the piston rod if the surface is
rough. Check the gland bearing for wear. If clearance is excessive,
replace the gland and seals.
114 Hydraulic Systems

2. Seal deterioration—soft or gummy: Repeat the cylinder body seal

leak test procedure.
3. Seal deterioration — hard or loss of elasticity: Repeat the cylinder
body seal procedure.
4. Seal deterioration — flat spots on inside or outside diameter. Re¬
peat the cylinder body seal procedure.

Excessive or Rapid Piston Seal Wear

1. Excessive back pressure due to overadjustment of speed control
valves'. Correct the valve adjustment.
2. Seals incorrectly installed: Check installation instructions and make
necessary corrections.
3. Wear due to contaminated fluid: Check for fluid contamination and
clean the fluid filters. Replace or recycle fluid if degree of con¬
tamination persists with suitable fluid conditioning equipment (i.e.,
portable filter cart, centrifuge, etc.).

2.6 HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS

2.6.1 Types and Applications

An accumulator is a storage device for high-pressure hydraulic oil. The system

pump stores oil in the accumulator during periods when it would normally
be unloaded or idling. The stored oil is available at a later time either to sup¬
plement pump oil or for use when the pump is shut down.
One very popular type of accumulator has an appearance similar to a
fluid power cylinder, with the piston acting as a barrier between the stored
high-pressure oil and the compressed gas, which is the energy-storing medium.
Fluid pressure on both sides of the piston is essentially the same. The volume
rating of an accumulator (1-gal, 2-gal, 5-gal, etc.) is the approximate cubic
capacity of the gas side when all oil is discharged. Volume is slightly less on
the oil side due to the piston shape.
Besides the piston-type accumulator, several other configurations are
available as shown in Fig. 2.40. Included among all these are the following:

Spring-loaded piston type: Type of piston where a spring is used to

preload the piston instead of a gas.
Diaphragm and bladder types (see Fig. 2.41): In these units, an elasto¬
meric (rubber) member is used to separate the gas from the oil. In the
bladder type, the gas is inside and the oil surrounds the rubber blad-
 AS VALVE

115
Figure 2.40 Types of accumulators. (Courtesy of Greer Hydraulics Co., Los Angeles, California.)
116 Hydraulic Systems

Figure 2.41 Bladder accumulator. (Courtesy of Greer Hydraulics, Los Angeles,

California.)

der. In these units, as the oil leaves the accumulator, the rubber member
expands and eventually conforms to the internal shape of the accumu¬
lator when it is empty of oil.

Weighted type: Physical weight responding to gravity forces is supported

by a hydraulic cylinder. The area of the piston in square inches and the
mass being supported determines the resulting pressure in pounds per
square inch. Frictional forces are normally negligible. Obviously, the
weighted accumulator must be installed in a vertical mode. The weighted-
type accumulator provides a uniform pressure from completely charged
condition to minimum charged condition. The weight and area relation¬
ship is a constant value. Consequently, the weighted-type accumulator
is well qualified to provide uniform force for holding various types of
forming rolls in position and to maintain pressure during long holding
cycles such as rubber and plastic molding activities. The weighted ac¬
cumulator is provided with mechanical signal sources to control charge
function. The spring-loaded and gas-charged accumulators depend on
a pressure signal to control the charge function.

A piston accumulator may be mounted in any position, although the preferred

arrangement where there will be a very heavy momentary discharge is to posi¬
tion it so that the heavy discharge is in a straight line with the work. Potential
contamination in the hydraulic fluid may make it desirable to mount the
piston-type accumulator vertically to avoid scratching the barrel by solid par¬
ticles lodged in the piston seals. The preferred mounting position for bag-
type accumulators is vertically upright, although they will operate in any posi¬
tion. Contamination in a bag-type accumulator can become embedded in the
Hydraulic Accumulators 117

bladder creating a vulnerable area or prevent the proper operation of the

antiextrusion valve, allowing the bag to partially extrude into the oil area when
pressure in the hydraulic fluid decreases.
Accumulators can be considered energy-storage devices similar to a
receiver tank in a pneumatic system. However, they can be used for other
purposes, as shown in Figs. 2.42 and 2.43, including as shock absorbers, as
pressure surge dampeners, and for reservoir pressurization where it is un¬
desirable for the tank to be open to the atmosphere through a breather
(Fig. 2.43).
Bladder-type devices provide an excellent barrier to entry of dirt and
moisture into a hydraulic reservoir. The reservoir can be completely sealed

i A

Figure 2.42 Accumulator applications. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co., Water¬
loo, Iowa.)
118 Hydraulic Systems

KleenVent

v.y
Atmospheric
Pressure
Reservoir High Level

KleenVent

Figure 2.43 Closed reservoir arrangement using bladder accumulator. (Courtesy of

Greer Hydraulics Co., Los Angeles, California.)

and the differential area created by the cylinder rods can be accommodated
by the captive air in the reservoir plus the excursion of the bladder in the bar¬
rier device. One side of the barrier device is to atmosphere and the other side
is to the captive air on top of the oil in the reservoir. Air pressure on the reser¬
voir may range up to several psi, depending on the location of the reser¬
voir, type of construction, and design of the barrier assembly. Some hydraulic
reservoirs are designed to operate with positive pressure on the captive air
Hydraulic Accumulators 119
4

above the oil. This positive pressure may be used to provide better pump in¬
take conditions.

2.6.2 Servicing and Repair

Observe the following precautions when working on pneumatic accumu¬

lators.

1. Caution: Never fill an accumulator with oxygen! An explosion

could result if oil and oxygen mix under pressure.
2. Never fill an accumulator with air. When air is compressed, water
vapor in the air condenses and can cause rust. This in turn may
damage seals and ruin the accumulator. Also, once air leaks into
the oil, the oil becomes oxidized and breaks down.
3. Always fill an accumulator with an inert gas such as dry nitrogen.
This gas is free of both water vapor and oxygen; this makes it
harmless to parts and safe to use.
4. Never charge an accumulator to a pressure more than that recom¬
mended by the manufacturer. Read the label and observe the “work¬
ing pressure.”
5. Before removing an accumulator from a hydraulic system, release
all hydraulic pressures.
6. Before you disassemble an accumulator, release both gas and hy¬
draulic pressures.
7. When you disassemble an accumulator, make sure that dirt and
abrasive material does not enter any of the openings.
8. Install valve to vent pressurized oil from accumulator to tank,
preferably automatically when machine shuts down. This may be
mandatory in some political areas as a part of a safety code.

Servicing and Precharging Pneumatic Accumulators

Checking Precharged Accumulator on the Machine

1. If you suspect external gas leaks, apply soapy water to the gas valve
and seams on the tank at the “gas” end. If bubbles form, there is
a leak.
2. If you suspect internal leaks, check for foaming oil in the system
reservoir and/or no action of the accumulator. These signs usually
indicate a faulty bladder or piston seals inside the accumulator.
3. If the accumulator appears to be in good condition but is still slow
or inactive, precharge it as necessary.
120 Hydraulic Systems

Before Removing Accumulator from Machine. First be sure that all

hydraulic pressure is released. To do this, shut down the pump and cycle some
mechanism in the accumulator hydraulic circuit to relieve oil pressure (or open
a bleed screw).
Removing Accumulator from Machine. After all hydraulic pressure
has been released, remove the accumulator from the machine for service.

Repairing Accumulator
1. Before dismantling an accumulator, release all gas pressure. Un¬
screw the gas valve lever very slowly. Install the charging valve first
if necessary. Never release the gas by depressing the valve core, as
the core might be ruptured.
2. Disassemble the accumulator on a clean bench area.
3. Check all parts for leaks or other damage.
4. Plug the openings with plastic plugs or clean towels as soon as parts
are removed.
5. Check bladder or piston seals for damage and replace if neces¬
sary.

6. If gas valve cores are replaced, be sure to use the recommended

types.
7. Carefully assemble the accumulator.

Charging Accumulators
Energy is stored in the accumulator by compression of an inert gas. Any of
the inert gases could be used, but for economic reasons, nitrogen is normally
used because it is nonflammable and is readily available on the industrial
market at a reasonable price. It is obtained in high-pressure bottles of approxi¬
mately 2200 psi. Where possible, use oil-pumped “dry” nitrogen to reduce the
possibility of moisture condensation in the gas chamber, which would serious¬
ly damage a piston-type accumulator.
The actual pressure (psi) value of the nitrogen precharge pressure is not
highly critical. A range of one-third to one-half of the maximum hydraulic
pressure will give good results on most applications. Very little difference in
circuit performance will be noticed within this range. Suggested procedure
is to precharge initially to the higher value, then do not add more gas until
the pressure falls to the lower value.

Caution: Do not use oxygen or any gas mixture containing oxygen, such
as compressed air, for precharging accumulators that have rubber seals
or separators. In the first place, oxygen deteriorates rubber by oxida-
Hydraulic Accumulators 121

tion. In the second place, the use of oxygen always creates a possible
fire or explosion hazard in any situation, and this is especially danger¬
ous in the vicinity of hydrocarbons such as petroleum oil.
Service notes: On machines using accumulators, test the precharge pres¬
sure level if the machine shows symptoms of sudden slowdown before
the cycle is completed. If other, more specific information is not avail¬
able, the precharge level should be one-third to one-half of the max¬
imum system pressure.

One way to test for insufficient accumulator oil capacity is to install two
pressure gauges, one on the oil port, the other on the gas port. Observe these
two gauges while the machine is going through its cycle. They should have
essentially identical readings throughout the entire cycle unless the accumu¬
lator runs out of oil. In this case the oil gauge will suddenly drop to near zero
as the piston in the accumulator bottoms against the end cap. If the accum¬
ulator runs out of gas, or the precharge drops too low, the machine will be
slow throughout the cycle, working only at the speed of oil developed by the
pump.
Precharging Equipment (Fig. 2.44). A charging and gauging hose
assembly should be purchased from the manufacturer of the accumulator
brand in use, and should be kept on hand as a service tool. Because of varia¬
tion in construction of the air valve, a charging hose for one brand may or
may not work on a different brand.
Procedure for Precharging. The accumulator may be precharged
either while connected into the system or as a loose component lying on the
test bench. First, make sure that all oil is discharged from the accumulator.
If it is connected into a hydraulic system, open the circuit bleed-down valve
to discharge all accumulator oil to the reservoir. Next, connect the charging
hose to the accumulator and take a reading of the existing precharge pres¬
sure, if any. Connect the hose to the gas bottle. A pressure regulator need
not be used. It is not difficult to control the flow rate of gas with the shutoff
valve located on the bottle. Slowly open the valving and allow gas to flow
into the accumulator. The precharge level cannot be accurately gauged while
gas is flowing. Shut off the valve frequently to observe the psi level in the
accumulator. After precharging, immediately close all valves and remove the
charging hose. For safety, replace the cover on the gas bottle and the cover
on the gas valve of the accumulator.

Frequency; of Servicing
The gas precharge will gradually leak down on any accumulator. The gas
molecules transfer through the pores of the rubber by osmosis. Piston-type
accumulators should be tested every month or two, oftener if found to be
122
.960 = 14 N.G.O. R.H.
(EXTERNAL)

LU
co

CO
N

Figure 2.44 Charging and gauging assembly.

Hydraulic Accumulators 123

necessary. On rapid-cycling applications, precharge psi should be checked

every 100,000 cycles. Bag or bladder accumulators have a much greater leak-
off rate because of the much greater rubber surface, and should be serviced
more often. With piston accumulators, the piston seals (O rings) should be
replaced approximately every 1,000,000 cycles because of mechanical wear.
Some accumulators use O rings of special cross section, and although it is
possible to replace these with standard commercial rings, it is better to ob¬
tain exact replacements from the manufacturer.

Rule of thumb: For every 1% an accumulator is oil charged above the

minimum system pressure, it will deliver 1 in.3 of oil for each gallon of
its rated size.

Example of use of rule of thumb: Assume a hydraulic system where the

accumulators are to be charged to a maximum pressure of 3000 psi. System
pressure will be permitted to fall to 2000 psi after the accumulator has delivered
its oil. From 2000 to 3000 psi represents an increase of 50% that the accumu¬
lator will be charged above minimum pressure. According to the rule of
thumb, a 1-gal accumulator would give out 50 in.3 of oil under these condi¬
tions. If the circuit required 250 in.3 of oil, you would select a 5-gal
accumulator.
Installing Accumulator on Machine. Attach the accumulator to the
machine and connect all lines. Start the machine and cycle a hydraulic func¬
tion to bleed any air from the system. Then check the accumulator for pro¬
per action.
Details of accumulator troubleshooting are given in the following chart.

Problem Cause Solution

Slow reaction 1. Loss of charge or over¬ Check charge pressure; reset

charge
2. Unloading valve or Adjust to higher pressure
pump low pressure set
too low
3. Relief valve set too low Reset or clean valve
or stuck open
4. Pump not pumping Check pump
5. Unloading pressure Reset pressure switch
switch set too low
Fails to absorb 1. Loss of charge or over- Check and recharge if neces-
shock charge sary or reset
124 Hydraulic Systems

2.7 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM RESERVOIRS

An essential part of any hydraulic system is the reservoir. Its primary pur¬
pose is to hold the fluid supply for the hydraulic system. Besides holding the
fluid supply, a well-designed reservoir serves other useful purposes. For the
hydraulic system to operate properly, hydraulic reservoirs must:

Provide a relatively large surface, so heat from the fluid can transfer
to the environment by radiation and convection.
*

Provide a relatively large volume for fluid to slow from its higher vel¬
ocity through the piping and power components. This allows some of
the heavier fluid contaminants to settle out.
Provide space above the fluid for entrained air to escape to the atmo¬
sphere.
Provide easy access to remove used fluid and contaminants from the
system. Fresh fluid is added here for makeup and changeover.
Leave space for hot-fluid expansion, gravity drain back from a system
during shutdown, and storage of large fluid volumes needed only dur¬
ing part of the operating cycle.
Serve as a convenient surface to mount other system components.

2.7.1 Construction and Design (Fig. 2.45)

The reservoir is usually rectangular in shape and is constructed of cold-rolled

steel plates with welded joints. A well-designed reservoir is equipped with the
following design features and parts:

1. An oil level gauge to give visual indication of the oil level.

2. A filler opening equipped with a strainer used for filling the reser¬
voir. Pump inlet line and all return lines should be extended well
below the fluid level to within a few inches of the tank bottom. It
is desirable to have the fluid free from air and foaming, thereby
reducing pump cavitation problems. Return lines are usually cut
at an angle of 45° at the bottom. The flow is directed toward the
walls of the tank to allow for maximum heat dissipation.
3. A baffle plate should be placed between the pump intake and the
system return line. The baffle plate serves to prevent recirculation
of the same fluid. V

4. The reservoir should be provided with a breather to allow for air

displacememt as the oil level rises and falls. The breather should
contain a filter to clean the air. The breather assembly should be
large enough to maintain atmospheric pressure in the reservoir.
 Pennsylvania.)

125
126 Hydraulic Systems

Although cooling the fluid is one of the functions of the reservoir, immer¬
sion heaters are sometimes used to aid in dissipation of air from the fluid.
For example, when a system contains a fire-resistant fluid with a high specific
gravity, air entrainment becomes a problem and heat is used to aid in releas¬
ing the air. Heat and immersion heaters are also used to thin out heavy,
viscous, fire-resistant fluids prior to starting hydraulic systems in cold weather.
Because of the poor low-temperature starting characteristics of fire-resistant
fluids, immersion heaters are used extensively in reservoirs of systems oper-
ating with these fluids.
In some systems, the hydraulic reservoir can be built as an integral part
of the equipment which it services. An integral reservoir may cause these par¬
ticular problems:

Space considerations may limit size. Because heat transfer capacity is

a function of size, external oil coolers or heat exchangers may be needed.
Irregular shape may require special baffling to route fluid properly.
Surrounding equipment may limit convectional heat transfer.
Service accessibility may be poor.
Special heat shielding may be needed to isolate components or the
operator from reservoir heat.

Geometrically, a square or a rectangular tank has the largest heat transfer

surface per unit volume. A cylindrical shape may offer some fabrication econ¬
omy. If the reservoir is too shallow, the heat transfer surface of the walls
will not be used to the greatest advantage. If it is too tall and narrow, there
may not be enough fluid surface area for air to escape.
Reservoir Capacity
The functions of the reservoir cannot be accomplished if it is of insufficient
size. No set rule can be used to establish the reservoir capacity because there
are too many factors involved. It is necessary to analyze the needs of an in¬
dividual system and then design the reservoir to meet these requirements.
A sacrifice in reservoir capacity in the initial design generally results in the
eventual addition of auxiliary equipment to supplement the inadequate fa¬
cility.
When the capacity of a reservoir is to be determined, the following
criteria should be satisfied:

1. It should have sufficient volume to allow time for dirt and cut¬
tings to settle and for air to escape.
2. It should be capable of containing all the oil that might drain in¬
to the reservoir by gravity as well as the oil from large fluid rams.
Hydraulic System Reservoirs 127

3. It should have a surface area large enough to dissipate most of

the heat generated in the system (Fig. 2.46).
4. It should be designed to have an operating oil level sufficiently high
to prevent “cratering” of the oil or the formation of a vortex
around the pump strainers.
5. It should have adequate air space to allow for thermal expansion
of the fluid.
6. It should be large enough to provide for future additions of power
attachments for the machine it serves.
7. It should have a low center of gravity to give stability to the unit
if a motor and pump are mounted on the top surface of the
reservoir.
8. It should have adequate dimensions for receiving pump strainers
and pipe bosses for auxiliary filters and heat exchangers.
9. It should be designed larger if the fluid circuit contains high-heat¬
generating components or when the ratio of the working pressure
time to the total cycle time is high.
10. It should have a greater capacity if the fluid system is expected
to operate continuously. It could be reduced considerably in size
for intermittent operation.

Recommended reservoir capacity is three times the flow rate in gallons per
minute for fixed-displacement pumps, or three times the mean flow rate for

Heat dissipation
Dissipating
Total volume (gal) surface (ft2) Btu/hr hp

6/2 4/2 575 0.23

12 6/4 850 0.34
17 8/4 1,000 0.40
33 13/4 1,700 0.67
80 24 3,000 1.18
120 30 4,000 1.60
250 50 6,000 2.70
500 80 10,200 4.00

Figure 2.46 Heat dissipation capability of hydraulic reservoirs.

128 Hydraulic Systems

pressure-compensated, variable-displacement pumps. These suggested vol¬

umes usually allow the fluid to rest between work cycles for heat dissipation,
contaminant settling, and deaeration.
If there are circuit components, which require large fluid volumes, such
as accumulators or large cylinders, the reservoir may have to be larger so that
the fluid level will not drop below the pump inlet regardless of pump flow.
Conversely, if external oil cooling is available, if cycling is intermittent, or
if ambient conditions permit the reservoir to cool rapidly, it may be possible
to use a smaller reservoir.
In any case, the reservoir should contain additional space equal to at
least 10% of its fluid capacity. This allows for thermal expansion of the fluid
and gravity drain back during shutdown and still provides a free fluid sur¬
face for air separation.
Reservoir Construction
The reservoir must not only perform the functions that have been discussed,
but should be serviceable and have a neat appearance. In many instances, it
is desirable to consolidate the entire pump and reservoir system by construct¬
ing the reservoir so that the pump and driving motor can be installed on its
top surface. If the pump and motor are mounted directly on the top plate,
a smooth-machined surface must be provided which will have adequate
strength to support and hold the alignment of the units. The motor can also
be attached to a subplate which is mounted above the reservoir top by the
use of spacers. This method achieves flexibility and reduces heat transfer to
the motor. Except for the flanged-type motor-pump assemblies, a pedestal
should generally be provided to support and maintain alignment of the pump.
Inspection and cleanout openings should be large enough to reveal the
entire interior of the tank and should be located so that all sections of the
reservoir are within easy reach of a person’s arm. These openings should be
located so they will not be against a wall or part of the machine structure.
Vertical baffles are an important part of the interior of the reservoir.
The purpose of the baffles is to separate the fluid entering the reservoir from
the fluid leaving and to direct the fluid along a longer path than it would other¬
wise take. It is difficult to obtain an optimum baffle design that is conducive
to good heat transfer, settling of the dirt, and deaeration of the fluid. There
are basically two types of baffle configurations used: the circuitous-stream
type and the wave-stream type. In the circuitous type, the baffle causes the
fluid to flow from one end of the tank to the other and then return, which
means that the fluid essentially travels twice the length of the reservoir before
it can reach the pump-suction strainer. This design, shown in Fig. 2.47, seems
to offer good characteristics since it exposes the fluid to the sides of the reser¬
voir, where heat transfer can take place through the walls and also provide
Hydraulic System Reservoirs 129

• ••

Figure 2.47 Circuitous-stream baffle configuration.

a long path which allows time for the particles to settle and entrained air to
escape. At the weir end of the baffle, it is desirable to install magnetic plugs
to attract iron particles. These plugs, spaced about 3 in. apart, have been
found very effective in eliminating the circulation of such particles.
The wave-stream baffle design can have several different forms: single,
double, or triple baffles. In the single-baffle form, the fluid travels over the
baffle to reach the strainer, whereas in the multiple forms, the fluid must also
travel under at least one baffle to reach the pump suction. If a single baffle
is employed, it generally divides the reservoir symmetrically; the pump strainer
is on one side and the return line is on the other. Since the reservoir top sup¬
ports a baffle in multiple-baffle designs, some scheme should be used to pre¬
vent it from reversing its position, which would change the location of the
baffle in the reservoir. Two of the principal advantages of the wave-stream
design are that it promotes better deaeration of the fluid and that the stream
velocity is lower, which allows particles to settle more effectively (Fig. 2.48).
Two methods used for distributing the return fluid into the tank are to
have the ends of the return lines cut at an angle to form a large wedge-shaped

m a

Figure 2.48 Wave-stream baffle configuration.

130 Hydraulic Systems

opening or to have a horizontal pipe section containing several holes to dis¬

perse the main stream. The pump-suction strainer should be well below the
normal fluid level in the tank and at least 1 in. from the bottom. A strainer
located too high will cause a vortex or crater to form, which will permit air
to enter the suction line. Air in the system can cause aeration in the oil. The
pump may become excessively noisy and the aerated oil usually produces a
spongy action in the fluid motor actuator.
In reservoirs where atmospheric pressure is maintained, the air space
above the oil should be approximately 4 in. Since the liquid level in the tank
may vary with the machine operation, an air breather and filter should be
installed. The breather and filter should permit the passage of air in both di¬
rections and have a capacity of at least twice the pump rating to compensate
for the unequal volumes displaced by single-rod cylinders.
Suction strainers are available which can be installed in the side or top
of the reservoir (often fitted in the tank wall). They can be cleaned without
the necessity of opening the reservoir. There is considerable concern about
suction filters which require major time allocation for service or inspection.
The externally serviceable style minimizes this potential down time.

2.7.2 Accessories

Fillers and Filler Breathers

Fluid must be added to the reservoir at startup, after cleanout, and when losses
occur. The filler opening should permit reasonably rapid filling, intercept large
contaminant particles from the new fluid, and either seal when closed or filter
incoming air if vented as a breather.
Standards call for two filler openings, each of which will pass a min¬
imum of 5 gal of fluid per minute. The openings should be on opposite sides
or ends of the reservoir. Metal strainer screens of 30-mesh maximum should
have internal metal guards and should be attached so that tools are necessary
for removal. The filler cover should be permanently attached to prevent loss.
If the filler cover does not include a breather, a separate breather should be
specified. In either case, 40-/zm air filtration is the maximum allowable.
Reservoirs on machines which must operate continuously are often
sealed with suitable breathing facilities provided by devices such as those
shown in Fig. 2.43. Filler caps are not used. A tee connection in a suitable
return to tank line is fitted with a ball shutoff valve and a quick connection
terminus. Original fill or replacement fluid is pumped into this return line
connection from a portable cart through a filter (sometimes called a filter
dolly). Usually a large-capacity fine filtration element is used and the fluid
is handled by a suitable transfer pump. Thus all fluid is filtered before entering
the tank.
Hydraulic System Reservoirs 131

Similarly, a ball valve can be fitted to the lowest drain port in the reser¬
voir. It can be connected to the filter dolly transfer pump to continuously
circulate all the fluid in the reservoir on a specific schedule to remove con¬
densate, wear particles from the circuit, and other contaminants that may have
loosened from the circuit components.

Fluid-Level Indication
A fluid-level gauge should be provided to indicate the operating level of the
oil in the reservoir. The two types most frequently used are the tube type and
the button or “bull’s-eye” type. Regardless of which type is employed, it should
be flush mounted to prevent it from being damaged easily. The tube type has
the advantage of always showing the level of the fluid no matter where it is
located, whereas the button type has a very limited position range. Two but¬
tons are necessary to show the limits of the high and low fluid level, whereas
with the tube type only two marks are needed.

Temperature Indicators
Fluid temperature measurement is not required by standard, but a selection
of thermometers is available, many in the same housing as the fluid level in¬
dicator. If high fluid temperature is a continuing problem, the heat source
in the circuit should be identified and removed.

Fluid Heaters
After shutdown or when the reservoir is exposed to colder temperatures, the
fluid may be too cold to perform properly at first. A thermostatically con¬
trolled heater can solve this problem.
Usually a circulating pump or propellor-like device is installed in large
reservoirs when heating units are used. Often the heater is placed as close as
possible to the pump inlet to facilitate the circulation process.

Diffusers
Return line flow diffusers slow down high-velocity fluid entering the reser¬
voir. When correctly installed, they direct the returning fluid away from the
pump inlet and along the reservoir walls for cooling.

Magnets
Magnets can be placed in the reservoir to capture and remove metallic parti¬
cles from the fluid stream. For maximum efficiency, magnets should be
cleaned regularly.
Although hydraulic filters are usually not considered reservoir acces¬
sories, almost all pump inlet strainers are located within the reservoir, and
many other filters mount on or through reservoir surfaces. Because the inlet
strainer is out of sight, a pressure gauge will help indicate when cleaning is
necessary.
 3
Pneumatic Systems: Operation,
Maintenance, and Troubleshooting

3.1 AIR COMPRESSORS

Before air can be used to perform the work required in a pneumatic system,
it must be given potential energy in the form of pressure. The compressor
converts air (at atmospheric pressure) into high pressure by changing its
volume. As the air is reduced in volume, its pressure increases.
Many types of air compressors are used in industry. They are classified
according to their construction, pressure, and application requirements. An
air compressor functions by creating a partial vacuum at its inlet so that air
at atmospheric pressure can flow through the inlet filter into the compressor.
The compressor reduces the volume while increasing the pressure of the air.
When the air has been compressed, it flows through the compressor discharge
valves and into a storage tank. Because the compressor operates only when
the tank pressure is low, air flows from the compressor into the tank whenever
the compressor is running. When tank pressure reaches the desired pressure
level, the compressor is usually turned off. Air is prevented from flowing back
through the compressor by the discharge valves.

Compressor Classification (Fig. 3.1)

Compressors can be classified into two separate types based on their basic
principle of operation: positive displacement and dynamic. Positive-displace¬
ment compressors confine the air within a closed space and compress it by
decreasing the volume of the space. Dynamic compressors accelerate the air
with rapidly turning rotor blades. This increased airflow also raises the pres¬
sure of the air slightly.

132
Air Compressors 133

COMPRESSORS
I
DYNAMIC DISPLACEMENT

RADIAL AXIAL

ROTARY RECIPROCATING

SCREW ROOTS

VANE

CROSS HEAD LABYRI NTH

TRUNK FREE PISTON DIAPHRAGM

Approximate Compressor Tolerance to Airborne Particles

Compressor type Particle size (jum)

Reciprocating type (lubricated) 25

Reciprocating type (nonlubricated) 5-10
Screw type (oil-flooded) 10
Screw type (dry) 3-5
Centrifugal 1-3

Figure 3.1 Compressor classification.

Positive-displacement compressors capable of compressing air to com¬

paratively high pressures are commonly used in pneumatic power systems.
These may be reciprocating piston, rotary sliding vane, helical screw, liquid
piston, impeller, or diaphragm compressors.

3.1.1 Reciprocating Piston Compressors

Reciprocating compressors are manufactured in many varieties, and are usual¬

ly driven by electric motors. The motors can be connected to the compressor
directly or by V belts or reducers. Portable compressors and many large com¬
pressors are driven by internal combustion engines. Whatever type of com-
134 Pneumatic Systems

pressor you have in your plant, it is important to keep detailed specifications

and test data on file for both the prime mover and the compressor.
A reciprocating or piston compressor operates in the following man¬
ner. The compressor crankshaft is rotated or driven by an electric motor or
other prime mover. The crankshaft and connecting rod convert this rotary
motion into reciprocating motion. The piston is attached to the connecting
rod by a crank pin, which permits independent movement of the piston and
connecting rod. The piston is moved back and forth in the cylinder by the
connecting rod and rotating crankshaft. The rod end of the cylinder is open,
allowing the connecting rod to move back and forth while the piston travels
in and out. The head end of the cylinder is closed and contains the intake
and discharge valves (Fig. 3.2).
As the piston moves back (or toward the crankshaft) it creates enough
negative pressure to permit air at atmospheric pressure to open the valves and
push air into the expanding space. As the piston completes its stroke and starts
returning, the intake valves close. As the piston returns, it compresses the air
in the cylinder. When it has almost completed its stroke, it has compressed
the air to a pressure high enough to force open the discharge valves. Air dis¬
charged from the cylinder at this point is at the discharge pressure of the com¬
pressor.
Intake and discharge valves may be of feather, disk or plate, or chan¬
nel design. The construction of each of the valves differs slightly, but the oper¬
ation of all is similar. Valve parts include a valve seat, movable valve, and
guard or stop plate. The movable valve is frequently held against the seat by
a spring. During operation the spring holds the valve in contact with the seat.
As the air is compressed in the cylinder, it forces the valve open, and air dis¬
charges to the receiver. When the piston reverses its stroke, the spring and

Piston

Figure 3.2 Single-stage reciprocating machine.

Air Compressors 135

discharge pressure close the valve, preventing air from returning to the cyl¬
inder (Fig. 3.3).
Compressors classified according to their operation include single- or
double-acting, and single- or multistage. A compressor that compresses air
at only one end of a cylinder is called a single-acting compressor. A com¬
pressor that compresses air at both ends of a cylinder is called a double-acting
or crosshead compressor.
The terms single-stage or multistage describe the number of stages or

Figure 3.3 Compressor air valve configurations. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin

Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)
136 Pneumatic Systems

steps that a reciprocating compressor uses to compress air to its final pressure.
A compressor that draws in air at atmospheric pressure and compresses it to
its final pressure in one stroke is called a single-stage compressor. A com¬
pressor that draws in air at atmospheric pressure and compresses it in two
or more strokes is called a multistage compressor. A simple multistage com¬
pressor can be constructed with two or three cylinders, each with a different
piston diameter. (Fig. 3.4).

Compressor Construction
Reciprocating compressors are also identified by the way their cylinders are
arranged. These include: vertical, V or Y, W, horizontal, angle or L, and
semiradial. Double-acting compressors are manufactured in most of the ar¬
rangements, but single-acting compressors are usually made only in the ver¬
tical, V, or Y setup.

Horsepower Cooling Requirements

When air is compressed, its temperature increases because of friction between
the air molecules and the work done in compressing the air. More than 25
hp is needed to produce 100 ft3 of compressed air at 100 psi in 1 minute in
a one-cylinder single-stage compressor. The air temperature would rise to
about 400°F. If, in the same time, this amount of air were compressed in two
stages instead of one, and if the air were cooled between the first and second
stages, only 10 hp would be required.
Less power is needed to compress the air because cooling between stages
reduces the volume and increases the density of air that is compressed in the
second stage. When a compressor has more than one stage, air is usually cooled

Outlet Intercooler

Two-Stage Compressor

Figure 3.4 Two-stage single-acting machine. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corp.,

Cleveland, Ohio.)
Air Compressors 137

after it has been discharged from the first stage and before it is compressed in
the next stage. This is called intercooling. If the air is cooled after it leaves
the compressor, it is said to pass through an aftercooler.
The compressors can be cooled also. Compressor cooling is accom¬
plished with either water or air, depending on the application. Air cooling
is less costly because less equipment is needed. But water cooling is more eco¬
nomical because it is more efficient. Air cooling is generally limited to smaller
compressors (below 25 hp) and water cooling to the larger units.
Several types of intercoolers are manufactured for compressors. They
may be air-cooled or water-cooled, depending on the compressor application.
Air-cooled intercoolers are usually one or more lengths of finned tubing con¬
necting the first and second stages of the compressor. Hot compressed air
passing through the tube gives up its heat to the tubing, which in turn trans¬
fers it to the cooling fins. Because the fins spread the heat over a larger sur¬
face area, the transfer rate is much better than the small surface area of the
tube.
The amount of cooling obtained depends on the amount and tempera¬
ture of the compressed air, the length of tubing, the number of fins, and the
temperature and speed of the cooling air moving over the tubing. To aid in
transferring the heat from the finned tubes, most air-cooled compressors have
a fan mounted on the compressor crankshaft. This fan is usually cast as a
part of the compressor flywheel, and it forces air over the fins while the com¬
pressor is running.
The water-cooled intercooler is simply a shell-and-tube heat exchanger
consisting of a bundle of tubes mounted in a shell. Cooling water is connected
to pass through the shell, and compressed air is connected to flow through
the tubes. The hot discharge air transfers its heat to the tubes and then to
the water. Some heat exchangers are connected in the opposite manner, with
the water running through the tubes and air passing through the shell.
Whatever arrangement is used, the fluid and gas usually flow in opposite
directions, commonly called counterflow. Air entering the heat exchanger is
cooled by liquid that is leaving. As the air moves further through the heat
exchanger, it is cooled by cooler water. Finally, just before the air leaves the
heat exchanger, it is being cooled by the inlet water just entering the heat ex¬
changer. This is a more efficient way of transferring heat than parallel flow,
where the water and air flow in the same direction.
As in air cooling, the amount of heat transferred in the heat exchanger
depends on the amount of air cooled, the amount of water used, how hot
the air is, how cool the water is, and the size of the heat exchanger. Caution
must be used with a water-cooled intercooler. The air must not be cooled to
a temperature where the water vapor in the air condenses. If it is, water form-
138 Pneumatic Systems

ing in the intercooler can be carried into the compressor high-pressure stage
and cause damage.
Compressor Lubrication
Proper compressor lubrication is very important if the compressor is to have
an efficient service life. Because of the large amount of heat generated in a
compressor, the working surfaces of the compressor must be protected with
the proper lubricating oil. All manufacturers recommend the type and viscosi¬
ty of oil to be used in their compressor. If the oil is too thin, it will not lubri¬
cate properly and much of it will be carried away in the compressed air. If
't is too thick, it will not flow properly and parts of the compressor will not
be lubricated sufficiently.
The two main functions of compressor lubricating oil are to reduce fric¬
tion and to improve the transfer of heat in the compressor. That is why there
are two kinds of lubrication in reciprocating compressors: crankcase lubrica¬
tion and cylinder wall or piston ring lubrication. Each of these types performs
separate functions; crankcase lubrication oils all of the rotating parts in the
lower portion of the compressor; cylinder wall lubrication prevents the piston
rings from wearing, and removes heat (Fig. 3.5).
Compressor lubrication is usually accomplished by splash or pressurized
lubrication methods. Many compressors rely on both of these methods at the
same time. The most common is splash lubrication. Splash-lubricated recipro¬
cating compressors have dippers on the connecting rods which scoop lube oil

Im MMiii HlliimdtVj.i.

Figure 3.5 Oil-free and oil-less air compressors.

Air Compressors 139

out of the crankcase. This oil is forced through drilled oil passages in the con¬
necting rods to the compressor bearings. The spray and fog created also lu¬
bricate the cylinder walls and piston rings.
Large or heavy-duty compressors rely mainly on pressurized lubrica¬
tion. Pressurized systems use a gear pump to force oil through drilled passages
to bearings and pistons. In addition, some pressurized oil is sprayed onto the
cylinder walls. Pressurized oil systems provide a more positive means of
lubrication, and they can also meter the oil to ensure proper distribution. To
ensure a proper oil condition many large compressors have thermometers for
measuring oil temperature and also heat exchangers for cooling the oil when
necessary. Many compressors are also equipped with low-oil-pressure shut¬
off switches.

Nonlubricated Compressors
If oil-free air is required, compressors are used that require no lubrication
or have only well-isolated bearing lubrication. Nonlubricated compressors are
manufactured in both reciprocating piston and rotary types. Reciprocating
compressors ordinarily have graphite- or Teflon-coated piston rings to seal
the cylinder. Small compressors use ringless pistons. Bearings may be pro¬
vided with oil seals to prevent lubricating oil from getting into the air that
is being compressed.

Compressor Controls
When the compressor starts up, various electrical and pneumatic controls
must operate. The larger the compressor and pneumatic system, the more con¬
trols used. If an electric motor drives the compressor, it must be started
through a suitable electrical switch without causing an overload. On large
compressors, this can be done only by unloading the compressor (reliev¬
ing all internal pressure) so that it does not compress air and is easier to
start. When the compressor is turning at sufficient speed, the unloading
controls are deenergized, allowing the compressor to load up and compress
air. Small compressors usually do not require cylinder unloading and are pro¬
vided only with a holding-type starting control and a high-starting-torque
motor.
In small compressors up to 25 hp, system pressure is usually maintained
by starting or stopping the compression. When air is needed to raise the pres¬
sure of the system, the compressor is started. When the line pressure is high
enough, the compressor is stopped. Starting and stopping is accomplished
with a diaphragm- or bellows-operated pressure switch that starts the com¬
pressor motor whenever the air tank pressure drops below a preset cut-in
pressure. When the tank pressure reaches the preset cutout pressure on the
switch, the motor stops. The switches are usually snap-acting, to protect their
contacts from excessive wear.
Compressors may also be equipped with a mechanical centrifugal pres-
140 Pneumatic Systems

sure release, which operates independently of the pressure switch that starts
and stops the compressor. When the compressor is stopped, pressure is vented
from the compressor and any lines or accessories ahead of the discharge line
check valve. During startup, the pressure release vents the compressor until
the proper rpm rate is reached. The release then closes and the compressor
delivers compressed air.
Compressor output may also be varied by changing the speed of the
compressor. This is accomplished by changing the speed of its prime mover.
However, it is usually more economical to use an unloading mechanism, or
to simply start and stop the compressor. Usually, on-off controls are used
when adequate air storage is available and the air requirement is less than 75%
of the delivery capacity of the compressor.
An unloading mechanism can consist of a simple device to hold the in¬
let check valve open when the system is up to pressure and sufficient air is
in the receiver. The air then sweeps in and out of the piston as it reciprocates
at pressures which are created by the frictional factors. Little energy is used.

Compressor Accessories
Other accessory equipment supplied for compressors includes pressure gauges,
safety devices, controls, thermometers, oil filters, cooling water controls, belt
drives, flywheels, pulleys, guards for moving parts, and sometimes, flexible
discharge pipes. An intake filter is an essential part of every compressor. An
intake filter removes the dirt from the air and protects the moving parts of
the compressor. Filters are discussed in more detail later.
An oil pressure safety device furnished with many compressors is con¬
nected to the lubricating oil system. Some devices unload the compressor
whenever lubricating oil pressures are below a predetermined level. If very
low or no oil pressure exists, the compressor will shut down. On nonpressur-
ized compressors, a warning light may be turned on by a low-oil-level switch
when the oil level in the compressor drops too low.

3.1.2 Rotary Compressors

Low-pressure applications are often referred to as process applications, and

are used for cooling, heating, moving bulk materials, and aiding combustion.
Compressors that supply air for these applications are usually of the rotary
type, and are manufactured in several different styles or models. Some are de¬
signed to supply air in large quantities at intermediate pressure, while others
supply only low-pressure process air. The construction and operating princi¬
ples of rotary compressors are discussed below.

Compressor Classification
Rotary compressors with mechanically separated inlet and discharge ports are
classified as positive displacement. Dynamic compressors have no method of
Air Compressors 141
4

separating the inlet and discharge ports, and permit free passage of air when
they are not running. Positive-displacement rotary air compressors include
sliding vane, dry screw, wet screw, liquid ring, and impeller or lobe types.
Dynamic compressors include centrifugal and axial flow types that are similar
to liquid pumps. Dynamic compressors use several stages or steps, each con¬
sisting of an independent impeller, to achieve their operating pressures. How
these various compressors operate will be reviewed next.
Vane Compressors
The sliding vane compressor is a rotary positive-displacement compressor.
This compressor is a compact unit that is less efficient than a piston com¬
pressor but is more efficient than any other rotary compressor. Sliding vane
compressors closely resemble vane pumps, but are larger. The compressor
consists of a rotor with radial slots mounted off center in a round casing. The
rotor is equipped with rectangular vanes placed in the slots. As the rotor turns,
the negative pressure created by the vanes causes air to be drawn through the
inlet into the compressor. As the rotor continues to turn, the vanes confine
the air in a space that gets progressively smaller. As the vanes approach the
discharge portion of the casing, the air is compressed and then discharged
to the receiver through the discharge port.
Single-stage vane compressors are capable of developing up to 50 psi
discharge pressure. Although this is suitable for some applications, it may
be low for others. If higher pressure is needed, a two-stage model is used.
Two-stage compressors are capable of pressures up to 125 psi.
Vane compressors are smaller in physical size than piston compressors
having comparable discharge pressure and flow capabilities. However, their
operating efficiency is also slightly lower. At 100 psi they deliver slightly less
than 4 cfm/hp, compared to approximately 5 cfm/hp for piston compres¬
sors. Their delivery in cfm/hp is higher than that of dynamic compressors.
Because most vane compressors operate at motor speeds of 1200 to 1800 rpm,
pressurized lubrication is required for the bearings and other rotating parts.

Rotary Screw Compressors

The dry rotary screw positive-displacement compressor combines the com¬
pactness of a rotary compressor with a more constant pressure than can be
obtained from a piston compressor. The design of rotary screw compressors
is quite different from that of other compressors (see Fig. 3.6). They are con¬
structed with two rotors: one with a concave (female) profile and the other
with a convex (male) profile. The rotor may or may not have the same number
of lobes or blades, depending on the manufacturer. The rotors are made of steel,
aluminum alloys, or other high-strength metals. The rotors mesh with about
0.003 (three one-thousandths of an inch) clearance between them. The rotors
are driven, and prevented from touching by a set of timing gears (Fig. 3.7).
142
Figure 3.6 Operation of the rotary screw compressor. (Courtesy of Compressed Air and Gas Institute, Cleveland, Ohio.)
Air Compressors 143

Figure 3.7 Rotary air compressor. (Courtesy of Compressed Air and Gas Institute,
Cleveland, Ohio.)

As the rotor revolves, a negative pressure area is created at the inlet

allowing air to be drawn into the casing. Air entering the inlet is then trapped
between the rotors and the casing. As the male and female rotors mesh, the
air is carried along in a progressively smaller space until it is discharged. Suc¬
cessive pockets of air are picked up, compressed, and discharged in this man¬
ner. Each cavity completes its discharge as the following cavity begins dis¬
charging. This provides a smooth, continuous, and shock-free flow of air.
Single-stage compressors are powered by motors as large as 75 hp, and
produce approximately 300 cfm at 50 psi. Two-stage compressors have smaller
second-stage screws fed by a direct flow passage from the first-stage discharge
port. The pressure range is about 150 psi for two-stage compressors and 250
psi for three-stage compressors. Usually, no intercooler is used. Heat is dissi¬
pated by the compressor structure, which has fins on it to increase the cool¬
ing surface area.
The wet rotary screw compressor is similar in design and construction
to the dry rotary screw compressor. However, the wet type does not use tim¬
ing gears. One lobe powers the other. To prevent wear and reduce the air
temperature, oil is sprayed into the inlet chamber and is carried along by the
air. The oil remains as a liquid as it passes through the compressor, and is
separated in the receiver or by an oil separator.
144 Pneumatic Systems

Both wet and dry rotary screw compressors are driven at high speeds
(3000 to 12,000 rpm). Where electric motors or other lower-speed drives are
used, a speed increaser is used to bring the compressor up to an efficient
operating range.
The liquid ring compressor is a different type of rotary compressor. Al¬
though it appears similar to a vane compressor, it is quite different. The main
components include a casing, an off-center drive shaft, a rotor with fixed
blades, and a liquid (usually water). During operation the liquid is carried
around the inside of the casing by the rotor blades. As the rotor turns, the
liquid (reacting to centrifugal force) follows the contours of the casing. Be¬
cause the rotor and casing are not centered, the liquid forms a flexible interi¬
or compression chamber. As the rotor blades pass the inlet port, air is drawn
into the compressor by the increasing size of the fluid-formed chamber. The
chamber size begins to decrease near the compressor outlet, and the air is dis¬
charged where the chamber is smallest (Fig. 3.8). Liquid ring compressors
have capacities of up to 5000 cfm at 75 psi in single-stage models.

Low-Pressure High-Volume Compressors

The impeller compressor is a low-pressure compressor. These compressors
are often referred to as blowers because they are designed for high volume
rather than pressure. The units are made up of a housing and two interlock¬
ing, timed, gear-driven impellers. The impellers may have two, three, or four
vanes. The vanes can be straight or have a slight twist or helix configuration.
The curvature reduces turbulence and smoothes out the pressure pulsations
at this discharge point. The timing gears prevent the lobes from coming in
contact.
The operation of these compressors can be compared to that of a gear
pump. As the impellers rotate, they create a negative pressure at the intake,
which draws air into the housing. As they revolve, the impellers carry the air
along between the lobe and housing, toward the discharge port. As the lobes
mesh, the air is squeezed out the discharge port. The impellers are machined
to very close tolerances, and have only 0.003 to 0.006 in. clearance between
them. To be efficient, they must be operated at the recommended speed.
These compressors handle relatively large amounts of air at pressures
up to 10 psi. If higher pressures are required, a second stage can be added to
increase the discharge pressure to 30 psi.

Diaphragm Compressors
Diaphragm compressors are used for many different light-duty applications,
and are classed as positive displacement compressors. The diaphragm of the
compressor is usually connected to an eccentric drive by a piston and con¬
necting rod arrangement.
The diaphragm is made of flexible, reinforced, rubber-type material that
Air Compressors 145

DISCHARGE
V PORT
INLET
PORT' DISCHARGE

INLET \
/ELLIPTICAL
A \ CASING
DISCHARGE
PORT INLET PORT

ROTOR (ROTATES CLOCKWISE)

ROTOR

.\\B

( 1 (

Figure 3.8 Liquid ring compressor. (Courtesy of Compressed Air and Gas Institute,
Cleveland, Ohio.)

is oil and moisture resistant. The drive eccentric is fitted with a prelubricated
sealed for life bearing. As the piston or diaphragm plate travels downward,
the diaphragm flexes inward, drawing air into the pumping chamber. When
the diaphragm plate reverses its stroke, the diaphragm flexes outward, forc¬
ing air through the discharge valve. These compressors are not as efficient
as other types, but they do furnish small quantities (1 to 3 cfm) of air at 30
to 40 psi.

Dynamic Compressors
Dynamic compressors are designed to deliver large amounts of air (as high
as 100,000 cfm) at pressures up to 125 psi. They are used primarily to pro¬
vide process air, but may also be used for ventilation. Their minimum capaci¬
ties of about 3000 cfm make them too large for most pneumatic power sys-
146 Pneumatic Systems

terns. Dynamic compressors are more compact and powerful than the blowers
or fans used in heating or ventilating installations, but are less efficient and
more noisy. The two main types of dynamic compressors are centrifugal and
axial flow (see Fig. 3.9).

3.1.3 Troubleshooting

1. Low discharge pressure, probable cause:

a. Air leaks
b. Leaking valves
c. Restricted air intake
d. Slipping belts
e. Unloading mechanism not operating properly
f. Blown gaskets
g. Worn compressor rings
h. Defective gauge
i. Compressor too small to load
2. Knocking
a. Loose motor pulley or compressor flywheel
b. Loose belts
c. Lack of oil in crankcase
d. Oil pump not functioning
e. Worn connecting rod bearings
f. Worn piston pin bearing
g. Worn main bearings
h. Excessive crankshaft end play
i. Excessive motor shaft end play
j. Loose valve assemblies
k. Loose piston
l. Piston hitting the head, due to foreign matter or carbon de¬
posits
3. Overheating
a. Poor ventilation
b. Dirty cooling surfaces
c. Incorrect flywheel rotation
d. Flywheel too close to wall
e. Restricted air intake
4. Compressor fails to attain speed
a. Loose belts
b. Low voltage
 Figure 3.9 Dynamic compressors, (a) Centrifugal compressor, (b) Axial compressor. (Courtesy of Compressed Air and Gas
Institute, Cleveland, Ohio.)

147
148 Pneumatic Systems

c. Overloaded motor
d. Check electrical installation
5. Excessive belt wear
a. Motor pulley or flywheel out of alignment
b. Belt too loose or too tight
c. Belt slipping
d. Flywheel wobble
6. Oil in the discharge air
a. Worn piston rings
b. Compressor air intake restricted
c. Restricted crankcase breather
d. Excessive oil in compressor
e. Wrong oil viscosity

3.2 PNEUMATIC VALVES

The basic pneumatic valve is a mechanical device consisting of a body and

a moving part which connects and disconnects passages within the body. The
flow passages in pneumatic valves carry air. The action of the moving part
may control system pressure, direction of flow, and rate of flow.

3.2.1 Valve Types

Control of Pressure
Pressure in a pneumatic system must be controlled at two points: at the com¬
pressor and after the air receiver tank. Control of pressure is required at the
compressor as a safety measure for the system. Control of pressure at the
point of air usage provides a means of safeguarding the system and of maxi¬
mizing the efficiency —compressed air will not be wasted. Characteristically
in a pneumatic system, energy delivered by a compressor is not used immedi¬
ately, but is stored as potential energy in an air receiver tank in the form of
compressed air.
A compressor generally is selected to be of such a size that it operates
intermittently. The compressor operates until high pressure is reached in the
tank; then the air delivery is curtailed. When air pressure in the tank decreases,
the compressor delivery is once again initiated. Compressor operation in this
manner is a power savings for the system. One way to accomplish this func¬
tion is with the use of a pressure switch. In a pressure switch, the system pres¬
sure is sensed at the bottom of a piston through the pressure switch inlet.
When pressure in the system is at its low level, a spring pushes the piston
down. In this position, contact is made, causing an electrical signal to turn
the compressor on. As pressure in the receiver tank rises, it forces the piston
Pneumatic Valves 149

upward. With system pressure at its high level, the piston breaks the electrical
contact, shutting down the compressor.
The safety relief valve, used to protect a system from excessively high
or dangerous pressures, is a normally closed valve. The poppet of the safety
relief valve is seated on the valve inlet. A spring holds the poppet firmly on
its seat. Air cannot pass through the valve until the force of the spring bias¬
ing the poppet is overcome. Air pressure at the compressor outlet is sensed
directly on the bottom of the poppet. When air pressure is at an undesirably
high level, the force of the air on the poppet is greater than the spring force.
When this happens, the spring will be compressed and the poppet will move
off its seat, allowing air to exhaust through the valve ports.
In order to control or regulate the air pressure downstream of the re¬
ceiver tank, a pressure regulator is utilized. A pressure regulator is a pres¬
sure reducing valve and consists of a valve body with inlet and outlet connec¬
tions, and a moving member which controls the size of the opening between
the inlet and outlet. It is a normally open valve, which means that air is nor¬
mally allowed to flow freely through the unit. With the regulator connected
after the receiver tank, air from the receiver flows freely through the valve
to a point downstream of the outlet connection. When pressure in the outlet
of the regulator increases, it is transmitted through a pilot passage to a piston
or diaphragm area which is opposed by a spring. The area over which the
pilot pressure signal acts is rather large, which makes the unit responsive to
the outlet pressure fluctuations. When the controlled (regulated) pressure
nears the preset force level, the piston or diaphragm moves upward, allow¬
ing the poppet or spool to move toward its seats, thereby controlling the flow
(increasing the resistance). The poppet or spool blocks flow once it seats and
does not allow pressure to continue building downstream. In this way, air
at a controlled pressure is made available to an actuator.

Control of Direction
To change the direction of airflow to and from a cylinder, we use a direc¬
tional control valve. The moving part in a directional control valve will con¬
nect and disconnect internal flow passages within the valve body. This ac¬
tion results in a control of airflow direction.
The typical directional control valve consists of a valve body with four
internal flow passages and a moving part, a spool, which alternately connects
a cylinder port to the supply pressure or to exhaust. With the spool in one
extreme position, supply pressure is connected to port B and port A is con¬
nected to exhaust. If cylinder port A is connected to the valve port A and
cylinder port B to the valve port B, then with the spool in the other extreme
position, supply pressure is connected to cylinder passage A and cylinder pas¬
sage B is connected to exhaust. With a directional control valve in a circuit,
the cylinder’s piston rod can be extended or retracted and work performed.
150 Pneumatic Systems

The valve described is called a four-way direction control valve —it has
four connections or flow paths that are either connected or not. In a
pneumatic system, two-way and three-way valves are also used.
A two-way directional valve consists of two ports connected to each
other with passages that are connected and disconnected. In one extreme spool
position, port A is open to port B; the flow path through the valve is open.
In the other extreme, the path between A and B is blocked; the flow path is
blocked. A two-way valve provides an on-off function. This function can be
used in many systems as an interlock and to isolate and connect various system
parts.
A three-way directional valve consists of three ports connected through
passages within a valve body: port A, port B, and port C. If port A is con¬
nected to an actuator, port B to a source of pressure, and port C is open to
exhaust, the valve will control the flow of air to (and exhaust from) port A.
The function of this valve is to pressurize and exhaust one actuator port.
When the spool of a three-way valve is in one extreme position, the pressure
passage is connected with the actuator passage. When in the other extreme
position, the spool connects the actuator passage with the exhaust passage.
Three-way valves may be used singly to control single-acting cylinders or in
pairs to control double-acting cylinders.
One type of movable member quite frequently used to accomplish the
direction change function is a poppet. This type of valve is shown in Fig. 3.10.
The poppet configuration is available in two-way, three-way, and four-way
arrangements. However, to achieve the four-way function, two movable pop¬
pets are needed.
We have seen that a movable member can be positioned in one extreme
position. The member is moved to these positions by mechanical, electrical,
pneumatic, or manual means. Directional valves whose spools are moved by
muscle power are known as manually operated or manually actuated valves.
Various types of manual actuators include levers, pushbuttons, and pedals.
A very common type of mechanical actuator is a plunger equipped with
a roller at its top. The plunger is depressed by a cam which is attached to an
actuator. Manual actuators are used on directional valves whose operation
must be sequenced and controlled at an operator’s discretion. Mechanical ac¬
tuation is used when the shifting of a directional valve must occur at the time
an actuator reaches a specific position. Directional valves can also be shifted
with air. In these valves, pilot pressure is applied to the spool ends or to sep¬
arate pilot pistons.
One of the common ways of operating a directional valve is with a
solenoid. A solenoid is an electrical device which consists basically of a plunger
and a wire coil. The coil is wound on a bobbin, which is then installed in a
magnetic frame. The plunger is free to move inside the coil. When electric
current passes through the coil of wire a magnetic field is generated. This
Figure 3.10 Poppet-type pneumatic direction control valves. (Courtesy of Ross
Operating Valve Co., Detroit, Michigan.)

151
152 Pneumatic Systems

magnetic field attracts the plunger and pulls it into the coil. As the plunger
moves in, it can either cause a spool to move or seal off a surface changing
the flow condition. When the motion of the solenoid is directly coupled to
the shifting mechanism of the valve, it is called a direct-operated solenoid
valve.
Another type of valve actuation is the pilot actuator. A pilot-actuated
valve uses air pressure to move the valve spool. This air pressure may come
from a variety of sources. Pilot-actuated valves are used where actuation is
required in remote locations. They are also useful to control low pressures
and are a requirement in pressure-centered valves. Since actuation forces in¬
crease with increasing pressure to the actuating ports, high forces can be
generated to shift the valve members. Pilot-actuated valves may be internally
or externally piloted. A valve is considered to be externally piloted if the air
pressure received for shifting comes from an external source. If the pilot pres¬
sure comes from a source within the valve, it is said to be internally piloted.
Internally piloted valves use part of the pneumatic energy delivered to
the pressure port to position the movable member within the valve body. Such
a valve has a definite minimum and typically a maximum pressure require¬
ment. The application of this type of valve may impose circuit restrictions
on the designer. This is due to the need to maintain the minimum specified
pressure whenever the valve element requires shifting.
Conversely, externally piloted valves require a pressurized source which
is derived externally to the valve. This means that the pressure can be selected
in such a way that the valve will energize and deenergize in the same amount
of time. If slow shifting times are required, a low pressure may be used. If
rapid shift rates are necessary, we can use a high-pressure signal or the rapid
exhausting of one of the pilot ports. However, when using high pressure to
shift the main valve member, caution should be used. Extremely high veloci¬
ties may cause high impact forces on the valve member, leading to reduced
life.

Control of Flow Rate

In a pneumatic system, actuator speed is determined by how quickly the ac¬
tuator can be filled and exhausted of air. In other words, speed of a pneumatic
actuator depends on the force available from the pressures acting on both
sides of the piston, a result of the number of cfm flowing into the inlet and
out of the exhaust port.
A pressure regulator will influence actuator speed by portioning out to
its leg of a circuit the pressure required to equal the load resistance at an ac¬
tuator. This additional pressure is used to develop airflow. Even though this
is the case, pressure regulators are not used to vary actuator speed. In a pneu¬
matic system, actuator speed is affected by a restriction such as that obtain-
Pneumatic Valves 153

able with a needle valve or a needle valve with a bypass check, often called
a flow control valve. This valve will meter flow at a constant rate only if the
system resistance, the total load (friction and load), and the pressure at the
inlet of the cylinder and at its outlet do not vary throughout the entire stroke
length. This valve does not control flow; it only affects flow. For example,
when the load encounters an added resistance, actuator speed would decrease
or the machine will stop. Once the resistance has been overcome, there would
be a very rapid increase in speed. This could be a very dangerous condition
for the operator or the machine.
As indicated previously, a needle valve in a pneumatic system affects
the operation by causing a restriction. The typical needle valve consists of
a valve body and an adjustable part. The adjustable part can be a tapered-
nose rod which is threaded into the valve body. The more the tapered-nose
rod is screwed toward its seat in the valve body, the greater the restriction
to free flow.
By restricting exhaust airflow in this manner, a back pressure is
generated within the actuator, thus reducing the forces available to create mo¬
tion. This means that a larger portion of regulator pressure is used to over¬
come the resistances at the actuator and less pressure energy is available to
develop flow. With less air flowing into the actuator, actuator speed decreases.
Again, by controlling the amount of restriction developed by a needle valve,
the speed of an actuator can be controlled, but only if the total load is con¬
stant.

3.2.2 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Pneumatic valves are rugged, reliable system components and are used ex¬
tensively in various types of production equipment. This applies to metal-to-
metal spool, resilient seal spool, and poppet-type valve styles. However, best
performance and long service life are influenced greatly by proper and regu¬
lar maintenance. When malfunctions or failures occur, it is important for the
maintenance personnel to be able to determine quickly the cause and source
of the problem. Then the appropriate corrective action can be taken.

Maintenance
Following is a listing of the maintenance and service requirements for prop¬
er valve operation.
1. Supply clean air: Experience has shown that foreign material lodg¬
ing in the valve is a major cause of breakdowns. An air line filter
should be used that is capable of removing solid and liquid con¬
taminants. Accumulated liquid should be drained from the filter
frequently. If the filter is located where frequent routine mainte¬
nance is difficult, use a filter with an automatic drain.
154 Pneumatic Systems

2. Supply lubricated air. Most valves and the mechanisms they con¬
trol require light lubrication. A good lubricator should put atom¬
ized oil into the air line in direct proportion to the rate of airflow.
Either excessive or inadequate lubrication can cause the valve to
malfunction. For most applications an oil flow rate of 1 drop per
minute is adequate. Another lubrication check can be made by
holding a piece of clean white paper near the valve’s exhaust port
for three or four cycles. A properly lubricated valve will produce
only a slight discoloration of the paper. Suitable lubricating oils
must be compatible with the materials in the valve used for seals
and poppets. Generally speaking, any light-bodied mineral- or
petroleum-base oil with oxidation inhibitors, an aniline point be¬
tween 82°C (180°F) and 104°C (220°F), and an SAE 10, or lighter,
viscosity will prove suitable.
3. Clean valve periodically: The internal surfaces of a valve may
gradually build up a deposit of varnish or dirt. This can lead to slug¬
gish or erratic valve action, especially in spool valves. It is recom¬
mended that a schedule be established for the periodic cleaning of
all valves. To clean valves, use a water-soluble detergent or a sol¬
vent such as kerosene. Do not scrape varnished surfaces. Also,
avoid chlorinated solvents (trichloroethylene, for example) and
abrasive materials. The former can damage seals and poppets, and
abrasives can do permanent damage to metal parts.
4. Clean electrical contacts: In the external electrical circuits asso¬
ciated with the valve solenoids, keep all switches or relay contacts
in good condition to avoid solenoid malfunctions.
5. Replace worn components: In many cases it is not necessary to
remove the valve from its installation for servicing. Ordinarily, the
only items that will need replacing after a long period of use are
moving seals and possibly springs. These can be installed in the
valve without removal from its mounting location. Before disas¬
sembling a valve or other pneumatic component, or removing it
from its installation, shut off and exhaust the entire pneumatic cir¬
cuit, and verify that any electrical supply circuit is not energized.

Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting is the process of observing a valve’s trouble symptoms, such
as a buzzing solenoid or sluggish action, and then relating these to their most
likely causes. By careful analysis of the symptoms, the experienced trouble¬
shooter can quickly determine the trouble, identify the cause, and take the
appropriate correction action.
A pneumatic valve troubleshooting chart is presented next to assist in
Pneumatic Valves 155

the process of identifying the cause and analysis of symptoms. The chart con¬
tains the most common trouble symptoms that valves experience and their
probable causes.

Problem Cause

Valve blows to exhaust when Inlet poppet not sealing

not actuated Faulty seals
Faulty valve-to-base gasket
Cylinder leaks
Valve blows to exhaust when actuated Faulty valve-to-base gasket
Faulty seals
Damaged spool
Cylinder leaks
Air supply pressure too low
Water or oil contamination
Solenoid fails to actuate valve, Loose pilot cover or faulty solenoid
but manual override does actuate Low voltage at solenoid
valve
Solenoid fails to actuate valve and Faulty seals
manual override also fails to Varnish deposits in valve
actuate valve Pilot pressure too low
Water or oil contamination
Airflow is normal only in actuated Broken return spring
position
Solenoid buzzes Faulty solenoid
Low voltage at solenoid
Varnish in direct-operated spool valve
Solenoid burns out prematurely Varnish in direct-operated spool valve
Incorrect voltage at solenoid
Pilot section blows to exhaust Loose pilot cover
Pilot poppet not sealing
Poppet chatters Air supply pressure low
Low pilot or signal pressure
Faulty silencer/muffler
Valve action is sluggish Faulty seals on spool valve
Varnish in spool valve
Air supply pressure low
Low pilot or signal pressure
Poor or no lubrication
Faulty silencer/muffler
Water or oil contamination
(continued)
156 Pneumatic Systems

Problem Cause

Sequence valve gives erratic timing Faulty piston seal

Excessive lubrication
Fluctuating air pressure
Accumulated water
Faulty gasket
Flow control valve does not respond Excessive lubrication
*

to adjustment Incorrect installation or dirt in valve

Before disassembling a valve to investigate a system malfunction, check

other possible causes of the malfunction. Because malfunctions in other com¬
ponents can affect valve action, the valve is sometimes blamed for a problem
which, in fact, lies elsewhere. Leaky cylinder packings, poor electrical con¬
tacts, dirty filters, and air line leaks or restrictions are just a few of the things
to be considered when troubleshooting a pneumatic system. Consideration
of these possibilities can sometimes save an unnecessary valve disassembly
job. The following paragraphs detail the corrective actions that can be taken
for various causes of pneumatic valve failures.
Main Inlet Poppet Not Sealing. Foreign particles may be holding the
poppet off its seat. Cycle the valve several times to see if the flow of air
through the valve will flush out the particles. If not, it will be necessary to
disassemble the valve (Fig. 3.11).
To disassemble the valve, first disconnect or turn off the electrical cir¬
cuit to the valve; shut off and exhaust the air supply; then disassemble the
valve body assembly. The inlet poppet should be pulled off the valve stem
and checked for dirt and damage. If damaged, the poppet must be replaced.
If the poppet is swollen or has deteriorated, improper lubricants or solvents
may be the cause.
Also, check the poppet seats for dirt and damage. If there is damage
to a seat, the entire valve body assembly must be replaced (Fig. 3.12). If there
is no damage to the poppet or seats, clean the parts thoroughly, lubricate light¬
ly, and reassemble.
Faulty Seals. The materials of which seals are made can be attacked
by substances such as chlorinated hydrocarbons (trichloroethylene, for exam¬
ple) and some lubricating oils. This can produce swelling or shrinking of the
seals and result in erratic valve action or blowing to exhaust. Swollen seals
may cause some in-line poppet valves to stick in a partially open position so
that the valve blows to exhaust. Swollen seals on a spool valve can result in
sluggish or erratic valve action, or even failure of the spool to move at all.
Badly nicked or torn seals can produce blowing to exhaust in resilient seal
Pneumatic Valves 157

Figure 3.11 Poppet valve with poppet not sealing. (Courtesy of Ross Operating
Valve Co., Detroit, Michigan.)

spool valves by allowing air to pass from one port area to another. Small leaks
in piston poppet seals can affect the timing accuracy of sequence adapters
on in-line valves, or even render the valve inoperable.
Varnish Deposits in Valve. Varnish deposits can cause a valve to act
sluggishly or even prevent movement of the valve element altogether, espe¬
cially after a period of inactivity. A spool valve frozen in position by var¬
nish can cause a direct-acting solenoid to buzz, and eventually leads to sole¬
noid burnout (Fig. 3.13).

Figure 3.12 In-line-mounted poppet valve contamination. (Courtesy of Ross Oper¬

ating Valve Co., Detroit, Michigan.)
158 Pneumatic Systems

VARNISH DEPOSITS

I
—d

Figure 3.13 Spool sleeve valve varnish deposits. (Courtesy of Ross Operating Valve
Co., Detroit, Michigan.)

Varnish results from the action of oxygen on the lubricating oil, and
can be aggravated by excess heat. Varnish can also come from overheated
compressor oil carried over into the air lines. Properly lubricated valves do
not usually suffer from varnish deposits (Fig. 3.14).
To remove varnish, use a water-soluble detergent or solvent such as
kerosene. Do not scrape off the varnish. Also, avoid chlorinated solvents
(trichloroethylene, for example) and abrasive materials. The former can dam-

RES1L1ENT SEALS RETURN SPRING

Figure 3.14 Packed bore valve varnish deposits. (Courtesy of Ross Operating Valve
Co., Detroit, Michigan.)
Pneumatic Valves 159

age seals and poppets, and abrasives can do permanent damage to metal parts.
After cleaning, lightly lubricate moving valve parts and reassemble the valve.
Broken Return Spring. A broken return spring on a spool valve can
cause the spool to remain in an actuated position, or to be only partially re¬
turned. In the latter case, several abnormal flow patterns may result, de¬
pending on the valve configuration. If a spool valve has a normal flow pat¬
tern only in an actuated position, a broken return spring is the most likely
cause of the trouble. A broken return spring on an in-line poppet valve is less
likely to prevent closing of the inlet poppet, but should be considered as a
possible cause of the valve’s blowing to exhaust when not actuated, especially
in a low-pressure application.
Damaged Spool. If a spool is badly scored or nicked, it can allow air
to pass from one port area to another. This can result in unwanted pressur¬
izing of an outlet port or blowing to exhaust. The problem can be further
aggravated by the spool’s cutting the resilient seals and increasing the leak¬
age. A damaged spool cannot be repaired, but must be replaced.
Inadequate Air Supply. An inadequate air supply volume causes an
excessive pressure drop during valve actuation. Pilot air pressure may be great
enough to begin movement of the valve element, but the pressure drop re¬
sulting from the filling of the outlet volume depletes the pilot air supply. This
may result in chattering or oscillating of the main valve, or may simply keep
the main valve partially actuated so that it blows to exhaust.
Check the pressure drop shown on the gauge at the pressure regulator.
If the pressure falls more than 10% during actuation of the valve, the air sup¬
ply may be inadequate. Inspect the system for undersize supply lines, sharp
bends in the piping, restrictive fittings, a clogged filter element, or a defec¬
tive pressure regulator. Remember, too, that the air volume supplied can be
insufficient if more pneumatic devices are connected to a circuit than the com¬
pressor is designed to serve.
Fluctuating Air Pressure. If a valve with a timed sequence adapter suf¬
fers from erratic timing, the cause can be a fluctuating supply pressure. Con¬
sistent timing requires a consistent supply pressure. If the supply pressure
varies considerably, install a pressure regulator set at the system’s lowest ex¬
pected pressure.
Inadequate Pilot or Signal Pressure. Pilot or signal pressure below the
minimum requirement can produce chattering, valve oscillation, or sluggish
valve action. Check the valve specifications for minimum pilot or signal pres¬
sure requirements.
Undersized or Dirty Silencer. An undersized silencer, or one that is par¬
tially plugged, restricts the exhaust flow. The resulting back pressure can cause
erratic motion of valve elements. Remove the silencer to see if valve perform¬
ance is improved. Clean the silencer to see if valve performance is improved.
160 Pneumatic Systems

Verify that the silencer is of adequate size. Do not reinstall an undersized

silencer. Install a larger silencer and check the valve performance again.
Lubrication. Some valves require lubrication to operate properly.
Check the system lubricator to see that it is working as it should. Do not lu¬
bricate excessively. Excess oil can accumulate in low points of the system and
restrict the flow of air. It can also form pools that will produce a dash-pot
effect and slow valve action. A visible oil fog exhausting from the valve is
a sure sign of excessive lubrication. A properly lubricated valve will produce
only a slight discoloration on a piece of white paper when held close to the
exhaust port for three or four cycles.
Air Cylinder Leaks. Four-way valves sometimes blow to exhaust be¬
cause of leaking packings in the air cylinder connected to the valve. Before
looking for faults in the valve, check the cylinder for leaks. To check for cyl¬
inder leakage, the following steps can be taken (see Fig. 3.15):

1. Disconnect the air line to the end of the cylinder which is not under
pressure. If air comes out of the open port, the cylinder packings
are leaking and must be repaired. If there is no leakage, reconnect
the line.
2. Reverse the position of the valve and disconnect the other air line
to the cylinder. Again, check for air coming out of the cylinder port.
If there is air coming out, the cylinder packings must be repaired.

Figure 3.15 Checking for cylinder leakage. (Courtesy of Ross Operating Valve Co.,
Detroit, Michigan.)
Pneumatic Valves 161

3. If there is no leakage at the cylinder, reconnect the air line and pro¬
ceed with troubleshooting of the valve itself.

Water or Oil Contamination. Accumulations of water or oil have an

especially bad effect on devices with small orifices, such as timed sequence
adaptors. Accumulations in such a device can change the effective size of the
timing orifice or even block it completely. The device must be disassembled,
cleaned, lightly lubricated, and reassembled. It may be necessary to install
a filter in the supply line to prevent recurrence of the problem.
Accumulations of water or oil can also occur at low points in pilot sup¬
ply lines. This can result in pressure fluctuations that produce erratic timing.
The best cure is to reroute the pilot supply lines to eliminate low points. Water
and oil can also accumulate at low points in a valve, and hinder movement
of the valve element, perhaps completely preventing its motion. This is espe¬
cially true of a valve operating in a subfreezing environment where accumu¬
lated water can turn to ice. It is important in such applications to ensure that
the supply air is dry, and that the air line filter is drained frequently.
Internally Piloted Valve Shifts Improperly. An internally piloted valve
may shift partially, then stall. Air blows steadily through the exhaust port.
This is a sign that the pressure at the inlet port of the valve has fallen below
the valve’s minimum operating pressure. Increase the supply pressure or pro¬
vide a local air accumulator to maintain pressure at the valve during periods
of high flow.
If the valve is provided with an internal pilot exhaust, change it to ex¬
haust externally if possible. Check for restrictions in the supply line. A gauge
can be used to check the pressure available at the inlet port just before the
valve fails to shift. Common causes of restricted supply lines are clogged fil¬
ters, restrictive lubricators, and undersized hose or fittings.
On some valve designs, especially momentary contact types, full shift¬
ing may be obtained by restricting the exhaust port to allow the valve to main¬
tain a pressure level above the minimum operating pressure. In extreme cases,
provide a local accumulator for the pilot circuit or use pilot pressure from
a remote source.
Valve Occasionally Malfunctions or Circuit Reaction Slow. This type
of problem can be caused by icing. Rapidly exhausting air often cools entrained
moisture below its freezing point, causing ice particles to restrict exhaust flow.
Mufflers can also freeze. Check the exhaust ports of the valve and/or muf¬
fler for signs of icing. Dry the incoming air or provide a means for heating
areas that tend to freeze.
Alternating-Current Solenoid Failures. The failure of alternating-
current (ac) solenoids can be due to a number of conditions. Following is a
listing of the most common causes (Figs. 3.16 and 3.17).
162 Pneumatic Systems

"T"SECTION

Figure 3.16 Typical pilot solenoid. (Courtesy of Ross Operating Valve Co., Detroit,
Michigan.)

Low applied voltage: Not enough magnetic force will be developed

to allow the armature of the solenoid to seat. The unit will continuously
draw high inrush current and burn out. Voltage should be checked at
the coil with the solenoid energized. Possible causes of low voltage in¬
clude high-resistance connections, too much load on the electrical cir¬
cuit, and low voltage on the control transformer that powers the sole¬
noid.
Valve spool or poppet stuck: The armature may be held unseated be¬
cause the spool or poppet will not shift. The solenoid will draw high
inrush current for too long a time and burn out.

A metal-to-metal spool type of valve may be varnished in place, or dirt may

prevent the spool from shifting. Clean, lubricate, and reassemble the valve.
A packed resilient seal spool type of valve may not shift because swollen
seals hold the spool in place, or because dirt prevents the spool from com¬
pletely shifting. Clean the valve and repack the seals or replace the spool.
Solenoid Corroded. Use valves with adequate protection against mois¬
ture, coolants, and so on, which may come in contact with them. Provide
sealed electrical connections. Make sure that dirt and moisture covers are se¬
curely in place.
Solenoids Energized Simultaneously. On momentary-contact, direct-
actuated valves, check to make sure that both solenoids are never energized
at the same time. This check is easily made by wiring a small indicator lamp
temporarily across the coil of each solenoid. If both lamps are lit at the same
time, the last solenoid to be energized will burn out. Correct the electrical
circuit to prevent this.
Pneumatic Valves 163
4

High Transient Voltages. Solenoid burnout may be caused by high

transient voltages that break down coil insulation, causing short circuits to
ground. High transient voltages are most common where solenoids are con¬
nected to lines operating above 120 V, which also control motors and other
inductive load equipment. Switching of such loads can create very high voltage
peaks in the circuit. The remedy is to isolate solenoid circuits from main power
circuits.
Temperature Too High or Too Low. Solenoid failures can be expected
when a valve is operated above its rated temperature. Insulation may fail be¬
cause it is not suitable for high-temperature use. Specify solenoids designed
for the ambient temperature, place the valve in a cooler location, or consider
the use of a pilot-actuated valve at the hot location, controlled by a remote
pilot valve.
Solenoids also can fail when valves are operated at lower-than-rated
temperatures. Metal parts may shrink and lubricant viscosities may increase
to a point where solenoid motion is retarded or stopped. This can be avoided
by moving the valve to a warmer place or by providing a heated enclosure
for the valve. If trouble persists with closely fitted valves, change to a type
that can work at low temperatures.
Direct-Current Solenoid Failures. Direct-current (dc) solenoids gen¬
erally do not burn out due to the valve spool or poppet sticking, low voltage,
and high voltage. This is due to the fact that the dc solenoid does not have
a high inrush current at the outset of the armature travel. The maximum cur¬
rent to the coil is the holding current, which is the same whether the solenoid
armature is seated or not. With an ac solenoid, current to the coil at the outset
of armature travel is three to four times greater than when it is seated (has
completed its stroke). This absence of high inrush current in dc solenoids pre¬
vents coil burnout when the valve is stuck or the armature fails to move for
other reasons.
Valve failures to shift can, of course, occur with dc as well as ac sole¬
noids. Corrosion and temperature can also effect dc solenoid operation. The
general guides for ac solenoids can be applied in these cases. High transient
voltage problems can be handled in the same manner as for ac solenoids.
If the solenoid noise level on an ac solenoid is very high and occurs each
time the solenoid is energized, check to see that the armature is seating. Most
direct solenoid actuated valves are provided with a manual override. If the
solenoid noise decreases when the override is operated, incomplete solenoid
motion is indicated. Check to determine if rubbing parts can move properly
and that the correct voltage is available at the coil. Extremely loud ac hum
can be caused by a broken part within the solenoid.
In marginal noise problems, consider mounting the valve so that the
armature works up and down rather than horizontally. Maximum quieting
 Causes and cures for solenoid burnout. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)
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166 Pneumatic Systems

can be obtained by using dc solenoids. This is practical even on large valves

of the solenoid-controlled, pilot-actuated type. A chart summarizing the sole¬
noid valve troubleshooting procedure is presented in Fig. 3.18.
The following list provides a summary of the maintenance and service
procedures to be followed so that trouble-free valve operation is obtained.

1. Air pressure may be too high or too low at the valve inlet.
2. Compressors should be followed by aftercoolers. Hot (450°F), wet
air from a compressor may cause sticking valves (particularly with
metal-to-metal spool designs), erratic cylinder operation, early seal
failure, and reduced component life.

freely not shift

Figure 3.18 Troubleshooting guide for single-solenoid direction control valve.

(Courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)
Air Motors 167

3. Old or poorly maintained compressors, or certain compressor lubri¬

cating oils, may produce excessive oil breakdown (varnish). Where
this is a severe problem, use a coalescing filter ahead of the valve
inlet port to remove all dirt and liquid.
4. Do not restrict valve inlet supply lines. Use high-flow-capacity quick
disconnects. Piping inside diameter (ID) should be no less than the
minimum pipe ID of the valve port. Tubing ID should also not be
less than the pipe ID of the valve, with smooth 90° bends. The
quantity of bends should be held to a minimum.
5. Use filters and lubricators wherever possible.

3.3 AIR MOTORS

In the pneumatic tool industry, the designation air motor is used with two
different meanings. First, it identifies the driving force of a rotary pneumatic
tool. In the second sense, it classifies a complete tool which is used in literally
hundreds of applications, from winding reels to driving nuts in multiple-
spindle applications.
Since it is the heart of a rotary tool, a thorough knowledge of the basic
air motor is highly important. Only two air motor designs, vane and piston,
are of major importance. Other types, not used widely, are lobed-rotor, V,
diaphragm, and turbine motors. Lobed-rotor motors are similar in design to
lobed-rotor compressors, and were developed for special high-temperature
applications. V motors, which are a version of radial-piston motors, have
pairs of cylinders in a V configuration, with pistons driving a crankshaft.
Diaphragm motors obtain rotary motion through a reciprocating diaphragm
and ratcheting mechanism. Turbines utilize air velocity for rotation, such as
a windmill does. Incoming air strikes impellers or blades in a rotor. This type
of motor has a very low starting torque, and is used principally in small, very
high-speed die grinders.
A piston-type motor has more positive starting and better low-speed
characteristics than a vane-type motor, but is slower and heavier. Motors with
vanes are available in power ranges of 1/8 to 25 hp, and in speeds up to 30,000
rpm. Axial piston motors are available from Vi to approximately 4 hp, and
radial piston types range from 1 Vi to 25 hp. Maximum speed of piston motors
is about 5000 rpm.
Radial piston motors have pistons arranged radially, with all connect¬
ing rods linked to a common crankshaft. In axial piston motors, pistons are
aligned along an axis parallel with the output shaft; force is transmitted to
the shaft through an inclined “wobble” plate. The number of cylinders in a
piston motor can range from three to six.
168 Pneumatic Systems

In a piston motor, torque is developed by pressure on the pistons con¬

fined within the cylinders. Power in this type motor is determined by inlet
pressure, number of pistons, area of piston face, stroke, and speed. Speed
in a radial piston motor is limited by inertia of the reciprocating parts. Iner¬
tia is not a limiting factor in an axial piston motor, and this type is in a more
compact package. Vane motors, with their wide ranges of power and speeds
and high power/weight ratio, are used as power sources for all except a very
few rotary pneumatic tools.

3.3.1 Operation and Characteristics: Vane Motors

Principle of Operation
It is a common belief that air motors convert energy into mechanical motion
by controlled expansion of air, and to some extent, this is correct. Basically,
however, the rotor is turned from the force of compressed air on the rotor
blades, or vanes, and the pressure imbalance between the blades. Air admitted
to the motor is expanded only about 25% before it is exhausted. If it were
expanded to anywhere near the initial compression ratio (7.12 to 1 for a line
pressure of 90 psi), rapid expansion would quickly freeze any moisture in the
motor, to clog exhaust ports and reduce power and speed (Fig. 3.19). By keep¬
ing compressed air behind the rotor blades during a major portion of the cy¬
cle, maximum torque is obtained at stall or near stall speed. At stall, air pres¬
sure within the motor builds up quickly to line pressure.
Longitudinal vanes fit in a radially slotted rotor, which is mounted ec¬
centrically in a cylinder. Air enters the motor unit through ports in the cylinder
close to the “seal point” of the motor, that portion of the surface of the cylin¬
der which is closest to the rotor. This seal point prevents the compressed air
from escaping; therefore, pressure builds up against the first blade the air con¬
tacts. This forces the blade away from the seal point, to start motor rotation.
Compressed air is sealed off from blade 1 as soon as the rotor turns
far enough to expose the next blade to pressurized air. At this point, air which
contacted the first blade at 70 psi, for example, has dropped in pressure to
approximately 35 psi because of expansion. Even though direct exposure to
pressurized air by the first rotor blade has been cut off by exposure of the
second blade, blade 1 will provide rotating force to the rotor because air pres¬
sure against one side is greater than pressure on the other side. Blade 1 will
continue to apply rotating force until it reaches the exhaust ports in the motor
housing. At this point air pressure is equalized on both sides of blade 1 and
it applies no more rotating force.
A vane-type motor, complete with planetary gear reducer to lower the
■fv

shaft output speed, in Fig 3.20, and Fig. 3.21 depicts such a motor used in
an impact tool.
Air Motors 169

Figure 3.19 Vane air motor. (Courtesy of Gast Mfg. Co., Benton Harbor, Mich¬
igan.)

Characteristics
Torque. In air motors, starting torque is as important as maximum
torque which is reached just above zero speed and decreases linearly as the
motor approaches free speed. The starting torque is generally 75 to 85% of
maximum torque because of internal static friction. Starting torque is the
limiting factor of a motor, since the motor must overcome the applied load
if it is to be useful.
In vane motors, effective torque output is proportional to the exposed
vane area, pressure imbalance across the blade, and the moment arm through
which the pressure is working. Torque at any given speed can be increased by:

1. Increasing the exposed vane area

2. Increasing inlet air pressure, thereby increasing pressure imbalance
across the blade
3. Increasing housing ID or length and/or rotor outside diameter (OD)
or length

The amount that any one of these can be increased is limited. Increasing ex¬
posed vane area increases porting problems and shortens blade life. Increas-
170 Pneumatic Systems

ing the cylinder ID increases the speed of the blade rubbing against the cylin¬
der wall; this also shortens blade life. Available line pressure limits the amount
that inlet air pressure can be increased. Higher-than-normal pressure also
shortens tool life.
Power. An air motor rating is usually expressed as the maximum
horsepower produced at 90 psi. However, motors rated at different pressures
can be compared by assuming a change of 14% in horsepower for each 10-psi
difference in air pressure. A motor rated at 4 hp at 90 psi, for example, would
be the equivalent of one rated at 3.4 hp at 80 psi.
Air motor torque reaches its maximum just above zero speed, but at
the same speed, brake horsepower is near its minimum. In an ungoverned
motor, power increases to maximum at approximately 50% of free speed,
or maximum speed under no-load conditions. Power of a governed motor
follows the same pattern, but the maximum is reached at approximately 80%
of maximum governed speed.
Air Consumption. Air consumption by a motor varies with speed and
motor size. At 90 psi, consumption per horsepower can be as low as 21 cfm
in a large motor or as high as 45 cfm in a fractional horsepower motor. For
estimating air consumption by a motor, use a range of 30 to 40 cfm/hp for
motors of 1 hp or less, and 23 to 30 cfm/hp for those over 1 hp.
Variable Speed. Air motor speed is easily adjustable over a wide range
using simple valving. The exact speed of an air motor is difficult to predict
ahead of time because, like an air cylinder, speed is a function of balance be¬
tween inlet pressure and load. If anything changes this balance, the motor
speeds up or slows down to find a new balance. Also, like an air cylinder,
the best way to size an air motor is to overpower it with respect to the load,
then use a pressure regulator or a needle valve to bring it into balance with
the load.

Figure 3.20 Typical multivane air motor features. (Courtesy of Ingersoll Rand Co.,
Washington, New Jersey.)
Air Motors 171

Lightweight, compact design

Hardened & ground end plates & liner

Special processed spring maintains
positive motor clamp

Deep drawn steel

clutch housing

Oil bath mechanism lubrication

for long trouble-free life

All ball bearing motor construction

Balanced rotor for long life

at any pressure

Convenient steel
reversing mechanism

Steel air hose connection

Built-in oil reservoir provides

protective oil mist for motor parts

Figure 3.21 Vane-air-motor-driven impact wrench.

Motor speed varies inversely with any change in shaft loading. If the
load and the inlet pressure remain constant, the speed remains constant. The
ability to change speed quickly and easily is an important consideration on
many applications.
Stalling. Air motors, like air cylinders, can be stalled indefinitely
without damage. They can be indefinitely overloaded with no overheating.
172 Pneumatic Systems

They will maintain a constant tension on a reel, or can be used to supplement

other drives, such as an electric motor, and will adjust their speed to that of
the main drive; and by means of a pressure regulator, they can be made to take
any proportion of the total load. They are especially useful on power conveyors
that may tend to jam and stall, which would burn out an electric motor.
Environment. Air motors can operate under conditions unfavorable
to other motors. They will tolerate very high or very low ambient tempera¬
tures, extreme heat, and corrosive or explosive atmospheres. They will operate
completely submerged in liquid. They can be mounted to run in any position
if proper attention is given to the method of lubrication.
Ease of Control. Single direction of rotation air motors can be con¬
trolled with simple two-way shutoff or needle valves placed in the inlet air
line or in the discharge port of the motor. Reversible models are controlled
with four-way air valves. Because of their low rotational momentum, air
motors are more instantly reversible than electric motors. They can be started,
stopped, and reversed as often as necessary without overheating and without
damage to other equipment.

3.3.2 Maintenance

Other than low air pressure, two factors are the primary cause for loss of
power by a vane-type air motor: internal leakage at the seal point and around
the rotor blades, and interference of revolving parts. Before attempting to
locate the source of power loss in the motor, service instructions should be
studied for correct disassembly and reassembly procedure. The following will
assist in assuring a correctly reassembled motor:

1. When removing the motor unit from the housing, note the posi¬
tion of the motor; many motors are rotationally positioned in the
housing with respect to inlet hole location. This is particularly true
of reversible motors.
2. Disassembly of different types of motor units will vary. When dis¬
assembling one for the first time, the parts should be placed on a
clean work area in the order of their disassembly.
3. Remember that almost all nuts or governor assemblies which screw
onto or into the rear end of a clockwise-rotation rotor have left-
hand threads, to prevent their working loose in service.
4. Rotor bearings are usually pressed on the rotor shaft and are slip-
fit into the bearing plates. Whenever possible, the force applied to
remove bearings should be applied to the inner race.

After the motor unit has been disassembled, the following parts should be
checked for wear, and replaced if necessary.
Air Motors 173

Rotor Bearings
Normally, it is good practice to replace all bearings when an air motor is re¬
paired; this is particularly true if the motor has been run on air that has not
been filtered properly. When removing the bearings from a motor, the ex¬
posed side on each should be noted. They may be flush ground on one side,
shielded or sealed on one side only, or designed to take both thrust and radial
loads. To reassemble the bearings on the rotor shaft, a driver that slips over
the rotor shaft and locates against the inner race of the bearing should be used.
Bearings are inexpensive in comparison to the parts they support. A worn
bearing can allow the rotor to drift, resulting in poor performance and damage
to more expensive parts.

Rotor Blades
Rotor blades are also inexpensive, and should be replaced when a motor is re¬
paired. They can be reused, provided that (1) the contact edges are free of chips
and have no foreign matter embedded in them, and (2) blade wear is less than
the amount specified by the manufacturer as sufficient to necessitate blade
replacement. If this information is not readily available, the old blades can
be compared with new ones. The width at both ends of the rotor blade must
be greater than the maximum distance between the OD of the rotor and ID
of the cylinder; this distance is 180° from the seal point. Air leakage under
the blade will result from wear, and a worn blade may fail due to poor en¬
gagement in the rotor.

Rotor
The rotor may be of solid or floating type. The solid rotor has an extremely
long life provided that bearing failure or wear has not caused damage to the
diameters accepting the bearings. Bearing wear will also cause wear between
one or both ends of the rotor and bearing plates. The highest point of wear
of solid rotors which have not been subjected to rub is at the rotor blade slots;
rate of wear at this point is slow, and the rotor does not require replacement
if wear is slight.
A floating rotor slips freely on a shaft which is positioned by bearings.
This type of rotor usually has a shorter life than the solid type because of wear
between it and the shaft; this wear allows the rotor to move away from the
seal point on the cylinder, resulting in leakage and loss of power.

Bearing Plates
A bearing plate can be expected to have a long service life unless the rotor
has rubbed the plate because of bearing failure. If this should happen, a bear¬
ing plate need not be replaced if galling is only slight. Sanding the plate to
remove the burrs will permit it to be used; however, if rubbing has been ex¬
cessive, replacement is necessary to obtain maximum power output.
174 Pneumatic Systems

Cylinder or Housing
Cylinder wear is a major source for internal leakage and consequent power
loss; rate of wear depends on the quality of air received. When a cylinder
wears to the point that the motor is producing insufficient power, it must be
replaced; it cannot be honed out, as air leakage at the seal point will result
in a great loss of pressure against the rotor blades on the power side of the
cylinder, and excessive air leakage through the exhaust slots.

3.3.3 Maintenance of Air Tools

*

There are two basic ways to control the maintenance of air tools:

1. Operate the air tool until it ceases to run, then overhaul.

2. Follow a program for periodic inspection and overhauling of air
tools.

The first method can obviously be very costly in terms of repairs and down¬
time. When tools are operated until critical parts are worn out, the cost of
parts replacement can be higher than necessary. A tool seldom fails when it
is least needed in production. Failure usually occurs in peak production pe¬
riods.
The second method requires a program for inspecting each tool at
regularly scheduled intervals. The length of this interval will be determined
by operating conditions, and where extreme conditions prevail, tools should
be examined more often.

Preventive Maintenance
Periodic Examination. The first objective of any maintenance pro¬
gram should be the prevention of breakdowns. Each tool should therefore
be examined according to a regular schedule, so that any parts showing evi¬
dence of wear may be replaced promptly. A simple card system can be set
up to show date and nature of repairs.
Some maintenance departments prefer that all air tools be subjected to
inspection at fixed intervals of 45 to 90 days. Color coding can be used ef¬
fectively in such a system. For example, all tools scheduled for a specific
month can be spotted with a touch of black paint, and those for the follow¬
ing month spotted with red. In this way the supervisor can easily identify the
tools that are to be sent in for maintenance. Spare tools should always be
available for emergency use. This simple procedure has been used in many
factories and has helped reduce the cost of repairs.
Lubrication. Correct lubrication is a major requirement in preventive
maintenance. It is likely that some 80% of tool failures can be traced back
to inadequate lubrication. The absolute necessity of oil in any automobile en¬
gine crankcase is accepted without question. Application of the same stand-
Air Motors 175

ard to air tools would eliminate the primary cause of faulty performance and
early tool failure. Many types of precision-built air tools develop motor speeds
of 17,000 rpm or more. Sustained operation at such speeds requires filtered
air and correct lubrication.
*

Most portable air tools have built-in reservoirs, but in practice these fea¬
tures are almost never utilized. It is not practical to attempt to incorporate
reservoirs in smaller portable tools. Therefore, air motors can be lubricated
most efficiently by means of standard air line oilers. Such oilers usually have
a minimum capacity of a pint or more, with a transparent bowl which allows
visual inspection of the oil level. Responsibility for replenishing air line oilers
should be clearly assigned. An air tool may run for many hours without lu¬
brication but with decreased efficiency, and eventually a critical part will wear
out and fail.
The recommended lubricant for air motors is a good grade of light spin¬
dle oil SAE-5. Some common types are Mobil DTE 24 Oil or Non-Fluid Oil
A-88-NR. Most major oil companies offer comparable lubricants.
For planetary gear systems, right angles, flat angles, and impact tools,
use a good gear grease, as recommended by the tool manufacturer. One-half
ounce of grease should be added to these assemblies after 40 to 60 hr of use.
This quantity is usually dispensed by one stroke of the average lever-type
grease gun. Do not pump too much grease into the gearing of an air tool,
since this will tend to reduce speed and power.
As a final precaution, a check should be made to ensure that air tools
are actually receiving oil from the air line lubricator. Simply place a piece of
white paper over the exhaust port and with the tool running for a few mo¬
ments, a slight discoloration of the paper should show when oil is being sup¬
plied to the air motor.
Air Hose. The air hose supplying the tool should have an adequate
inside diameter. The correct size is usually one size larger than the inlet thread
on the tool. About 60% of air tools returned for repair have reducing nip¬
ples inserted at the air inlet. Such nipples cause a reduction of air power and
their use should be discouraged, especially on grinders and sanders, where
air volume is important. Note that hoses Vi in. in diameter or larger require
the use of safety devices to prevent hose whipping.
Automatic Air Couplers. Self-sealing or automatic shutoff couplers,
with mating connectors, are recommended for connecting a tool to the air
line. The coupler is actually a valve that supplies air; it can be added to the
branch line or to a hose leading from the branch. The connector is attached
to the tool or attached to the far end of a whip hose on the tool. The coupler
and connector are easily snapped together to form an airtight connection, yet
the hose can still swivel freely. The coupler should have adequate capacity
for the tool, without excessive pressure drop.
176 Pneumatic Systems

Air Tool Repair

Proper maintenance of air tools often depends on the ability of a repairper¬
son to determine whether a part or assembly is worn to the point where it
should be replaced. Most portable air tools are powered by a rotary vane
motor.
Replacement of each of the air motor parts is recommended when a cer¬
tain degree of wear (based on past experience) has been detected. Parts that
have reached this point may still be usable for a long period, but they will
not yield performance equal to a new tool. The following standards are there¬
fore recommended.
Rotor. Examine the end faces for roughness and smooth with a hon¬
ing stone if necessary. Normally, there should be no noticeable wear on such
faces, as the rotor is a few thousandths shorter than the cylinder. Inspect the
blade slots for wear or burrs. A new blade should move in and out of the
slot without binding. Use a honing stone to break away any sharp edges found
on the corners of the slots. Examine the spline or gear teeth at the driving
end. If they have become so worn that a step can be seen next to mating sur¬
faces, the rotor should be replaced.
Cylinder. Examine the cylinder on the inside diameter for rough cir¬
cular grooves. If the grooves are from 0.005 to 0.010 in. deep, replace the
cylinder. Such grooves are usually caused by foreign matter in the air line.
Installation of an air filter is the best means for preventing such grooving and
scoring. A badly scored cylinder cannot be restored to usefulness by honing.
End Plates. Any upper or lower end plate whose face shows wear
greater than a depth of 0.005 in. should be replaced. Such wear is usually caused
by incorrect rotor spacing. Light score marks can often be lapped out with
a 150-grit abrasive cloth on a flat surface plate.
Bearings. Shielded or sealed bearings should never be washed in sol¬
vent because:

1. It is probable that more dirt will be introduced and trapped within

the bearing than is removed.
2. It is probable that the lubricant within the bearing will be diluted
or washed away completely.

Open bearings may be washed only in fresh clean solvent and should then
be repacked with any good bearing grease. To check a bearing, hold the in¬
ner race and rotate the outer race by hand. If rough movement or end play
%

are detected, replace with a new bearing.

It is also possible to compare a used bearing with a new one in order to
determine the amount of wear. Sometimes a bearing shield may become
dented and cause a drag. It is possible to lift off the bearing shield by use
Air Motors 177

of a sharp pick. The removal of this damaged shield should free the bearing.
A bearing should be reassembled into a tool with the open side in direct con¬
tact with the end plate. This method will give protection from dirt and will
help retain the bearing lubricant. Preloaded bearings should always be reas¬
sembled according to instructions furnished with the air tool. These bearings
are usually found on air motors whose end plates are fastened in place by a
nut, screw, or governor weight assembly.
Rotor Blades. A rotor blade is probably the most expendable part of
an air motor, since it is subjected to a high degree of movement and friction.
Most blades are machined from a fibrous form of laminated phenolic. By
means of various treatments, blades are stabilized so that they can withstand
a wide latitude of temperature, humidity, water, and oil. They are almost im¬
mune to warpage. All these characteristics are necessary for the smooth cy¬
cling action of the blades as it moves in and out of the rotor slot.
It is a generally accepted rule that if a rotor blade loses 20% or more
of its width, it should be replaced. Width can be checked by comparing the
old blade with a new one. Blades narrowed by wear will eventually tilt at the
edge of the slot, and this will create a groove mark on the side of the blade.
The groove mark will then deepen enough to cause the blade to break or else
to bind on the edge of the slot. Blade breakage at high speed can cause severe
damage to the interior of the air motor. A blade that binds on the edge of
the slot will simply freeze the motor and keep it from moving.
Rotor blades found to be within wear limits may be cleaned up by a
simple lapping operation on each side. Place a piece of 400-grit waterproof
sandpaper on a flat surface and lap each side of the blade. This will clean
the blade but will not remove enough of the material to affect the performance
of the air motor.
A good set of rotor blades might be considered the heart of an air motor.
If blades are maintained in good condition and replaced when necessary, the
motor will have much longer life and greater freedom from trouble.

Repair Facility
Often, the most costly repairs are those applied to tools that have been allowed
to run until they stop. Air tool users are therefore encouraged to set up, in
their own plant, a tool maintenance center along the following lines:

1. Assign specific maintenance responsibilities to one or more persons.

2. Set up proper repair facilities.
3. Maintain an adequate stock of repair parts.
4. Establish a systematic preventive maintenance program.
5. Train maintenance personnel in proper air tool servicing tech¬
niques.
178 Pneumatic Systems

The location of the tool maintenance department should be near the area
where tools are being used, be clean and well lighted, and have the appearance
of an efficient repair area. There should be at least one workbench with a 4-in.
soft-jaw vise. The majority of repairs can be made with ordinary hand tools.
The department should be equipped with proper service parts sheets, plus sim¬
ple records for logging all repairs.
There should also be facilities for testing repaired air tools. Adequate
testing can often be done with a flowmeter (to indicate the consumption of
cubic feet of air per minute), and a tachometer. It can be shown that if a tool
has proper airflow and is running at proper speed, it will almost surely be
developing its rated power.
The question of whether to repair or replace an air tool is a problem
common to all users, but there are wide differences in prevailing practices.
Most companies, for example, have an amortization program in which they
write off all air tools in a 5-year period. Yet many users are reluctant to scrap
an air tool after 5 years, and it is not uncommon to find tools in use for
periods up to 10 and 12 years. Retention of old air tools in a plant can be
uneconomical, particularly if the tools are being used constantly. Cost studies
have shown that a power tool performing at less than 90% efficiency is ac¬
tually costing money. An actual survey in a typical plant showed that about
25% of the air tools were performing well below their rated efficiency. Where
systematic maintenance is not practiced, it is not uncommon to find the aver¬
age air tool running at about 60% of maximum efficiency.
A first step toward the solution of this problem is the use of a controlled
service record. These records should be reviewed periodically by someone with
responsibility and authority for weeding out those tools which, because of
overage or extremely hard usage and/or abuse, are giving a substandard per¬
formance or generating expensive repair costs. A helpful rule for the main¬
tenance department would be that a tool should be scrapped if its repair cost
exceeds 50% of the cost of replacement.
 4
Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

Nearly all hydraulic component manufacturers and users agree that dirt is
responsible for a majority of malfunctions, unsatisfactory component per¬
formance, and degradation. Dirt comes from many sources and in various
forms, such as chips, dust, sand, moisture, pipe sealant, weld splatter, paints,
and cleaning solutions. The aggregate of all these forms is termed
contamination.

4.1 SOURCES

The sources of contamination are numerous (see Fig. 4.1) and include:

Being introduced with new oil

Built in at the time of hydraulic system construction
Introduced with the air from the environment
Generated by wear within the hydraulic components
Introduced through leaking or faulty seals
Introduced by shop maintenance activities

The removal and control of contamination necessitates the use of a filter. The
selection of the correct filter and its proper location in the system requires
as much care and expertise as the selection of other critical components, such
as pumps, valves, and actuators.
Dirt is introduced into hydraulic systems at the time of fabrication of
the components and during the manufacture of the system. Some of the con-

179
 180 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

Ingress Dirt
T°tal Built-in Ingress Ingress Generated from Generated Generated Dirt
removed by
system = ^ + from + through + in + in + in - removed by -
cylinder off-line
dirt oil breather cylinder pump valve line filters
rod seal filter

Figure 4.1 Pictorial representation of filtration equation. (Courtesy of Sperry

Vickers, Troy, Michigan.)
Sources 181

tamination found in oil samples taken from a system after a short run-in pe¬
riod of a new machine includes:

Metal chips from:

Tubing burrs
Pipe threads
Component manufacture particles
Tank fabrication
Pipe dope
Teflon tape shreds
Lint from wiping cloths
Welding scale and beads
Pipe scale
Factory dust
Rubber particles
Debris from hose fabrication

Although oil is refined and blended under relatively clean conditions, it is

usually stored in drums or in a bulk tank at the user’s factory. At this point,
it is no longer clean because the filling lines contribute metal and rubber par¬
ticles, and the drum always adds flakes of metal or scale. Storage tanks can
be a real problem because water condenses in them to cause rusting, and con¬
tamination from the atmosphere finds its way in unless satisfactory air
breather filters are fitted.
If the oil is being stored under reasonable conditions, the principal con¬
taminants on delivery to a machine will be metal, silica, and fibers. Using
a portable transfer unit or some other filtration arrangement, it is possible
to remove much of the contamination present in new oil before it enters the
system and is ground down into finer particles.
Contamination that enters the oil from the environment surrounding
the hydraulic system can do so by following several paths. These entry points
include air breathers, access plates, and seals.
Air breathers: Very little information appears to be available on what
these filters will actually achieve, and purely nominal ratings are usually
specified. The amount of air passing through the filter will depend on
draw-off, which means that single-acting cylinders operating in dirty
atmospheric conditions will result in a greater introduction of dirt.
Access’ plate: In some plants it cannot be assumed that access plates
will always be replaced. In power unit design, good sealing is vital, and
in bad environments such items as strainers should not be positioned
182 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

inside the reservoir if access requires the refitting of removable plates.

Other removable items will allow dirt to enter during maintenance, and
good design practice should minimize this.
Seals: Wiper seals in cylinders cannot be 100% effective in removing
very fine contaminants from the cylinder rod. If they were, they would
remove the oil film from the piston rod. A completely dry rod would
quickly wear out the seals. Where cylinders remain extended in a heavily
contaminated atmosphere, considerable quantities of fine particles can
get into the system unless protection such as a bellows is provided.

Dirt is continually introduced into operating hydraulic systems because of

wear and degradation of the working components. The wearing action of
working parts in components such as pumps, fluid motors, valves, and cylin¬
ders generates contamination. Rust scale from the reservoir caused by conden¬
sation above the oil level is also a source of dirt. Burrs on tubing and piping
break loose during service; and flexing of components continuously releases
particles which were not removed during the initial cleaning of the system (Fig.
4.2).
Contamination is added to the system by shop maintenance activities.
This is done in various ways, including the following:

1. Leaks are caught in a bucket that may be dirty and which is open
to the atmosphere when returned to the tank.
2. Dirty buckets are used to catch oil when components are repaired
or lines broken; then the oil is returned to the tank.
3. Oil is stored in drums that are not sealed.
4. Occasionally, supposedly clean oil, which is new or reprocessed,
will contain lint particles from the refining filters.
5. When equipment is being repaired:
a. Components pick up contamination from dirty workbenches.
b. Dirty rags are used to clean components.
c. Tubing and hose is left on the floor or exposed to dirt.
6. Suction line strainers are often left off and lying in the tank or per¬
forated with a long screwdriver by maintenance people who “don’t
want to be bothered” cleaning strainers under oil or are in a hurry
to get the machine going.
7. Strainers are taken off for cleaning. The procedure stirs up the
dirt in the bottom of the tank. Pumps are started up because “It
won’t hurt to run the pump a few minutes while I am cleaning the
strainer.”
8. Fill caps are left off the tank.
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183
184 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

The situations described above occur in most shops. It is economically im¬

practical to control these activities. Repair work is done on the machine, on
portable workbenches, or in maintenance shops. All of these tend to be dirty
by nature. Management cannot hope to provide working areas and tools that
are “clean” enough to prevent contamination from being added during repair
and maintenance activities. The solution to this apparent dilemma is to make
the importance of system cleanliness known to the maintenance personnel
through training activities. The awareness of the sources, the effect on the
system, and control of contamination will develop habits within the mainte¬
nance people that are conducive to minimizing the introduction of dirt by shop
activities.

4.2 EFFECTS

It is well known that contaminant particles are of all shapes and sizes, and
that the finer they are, the more difficult it is to count them and to deter¬
mine the material of which they are composed. However, we can say that the
majority are abrasive and that when interacting with surfaces, they plough
and cut little pieces from the surface. This wear accounts for about 90% of
the failures due to contamination or dirt. The effect of these contaminant
particles on various system components reflects itself differently depending
on the mechanism of operation. Following is a list of what dirt does to hydrau¬
lic components (Fig. 4.3).

1. Pumps
Erodes wear plates.
Causes sticking of vanes creating erratic action.
Causes the vanes to wear out the cam ring.
Wears out rotor slots.
Increases shaft journal and bearing wear.
Increases gear wear, with resultant inefficiency.
Increases piston and sleeve wear, with resultant inefficiency.
In compensator controls on variable-volume pumps, it causes stick¬
ing, slow response, and erratic delivery.
Creates excessive heat and inefficient use of horsepower.
2. Relief valves
Dirt causes chatter.
Accumulated dirt causes relief valve to “fail-safe;” pressure becomes
erratic.
Dirt causes seat wear.
Dirt causes plugged orifices on balanced piston-type valves.
Effects 185

Possible component
Symptom malfunction Possible cause

Slow movement of Excessive leakage in Parts worn by particles cir¬

hydraulic cylinder control valve culating in fluid; this type
of abrasion or erosion is
Excessive internal leakage often caused by silt-size
in pump contaminants
Stuck manually operated Jammed, stuck, silted 1. One or more large, hard
control valve spool-sleeve-type con¬ particles physically pre¬
trol valve venting movement of
Burned-out solenoid on spool; or
electrically operated con¬ 2. Silting of valve caused
trol valve by large number of par¬
ticles; or
3. Gums or lacquers from
deteriorated fluid plat¬
ing out on valve sur¬
faces
Poor positioning of Worn control valve Increased valve clearances
actuator often result in poor posi¬
tioning accuracy and an
Overheating of system increased internal leakage,
which can result in
overheating
Repeated failures of Same A chain of failures often
hydraulic motors, pumps, indicates that the debris
or hydrostatic transmis¬ from the first failure was
sions not adequately removed
and resulted in a quick se¬
cond failure

Figure 4.3 Problems caused by particulate contaminants. (Courtesy of Sperry Vick¬

ers, Troy, Michigan.)

3. Directional valves
Dirt causes wear to spool and housing lands creating excess leakage.
Dirt deposits cause spools to stick, which can cause solenoid failure.
Sticking valves can cause excessive shock loads, damaging hose, pip¬
ing, fittings, and other components.
4. Check valves
Dirt permits fluid to bypass check.
Dirt causes wear on the ball and seats, creating leakage.
186 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

5. Flow control valves

Dirt causes erosion of orifices, changing the flow setting charac¬
teristics.
6. Servo valves
Dirt causes erosion of sharp edges, which affects metering.
Dirt plugs nozzles because they contain very small orifices.
Dirt leads to buildup of varnish deposits.
7. Cylinders
Dirt causes excessive wear of the cylinder rod, piston seals, rod
seals, and the tube bore.
Dirt causes cushions to malfunction.
8. Fluid motors
Dirt causes wear similar to pump wear
9. Fluid
Dirt acts as a catalyst, thereby breaking down the molecular struc¬
ture of the oil, causing gummy residue (varnish) to form.
Dirt in the tank tends to attract additives, which changes the com¬
position of the fluid.

From the foregoing, it can be seen that failures arising from dirt or contam¬
ination can be classified into three categories:

1. Catastrophic failure: occurs when a large particle enters a pump

or valve. For instance, if a particle causes a vane to jam in a rotor
slot, the result may well be complete seizure of the pump or motor.
In a spool valve, a large particle trapped at the right place can com¬
pletely stop a spool from closing.
2. Intermittent failure: caused by contaminant on the seat of a pop¬
pet valve, which prevents it from reseating properly. If the seat is
too hard to allow the particle to be embedded into it, the particle
may be washed away when the valve is reopened. Later, another
particle may prevent complete closure only to be washed away when
the valve opens. Thus a very annoying type of intermittent failure
occurs.
3. Degradation failure: follows wear, corrosion, and cavitation ero¬
sion. They cause increased internal leakage in the system compo¬
nents, but this condition is often difficult to detect.

There are several philosophies regarding the sizes of particles that cause deg¬
radation failures. Two schools of thought are prevalent:
1. Degradation wear is related to the dirt level in the system. Compo-
Control 187
4

nent wear is accelerated as dirt levels increase above the level a com¬
ponent can tolerate. Little, if any, increase in component life is ob¬
tained by reducing dirt levels below the level of component tolerance.
V’*

2. Wear is related to ultrafine particles of less than 5 ^m, known as silt

particles. (Larger particles tend to be associated with catastrophic
failures.) Abrasion and erosion often create hard, metallic-wear
products which enter the hydraulic fluid and cause additional wear.
The total number of these particles also causes oxidation and other
breakdown, hastening the deterioration of the hydraulic fluid. Very
small amounts of free water in hydraulic fluid will cause corrosion,
oil breakdown, acid formation, and other problems.

4.3 CONTROL

Nearly any discussion regarding dirt in a hydraulic system reduces to a con¬

sideration of particle sizes. For the most part, these are smaller than a grain
of salt, which is 100 /xm in size; 40 /un is about the smallest particle that can
be seen with the naked eye. One micrometer is equal to 39 millionths of an
inch; 25 /xm equals one-thousandth of an inch. Thus when a 60-mesh filter
(238 jixm) is considered for use in a system, the openings are twice as large
as a grain of table salt (100 /xm). Thus the filter cannot be effective in removing
these small, harmful particles (see Fig. 4.4).

Sizes of Familiar Objects

Size

Substance /xm in.

Grain of table salt 100 0.004

Human hair 70 0.0027
White blood cell 25 0.001
Talcum powder 10 0.0004
Red blood cell 8 0.0003
Bacterium (average) 2 0.00008
Lower limit of visibility (naked eye) 40 0.00156

The performance requirements that a filter must meet are as follows:

1. It must be capable of reducing the initial contamination to the de¬

sired level within an acceptable period of time.
2. It must be capable of achieving and maintaining the desired level,
and allow a suitable safety factor.
188 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

RELATIVE SIZES

LOWER LIMIT OF VISIBILITY (NAKED EYE) . 40 MICRONS

WHITE BLOOD CELLS . 25 MICRONS
RED BLOOD CELLS. 8 MICRONS
BACTERIA (COCCI) .!. 2 MICRONS

LINEAR EQUIVALENTS

1 INCH _ 25.4 MILLIMETERS _ 25,400 MICRONS

1 MILLIMETER_0394 INCHES __ 1,000 MICRONS
1 MICRON- 25, 400 OF AN INCH_001 MILLIMETERS
1 MICRON__ 3.94 x 10~5__ .000039 INCHES

SCREEN SIZES
MESHES PER U.S. OPENING IN OPENING IN
LINEAR INCH SIEVE NO. INCHES MICRONS
52.36 50 .0117 297
72.45 _70 _ .0083 _ 210
101.01__100_ .0059 _149
14? flfi 140 0041 10=,
?oo oo 200 0020 74
270.25 270 .0021 53
??? oo 325 *; ooi 7 44
.00039 10
.000019 .5

Figure 4.4 Relative size of micronic particles.

Control 189

3. The quality of maintenance available at the user location should

be considered.
4. Filters must be easily accessible for maintenance.
5. An indication of filter condition to suit the user’s requirements must
be provided.
6. In continuous process plants, facilities must be provided to al¬
low elements to be changed without interfering with system opera¬
tion.
7. The filters must provide sufficient dirt-holding capacity for an ac¬
ceptable interval between element changes.
8. The use of a filter in the system must not produce undesirable
effects on the operation of components, such as high back pres¬
sures.

To satisfy the performance requirements, a number of factors must be con¬

sidered in selecting hydraulic filters. These include:

Degree of filtration
Flow rate
Pressure drop
Dirt capacity
Compatibility
Element cleanability or replacemeni
System pressure
Temperature

It is generally recommended that filtration to at least a 25 /xm range be pro¬

vided for a hydraulic system. This recommendation is made with respect to
particle removal and is subject to the following qualifications:

Filters located in a pump suction line must be correctly sized to prevent

cavitation.
There are systems where better filtration is required because of very
small clearances. In such systems, recommendations should be sought
individually from component manufacturers.
When filtering fire-resistant fluids, specific recommendations of the
component and fluid manufacturers should be followed.
190 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

4.4 FILTER TYPES

Filter elements are divided into two general classifications: depth-type filter
elements and surface-type filter elements. Depth-type elements force the fluid
to pass through multiple layers of material and the dirt is caught because of
the intertwining path that the fluid takes. These are generally absorbent-type
elements since the dirt particles are trapped by the walls. An absorbent ele¬
ment causes the dirt to stick to the surface. Because of its construction, a
depth-type element has many pores of various sizes. Since there is no one con¬
sistent pore size, the element is generally given a nominal rating which is based
on its average pore size. For example, an element with a nominal rating of
25 jum means that the average pore size is at least 25 /xm; and, initially, it will
remove most contaminants 25 ^m and larger in size.
Surface-type elements consist of a single layer of material through which
the fluid must pass. The material layer consists of perforated metal or woven-
wire mesh screening. The manufacturing process of these material layers can
be very precisely controlled so that these elements can have very consistent pore
or opening sizes. Because of this fact, surface-type elements can be identified
by their absolute rating. The absolute rating signifies the largest opening in
the filter element. This rating thus provides the largest, hard, spherically
shaped particle that can pass through it.
A decision as to which type of filter element to select —depth or sur¬
face type —requires consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of
each. Following is a list of these for each type of element.

Advantages of Depth Elements

High efficiency on a one-time-fluid-pass basis

Large dirt-holding capacity
Usually inexpensive

Disadvantages of Depth Elements

Impractical to clean.
Limited compatibility with fluids.
High initial clean pressure differential.
Paper and synthetic depth elements are adversely affected by
temperatures above 260°F.
Paper elements have limited shelf life.
Paper elements are not recommended for use with water-base fluids.
Filter Types 191

Paper elements are impractical to use with fluid viscosities above 1000
ssu.
Advantages of Surface Elements

Strength and resistance to fatigue, temperature, and corrosion.

Surface elements can be cleaned and reused.
Maximum pore size can be controlled.
Low initial clean pressure differential.

Disadvantages of Surface Elements

Usually expensive.
Not as efficient as a depth element on a one-time-fluid-pass basis.

Some dirt particles in a system are magnetic. They are built into the system
while the machinery is being fabricated. They are also generated within the
system from the action of moving parts and fluid erosion. They can also enter
the system through the reservoir openings and air breather.
These particles are normally abrasive and can react chemically with hy¬
draulic oil to decompose the oil. They should be removed from the system.
However, most of this type of dirt consists of very small particles. A fine fil¬
ter would have to be used, which means an increase in cost and probably an
increase in maintenance. Both of these factors can be avoided by using a mag¬
net. If many magnetic particles are present in a system, a relatively coarse
element used in conjunction with a magnet can be as effective as a finer fil¬
ter. The magnet will catch the small metal particles. The element will catch
the larger dirt and will not become clogged as quickly as will a finer element.
Cost and maintenance are reduced.
It is especially recommended that magnets be used with fire-resistant
fluids. Petroleum oil allows many of the metal particles to settle to the bot¬
tom of the reservoir. Fire-resistant fluids are more detergent and tend to keep
these particles in suspension. Consequently, there can be more magnetic parti¬
cles in a stream of fire-resistant fluid than in a stream of petroleum oil.
The degree to which the hydraulic fluid should be filtered is another
important consideration in the process of providing a means for controlling
dirt. Often, the component manufacturer will provide information in the cat¬
alog relative to particle size sensitivity. If not, the following rules of thumb
may be applied:
1. With standard vane and gear pumps operating at pressures of 1000
psi or less, 74 /xm filtration can be selected.
192 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

2. Circuits operating up to 2000 psi should be equipped with 40

filtration.
3. For circuits operating above 2000 psi, 25 jum filtration should be
selected.

The filtration levels listed are based on typical loads imposed on the compo¬
nents by forces related to pressure. These loads cause the component parts
within a pump or valve that move relative to each other to rub against each
other. The moving parts, however, are separated by a thin layer of oil that
fills the clearance space between them. If this oil film is loaded with dirt par¬
ticles, rapid degradation, wear, and eventual seizure or binding of the parts
will occur. With low-pressure units, relatively large clearances are tolerated
in the components and contamination has less effect; also, there is less force
available to drive the particles into the clearances. Thus increasing the pressure
is of major significance in determining the effect of dirt on hydraulic com¬
ponents such as pumps and valves (Fig. 4.5).
Filter elements are available in a wide variety of materials, ranging from
paper to woven-wire mesh. Figure 4.6 lists some of more common materials
together with the rating available with each medium.
In addition to the degrees of filtration, the location of the filters with¬
in a system is an important consideration. Hydraulic filters can be installed
in the intake, pressure, or return lines of the system or in the reservoir (Fig.
4.7).
Intake line filters prevent catastrophic failure of pumps by collecting
“large” contaminant particles. The filters are usually mounted either partly
or completely outside the system reservoir, near the pump intake. They are
usually relatively coarse, which makes them ineffective in controlling dirt
levels (see Fig. 4.8). Most designs provide for servicing of the filter element
through the filter housing without opening or draining the system reservoir.
Some designs even allow servicing without shutting down the system. Intake
filters must be sized carefully to assure that the pump can tolerate pressure
drop at maximum flow and minimum operating temperature, assuming a
plugged filter element. Otherwise, the pump may “starve” and cavitate.
Pressure filters are used on the outlet side of the pump or just ahead
of valves and other highly dirt-sensitive components, such as servo valves and
proportional valves. Pressure filters remove critical contaminants passing
through or generated by the pump before they get into the remainder of the
system. Any contamination generated in the system downstream of the pres¬
sure filter will increase dirt levels in the reservoir unless controlled by a re¬
turn line filter. The same is true for dirt that enters the system through cylin¬
der rod seals (see Figs. 4.9 and 4.10).
Filter Types 193

Item Micrometers Typical clearance (in.)

Gear pump (pressure loaded)

Gear to side plate Vi-5 0.000,02-0.000,2
Gear tip to case Vi-5 0.000,02-0.000,2
Vane pump
Tip of vane 1/2-1° 0.000,02-0.000,04
Sides of vane 5-13 0.000,2 -0.000,5
Piston pump
Piston to bore (R)b 5-40 0.000,2 -0.001,6
Valve plate to cylinder 1/2-5 0.000,02-0.000,2
Servo valve
Orifice 130-450 0.005 -0.018
Flapper wall 18-63 0.000,7 -0.002,5
Spool sleeve (R)6 1-4 0.000,04-0.000,16
Control valve
Orifice 130-10,000 0.005 -0.40
Spool sleeve (R)h 1-23 0.000,04-0.000,90
Disk type 1/2-1“ 0.000,02-0.000,04
Poppet type 13-40 0.000,5 -0.001,5
Actuators 50-250 0.002 -0.010
Hydrostatic bearings 1-25 0.000,04-0.001
Antifriction bearings 1/2 “— 0.000,02-
Sleeve bearings 1/2°- 0.000,02-

“Estimate for thin lubricant film.

fcRadial clearance.
Source: Machine Design, May 25, 1967.

Figure 4.5 Typical clearances for fluid system components. (Courtesy of Pall Corp.,
Glen Cove, New York.)

Return line filters are normally placed in the system return line to clean
the hydraulic fluid before it enters the reservoir. Return line filtration is es¬
pecially recommended for startups of new systems because most initial con¬
tamination comes from within the system itself: contaminants inadvertently
left in piping and components, metal from manufacturing and assembly, mov¬
ing surfaces and threaded fittings, and particles from thread-sealing mater¬
ials, hoses, elastomer seals, and so on.
Each filter location offers advantages over any other. For example:

Only a return line filter can reduce the amount of dirt entering the sys¬
tem through a cylinder rod seal.
194 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

Only an intake filter can prevent a large particle that may be in the res¬
ervoir from entering the pump and possibly causing a catastrophic
failure.
Only a pressure line filter at the pump outlet can prevent particles from
a wearing or failing pump to be spread throughout the system. These
particles could cause valves, cylinders, and motors to fail.

All locations are important; however, economics generally dictates that all
three filters cannot be placed in the system. The use of only one or two filters
in a system requires the careful analysis of the dirt-level tolerances of the com¬
ponents and the consequence of a failure. The analysis should also include
safety, potential machine damage, maintenance, and repair costs. Figures 4.11
and 4.12 depict various filtration arrangements commonly used in hydraulic
systems. For example, if a designer is permitted only one filter in the hydrau¬
lics system of a heavy-duty dump truck operating in a quarry, where should
it be put? That is, which component should be protected? The answer: a pres¬
sure filter may be recommended to protect the truck’s telescopic cylinder, be¬
cause its failure might involve the operator’s safety, and it is the most expen¬
sive hydraulic component to repair or replace.

Filter Bypass Valve

If filter maintenance is not performed, the pressure differential across a filter
element will increase. An unlimited increase in pressure differential across
a filter on the pressure side means that the filter element will eventually col¬
lapse or dirt may be pushed through. To avoid this situation, a simple relief

Rating (/am)

Medium" Type Nominal Mean Absolute

100-mesh screen Cleanable 135 140 220

$
200-mesh screen Cleanable 70 74 105
Sintered Dutchtwill
woven wire mesh Cleanable 10 17 25
Resin-impregnated paper Disposable 10 18 30
Ultrafine , Disposable 0.45 0.9 3

“In addition to those tabulated, other types of filters and ratings are: paper, cellulose, felt, and
glass, nominal ratings from 0.5 to 100 /xm, and absolute ratings from 2 to 50 /xm x nominal;
sintered powders of metal, ceramics, or plastics, with nominal ratings of 2 to 65 /xm and abso¬
lute ratings of 13 to 100 /xm.

Figure 4.6 Filter materials. (Courtesy of Pall Corp., Glen Cove, New York.)
 Pressure
Relief valve line filter

Figure 4.7 Typical locations of filters in a hydraulic system. (Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Michigan.)

195
196 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

Figure 4.8 Inlet line filter with magnet and condition indicator. (Courtesy of Sperry
Vickers, Troy, Michigan.)

valve is used to limit the pressure differential across a full-flow filter. This
type of relief valve is generally called a bypass valve (Fig. 4.13).
There are several types of bypass valves, but they all operate by sens¬
ing the difference in pressure between dirty and clean fluid. A bypass valve
consists basically of a movable piston, housing, and a spring that biases the
piston. Pressure from dirty fluid coming into the filter is sensed at the bot¬
tom of the piston. Pressure from the fluid after it has passed through the filter
element is sensed at the other side of the piston, on which the spring acts.
As the filter element collects dirt, the pressure required to push the dirty fluid
through the element increases. Fluid pressure after it passes through the ele¬
ment remains the same. When the pressure differential across the filter ele¬
ment, as well as across the piston, is large enough to overcome the force of
the spring, the piston will move up and offer the fluid a path around the ele¬
ment.
A bypass valve is a fail-safe device. In an inlet filter, a bypass limits
the maximum pressure differential across the filter if it is not cleaned. This
protects the pump. If a pressure or return line filter is not cleaned, a bypass
Filter Types 197

Figure 4.9 Tee-type high-pressure hydraulic filter with stainless steel element. (Cour¬
tesy of Norman Equipment Co., Chicago, Illinois.)

will limit the maximum pressure differential so that dirt is not pushed through
the element or the element is not collapsed. In this way the bypass protects
the filter.

Filter Condition Indicator (see Fig. 4.14)

The bypass valve protects the filter by offering the fluid an alternative path
when the pressure difference across the filter element exceeds a safe value.
When the bypass valve is open, the filter is in effect out of the circuit and
does not effect any dirt control. This condition is not tolerable for any length
198 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

Figure 4.10 In-line high-pressure hydraulic filter. (Courtesy of Norman Equipment

Co., Chicago, Illinois.)

of time since system degradation will take place. The remedy is to clean, re¬
place, and maintain the filter whenever such a condition is encountered. To
help in this regard, a filter can be equipped with a condition indicator. This
item indicates when the element is clean, needs cleaning, or is in the bypass
condition. Indicators are available which are dependent on the motion of the
bypass piston, as are units that sense the pressure differential across the filter
element.
If the filter element is not changed when the indicator shows that it is

Figure 4.11 Proportional and full-flow filtration arrangements.

 Filter Types 199

Pressure line filtration with non-bypass filter.

Locating pressure filter before relief valve gives

constant flow through filter. Basic arrangement of return line filtration.

Figure 4.12 Hydraulic system filtration arrangements. (Courtesy of Sperry Vick¬

ers, Troy, Michigan.)
200 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE IN FILTER

Figure 4.13 Life of a filter element. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co., Waterloo,
Iowa.)

BYPASS CARTRIDGE
CONTROL SPRING FILTER
REAR CAP
ELEMENT
PISTON ASSEMBLY

MECHANICAL
INDICATOR

INDICATOR
ARM

OUTLET INLET FILTER CLEAN-OUT

FLOW FLOW HOUSING COVER

Figure 4.14 Hydraulic filter with mechanical condition indicator. (Courtesy of Parker
Hannifin Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)
Installation, Maintenance, and Troubleshooting 201

dirty, the effectiveness of the filter is lost because the large pressure differen¬
tial needed to force fluid through the filter may collapse the element. If a by¬
pass valve is used, it will open and again, the filter will not function. The result
in the hydraulic system is excessive wear, as shown in Fig. 4.15.

4.5 INSTALLATION, MAINTENANCE, AND TROUBLESHOOTING

OF HYDRAULIC FILTERS
Filter location depends on the intended function of the filter. A filter used
to protect hydraulic components such as pumps, servo valves, and hydraulic
motors should be located close to the components being protected. Typically,
a suction filter provides pump protection and a pressure filter protects other
sensitive components. A return line filter can be located anywhere downstream
of the application, and is usually the last restrictive device the fluid sees before
entering the reservoir. One primary use of a return line filter is to limit the
contamination level in a hydraulic reservoir to a specified value.

4.5.1 Installation
Suction Filters
Several precautions should be taken when using a suction filter. A low spring
rate should be selected for the bypass control spring (2 or 3 psi) to minimize
the maximum pressure drop across the filter. When sizing a suction filter,

Figure 4.15 Abnormal wear created by sludge. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co.,
Waterloo, Iowa.)
202 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

the clean flow pressure drop should be approximately one-third that of the by¬
pass spring setting. This allows a relatively long element replacement life.
All external piping should be kept to a minimum to prevent any added
pressure loss. The pipe leading to the filter inlet should not be smaller than
the inlet port size; do not reduce the inlet port with a reducer bushing.

Return Line Filters

A return line filter is positioned in the circuit just before the reservoir. Being
one of the last restrictive devices in a system, pressures are usually below 300
psi. Caution should be taken when sizing a return line filter. Due to dis¬
charging components (cylinders, actuators, etc.) in a system, flow rates
through a return line filter can vary by 500%. When sizing a return line fil¬
ter, consider the maximum flow through the filter and size for a clean flow
pressure drop of approximately one-third of the bypass spring rate. This al¬
lows a relatively long element replacement life.

Filter Element Materials

Paper. Paper media consist of cellulose fibers treated with a resin
coating. This medium is not recommended for water-base fluids, as the fibers
may swell and shorten element life. All disposable media elements are affected
by heat, time, and humidity. To avoid fatigue failures, temperature should
not exceed 250°F and shelf time should not exceed 2 years.
Synthetic. Synthetic media consist of spun-bonded polyester material.
This medium is recommended for petroleum-base hydraulic fluids where
temperatures do not exceed 300°F, or for high-water-base fluids where
temperatures do not exceed 120°F. It has a shelf life of 2 years.
Composite. Composite media are multilayered, consisting of wire
mesh backing, special paper layers, and a bonded fiberglass inner layer. This
medium is recommended for all common hydraulic fluids where temperatures
do not exceed 400°F.
Wire Mesh. Wire mesh media are composed of stainless steel or Monel
metal mesh suitable for application in all common fluids up to a temperature
of 400°F. This medium is cleanable and usually has an absolute micrometer
rating.

4.5.2 Maintenance
A hydraulic system may be equipped with the best filters available and they
may be positioned in the system where they do the most good; however, if
the filters are not taken care of and cleaned when dirty, the money spent for
the filters and their installation has been wasted. Thus the whole key to good
filtration is filter maintenance. Following are some suggestions that help to
provide proper filter maintenance.
Installation, Maintenance, and Troubleshooting 203

1. A filter maintenance schedule should be set up and followed dil-

ligently. This service action should be part of the preventive main¬
tenance program for the system.
2. Inspect filter elements that have been removed from the system
for signs of failure and of impending system problems.
3. Any fluid that has leaked out should not be returned to the system.
4. The supply of fresh fluid should be kept tightly covered.
5. Use clean containers, hoses, and funnels when filling the reservoir.
6. Use commonsense precautions to prevent entry of dirt into com¬
ponents that have been temporarily removed from the circuit.
7. All cleanout holes, filler caps, and breather cap filters on the reser¬
voir should be properly fastened.
8. Do not run the system unless all normally provided filtration de¬
vices are in place.
9. Make certain that the fluid used in the system is of a type recom¬
mended by the manufacturers of the system or components.
10. Before changing from one type of fluid to another (e.g., from pe¬
troleum-base oil to a fire-resistant fluid), consult component and
filter manufacturers in selection of the fluid and the filters that
should be used.

Regular maintenance of filter elements is the key to clean fluid and long com¬
ponent life. Filters do not function when elements are clogged with contam¬
inant to the point of bypass. Therefore, it is important to do three things:
1. Check the filter indicator frequently to determine when the element
needs servicing.
2. Make sure that the filter is fitted with the correct replacement ele¬
ment. The correct replacement element should be listed on the filter
nameplate.
3. Periodically, analyze a fluid sample of the system.

Servicing Elements
When replacing or cleaning a filter element, use the following procedure:

1. Shut down the system and relieve all pressure in the filter line.
2. Loosen the screws on the cover. Turn slightly to clear the cover
screws and remove the cover. Allow excess fluid to drain.
3. Remove the element from the assembly.
204 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

a. Disposable type: Replace the element if a disposable paper or

synthetic medium is used.
b. Cleanable: Soak the element in an ultrasonic cleaner for 15
min. If an ultrasonic cleaner is not available, soak in hot soapy
water and ammonia solution for 15 min. Swish around and blow
dry from the outside in.
4. Replace the element and install in the filter housing. Make sure that
the O ring seats properly in the head.
5. Inspect the cover O ring seal and replace it if defective.
6. Replace the cover and tighten the screws until they are snug; do not
overtorque.

4.5.3 Troubleshooting
Occasionally, system problems arise and it is difficult to locate the source of
trouble. To help determine if the problem might be associated with the filter,
the following troubleshooting chart lists problems and solutions to hydrau¬
lic system problems.

Problem Cause Solution

Suction application
Noisy pump 1. Entrained air Tighten and seal all fit-
tings; add oil to reservoir;
check O-ring seal on filter
2. Cavitation Clean clogged inlet line
Replace or clean filter ele¬
ment
Check pump inlet with
vacuum gauge
Always repriming pump 1. Entrained air Check O-ring cover seal on
(aeration) filter
Tighten and seal all fittings
Indicator reads 1. Oil viscosity too high Allow system to run for a
“bypass” (mechanical) short time
Engages switch (electrical) Indicator should return to
normal
2. Bypass spring too Change poppet assembly
weak (soft) and indicator (see instruc¬
tions)
3. Element dirty Clean or replace element
(continued)
Installation, Maintenance, and Troubleshooting 205

Problem Cause Solution

Return, low-pressure
application
Indicator reads “bypass” 1. Element dirty Replace or clean element
2. Oil viscosity too high Allow system to run for a
short time
Indicator should return
Dirty oil 1. Plugged cartridge Replace cartridge
2. Partial bypass — Correct filter size and oil
continuous viscosity
3. Improper micrometer Check particle size rating
rating and switch to proper size
rating
4. Improper changes Correct maintenance pro¬
cedure or add bypass indi¬
cator
5. Faulty (leaking) or Replace filter
ruptured filter
Broken housing 1. Too much pressure Remove downstream re¬
striction or change to cor¬
responding filter of higher
pressure or flow rating
2. Too much mechanical Add shock-absorbing
shock material

A periodic fluid analysis is very important in maintaining an acceptable

contamination level in a hydraulic system. The fluid analysis is also a good
tool for monitoring possible changes or problems in a hydraulic system. To
take a sample, follow this procedure:

1. Select a fitting on the pressure side of the system.

2. Clean the area with a solvent.
3. Allow the system to reach operating temperature, crack the fitting,
and allow the fluid to flush the sampling point.
4. Fill a clean bottle with the fluid (at least 16 oz).

Using an automatic particle counter, a laboratory analysis can deter¬

mine the concentration and distribution of contaminant in the sample. Other
fluid characteristics can also be measured, such as:
206 Contaminants in a Hydraulic System

1. Specific gravity
2. Viscosity
3. Water content
4. Gravimetric
5. Neutralization number
6. Visual, microscopic inspection
7. Particle shape

Any unusual characteristics detected are listed in the laboratory report

comparing the particle count and fluid analysis with contamination stand¬
ards and fluid specifications. This method will inform the maintenance staff
of the fluid condition as well as the hydraulic system status, and of the pos¬
sibility that component degradation may be occurring.
 5
Compressed Air Filtration, Lubrication,
and Moisture Control

5.1 CONTAMINANTS IN THE AIR SYSTEM

Dirt contaminates a pneumatic system. It is very similar to industrial smoke¬
stacks spewing soot. Dirt is only one form of contamination in a pneumatic
system. To determine what other elements harm a pneumatic system and how
they are dealt with, let us follow the step-by-step passage of air through a
pneumatic system. A logical place to start our journey is with the industrial
air made available to the compressor (Fig. 5.1).
In an industrial environment, air carries several undesirable elements
as far as a pneumatic system is concerned. Two of these are dust and watery
vapor. Depending on the type of system and the degree of sophistication, dust
and water vapor must be removed either partially or totally if a degree of sys¬
tem dependability is to be realized. A compressor is sometimes considered
the heart of a pneumatic system. If the compressor fails, the system cannot
function.
Air is often described as a mixture of gases made up of 21% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% other ingredients. Air is colorless, odorless, and
tasteless. Identifying air by its physical properties is slightly misleading because
in a pneumatic system air is not dealt with in this pure form. Besides being
all the things described above, air is also a carrier.
Pneumatic system pollution is measured using the micrometer scale. One
micrometer is equal to one millionth of a meter or 39 millionths of an inch.
A single micrometer is invisible to the naked eye and is so small that even
to imagine it is extremely difficult. To bring the size more down to earth, two
everyday objects measured using the micrometer scale have the following val-

207
208 Compressed Air

ues (see Fig. 5.2): An ordinary grain of table salt measures 100 /an, and the
average diameter of human hair measures 70 fim. Twenty-five micrometers
is approximately one thousandth of an inch. The lower limit of visibility for
an unaided human eye is 40 /mi. In other words, the average person can see
dirt that measures 40 pm and larger. Some of the harmful dirt particles of
a pneumatic system are below 40 pm in size.
A compressor is protected by an intake filter which is engineered into
the inlet by the compressor manufacturer. It is designed to remove dust par¬
ticles commonly found in an industrial environment. Industrial dust particles
are not necessarily the same type of dust you might find on a piece of fur¬
niture in your living room. Depending on the type of manufacturing being
done, industrial dust can be iron, carbon, grinding wheel particles, silicates,
fiberglass, and abrasive materials of all kinds. This pollution must be pre¬
vented from entering a compressor or it will harm compressor seals as well
as interfere with the operation of downstream system components such as
regulators, directional control valves, flow control valves, and cylinders.
An intake filter is a very important part of a pneumatic system. It is
the first line of defense against industrial air. For this reason, intake filters
should be serviced at regular intervals to achieve optimum dependability.
Being filtered to a large extent by the compressor intake filter, air moves
to the piston chambers. If it is a two-stage compressor, air is compressed,
with a consequent temperature rise in the first stage; passed through an inter¬
cooler, where its temperature is decreased; and then on to the second stage.
In the second stage, the air is compressed more and has another increase in
temperature. It is then pushed into the system.
The air at this point has increased in potential energy because it is com¬
pressed. This is desirable, but the air is now hot and contains water vapor.
It may contain some dirt which was not removed by the intake filter, and it
may carry some oil vapor which was picked up while passing through the com¬
pressor. This is not desirable. Instead of discharging the air from the com¬
pressor outlet directly into an air receiver for storage, the air is often passed
through an aftercooler. As its name implies, an aftercooler cools compressed
air. This is accomplished by passing cooling water or air over the aftercooler
chamber. Besides being the point where air cools, an aftercooler is also the
place where some dirt and oil vapor fall out of suspension, and a good por¬
tion of entrained water vapor condenses.
Moisture can affect the operation of a pneumatic system in several ways:

1. Moisture can wash away lubricant from pneumatic components,

resulting in faulty operation, corrosion, and excessive wear.
2. Moisture that collects in pneumatic cylinders could cause cush¬
ions to become ineffective.
209
Figure 5.1 Air compression and conditioning system.
 o
8

CO
a.
O
cc UJ
a >
UJ O

Types and sizes of contaminants in the air line. (Courtesy of Pall Corp., Glen Cove, New York)
'O o
<
cc T I-
UJ
_I
CO

t LO

cc
LU
< I— o
.< + o
'O -LU

T CO
o
0 CO
LU
3
■Q 4 o
.N

cc
If)
4 CO LU >
> CC
_l a
3
CL
2
3
CO O
LL

-o
O
CO
00
i i UJ <
LU
-CO ID

CO

(J
<
CO _ — ±
o cc
t— cc
CO
3
Q tl
CL
3

UJ
i CD
o
_J
O 3 o
CC CO
UJ
LU CO
X UJ
a_ _J
o O
co <
O O CO

± O CO

-LU
CO
LU
X CC
o
in
o
3
CO

<
Figure 5.2

o
o
in
o
o
o

210
Air Line Filters, Pressure Regulators, Lubricators 211

3. Moisture that condenses at work outlets could cause an operation

or final product to be ruined.
4. Moisture condensing at work outlets is also an annoyance and in¬
convenience to the operator.

As air travels through piping, it picks up pieces of dirt such as rust and pipe
scale (Fig. 5.3). It will also contain any moisture that was not removed in the
aftercooler. Before air reaches a directional valve and actuator downstream,
it must be filtered again. This is the function of an air line filter.

5.2 AIR LINE FILTERS, LUBRICATORS,

AND PRESSURE REGULATORS
5.2.1 Compressed Air Filters
Filtration is the first, and often the only, line of defense against contamina¬
tion in a pneumatic system. Adequate filtration is seldom expensive and will
return the investment many times over in improved component life and re¬
duced downtime.

Contaminants
Compressed air contains all the dust, pollen, and other solid impurities that
were in the free air that entered the compressor inlet —but with one major
difference: At 100 psi, the concentration of contaminants is eight times greater
than it was in free air. In addition, the compressed air can also pick up rust,
scale, and other dirt particles from the steel piping, which carries it to the
point of use. Excess pipe sealant (from careless plumbing) is another con¬
taminant. Other construction debris are bound to cause problems long after
installation is completed (Fig. 5.4).
In many cases, even the compressor contributes metal fragments or fine
solid particles of carbon or Teflon from sliding seals. If there is a desiccant
dryer in the system, desiccant particles may be carried downstream.
Air leaving the compressor is usually not only saturated with water
vapor, but has probably picked up oil vapor from the compressor. As air
moves through the cooler areas of the whole pneumatic system, some of these
vapors condense as liquid particles, which are carried along in the airstream
(Fig. 5.5). For predictable operation and reliable service life, both solid and
liquid particles must be removed by the pneumatic filters.

Filter Operation
A typical industrial air filter should technically be described as a combina¬
tion of a dynamic separator and a mechanical or static filter. An air line filter
consists basically of a housing with inlet and outlet ports, deflector plate, filter
 MOISTURE Removed By:
y i Separators
^ -*> Mechanical Filters
1 Coalescing Filters
Free Water Air Dryers

Coalescing Filters
Air Dryers
i.=1
Aerosol Mist
\ .4 Air Dryers
“INVISIBLE"
I ==*
Vapor

OIL
Separators
Mechanical Filters
Coalescing Filters

Coalescing Filters

*
Aerosol Mist

t- J Adsorbents
“INVISIBLE"
M - -===<
Vapor

PARTICLES
)-— , - Mechanical Filters
( O <2> <7
Coalescing Filters
(by impingement)
Scale

=1 Mechanical Filters
' Tr'.
, 1 A.V'V
Coalescing Filters
£ (by impingement)
Dust (most types)

Mechanical Filters
Coalescing Filters
(by impingement)
Pollens
1= Coalescing Filters
(by impingement)
1=
Bacteria (90%-100%)

Figure 5.3 Compressed air contaminants. (Courtesy of Zurn, Inc., Erie, Pennsyl¬
vania.)

212
Air Line Filters, Pressure Regulators, Lubricators 213

Application Problem

Pneumatic instruments and controls Corrosion of internal parts and deter¬

ioration of seals, resulting in malfunc¬
tion
Outside air lines Freezing, line blockage, rupture
Chemical blanketing Corrosion of containers, piping, and
valves
Pneumatic tools Rust and pitting of internal parts
Sand or grit blasting Clogging of feed lines and spray nozzles
Material handling Wet cakes, sticking, and plugged lines
Spraying —paints and coating Surface blemishes
Air bearings Corrosion

Figure 5.4 Typical problems caused by wet, dirty air. (Courtesy of Pall Corp., Glen
Cove, New York.)

element, baffle plate, filter bowl, and drain (Fig. 5.6). Air entering the inlet
is deflected by the deflector plate. This causes a swirling action which throws
out large pieces of dirt and liquid droplets against the wall of the bowl. Dirt
and liquid fall along the side of the bowl to the area beneath the baffle. When
the swirling air hits the baffle, its direction is again changed. It then passes
through a filter element, where fine pieces of dirt are removed. It then exits
the outlet port.
The area below the filter baffle is known as the quiet zone. This is the

Contaminants

Water Oil

Compressor type Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Dirt

Oil lube reciprocating • • • • •

Oil lube screw • • • •

Oil-free reciprocating • • •

Oil-free screw • • •

Centrifugal • • •

Figure 5.5 Air quality from compressors. (Courtesy of Zurn, Inc., Erie, Pennsyl¬
vania.)
214 Compressed Air

Filtered air out

■Element shroud
Retaining ring.

Element

Polycarbonate bowl

Manual drain cock

Figure 5.6 Air line filter assembly. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corp., Cleveland,
Ohio.)

place where large contaminants and liquid collect. Often, filter bowls are made
of a transparent plastic material so that buildup in the bowl can be observed.
When the collection of contaminant and liquid approaches the baffle, the
drain cock in the bottom of the bowl should be opened. Some air line filters
are equipped with an automatic drain.
After separation of large solid and liquid particles, the compressed air
is directed through a filter element which strains out smaller particles, sub¬
ject to the size limitations of the element’s design. Air flows from the out¬
side to the inside of the element.
Filter elements used in air line filters are divided into depth and edge
Air Line Filters, Pressure Regulators, Lubricators 215

types. Depth-type elements force air to pass through an appreciable material

thickness. Dirt is trapped because of the intertwining path the air must take.
Depth-type elements in pneumatic systems are frequently made of porous
bronze. Edge-type elements offer an airstream with a relatively straight flow
path. Dirt is caught on the surface or edge of the element that faces the air
flow. Edge-type elements in pneumatic systems are often made of resin-
impregnated paper ribbon.
Because of its construction, an air line filter element has many pores
of various sizes. Many of the pores are small. A few pores are relatively large.
Since it has no one consistent hole or pore size, an air line filter element is
given a nominal rating (Fig. 5.7). A nominal rating is an element rating given
by the filter manufacturer. It is designed to indicate the expected average hole
size of the element. For example, a depth element with a nominal rating of
40 /im indicates that on the average, the pores in the element are 40 /*m in size.
Air line filter elements found in industrial pneumatic systems generally
have nominal ratings ranging from 50 to 5 /xm. These ratings usually indi¬
cate the elements average pore size. Since dirt in a pneumatic system comes

Figure 5.7 Porous bronze filter with float-type drain. (Courtesy of Norgren Corp.,
Littleton, Colorado.)
216 Compressed Air

in all sizes, shapes, and materials, no guarantee is made by a nominal rating

as to what size particles will be removed from a compressed airstream.

Drains
There are many manual and automatic drains to remove collected liquids from
filter bowls. Miniature filters, where size is a consideration, use a tire valve
type of drain with an external pushpin to act as an actuator. Larger filters
are designed with metal or plastic drain cocks that are actuated by wing nuts
or knobs. Some manufacturers equip their manual drains with a flexure tube
which opens the drain whenever the tube is pushed away from its normal ver¬
tical position (Fig. 5.8).
The automatic filter drain (Fig. 5.9) is a valuable option when filter loca¬
tion makes servicing difficult or dangerous, or when filters are hidden and may
be inadvertently overlooked. The two basic types of automatic drains are

Figure 5.8 Manual drain on air line filter. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corp.,
Cleveland, Ohio.)

Figure 5.9 Float-type automatic drain for air filter. (Courtesy of Scovill-Schrader
Corp., Akron, Ohio.)
Air Line Filters, Pressure Regulators, Lubricators 217

pulse-operated for intermittent air flow and float-operated for continuous

flow. In the pulse-operated drain, the drain valve is linked mechanically to
a piston or diaphragm which fits across the bowl above the surface of the
sump. When fluid pressure is equal on both sides of the piston, the larger
top area holds the drain valve seated. As flow starts through the filter, the
pressure drops temporarily above the piston; the piston unseats the drain
valve, emptying the sump. Pressure above the piston then reseats the drain
valve. Flow through the filter must be intermittent for the pulse-operated
drain to work.
In float-operated drains, accumulated liquids in the sump raise a float
that either opens the drain mechanically, or pilots a valve that opens the drain.
Bowl pressure forces the liquid out rapidly, the float lowers, and the drain
closes.

Types of Elements
Industrial air filter elements are available in a variety of materials, including
felt, paper, cellulose, metal and plastic screening, metal ribbon, sintered
bronze, sintered plastic, glass fiber, and cloth. Elements are rated according
to the minimum-size particle they will remove from the airstreams. Elements
are also rated for flow through the filter at specific pressure. Some manu¬
facturers classify elements as edge or depth type. Theoretically, an edge-type
element traps particles only on its surface; a depth type picks up additional
contaminants internally, as the air follows a random path through the ele¬
ment. Elements are also listed as cleanable and disposable. Edge-type elements
are easy to clean: depth-type elements are more difficult to clean.
Coalescing describes an act of growing together. Coalescing elements
for oil aerosol removal starts with a random bed of borosilicate microfibers.
To make the fibers self-supporting, they can be bonded with resin, or another,
stiffer fiber can be mixed with the borosilicate. Another construction method
supports the borosilicate fibers mechanically with external layers of strong
material. A sleeve over the outer surface of a coalescing element helps pre¬
vent the airstream from reentraining liquid oil from the wet surface of the
element. Adsorption is described as adhesion of the molecules of a gas, liquid,
or dissolved substance to a surface. Adsorption of oil vapors takes place
in either packed columns of activated carbon (the adsorptive medium) or in
elements that have activated carbon particles mixed with filtering fibers.
Filter Application
Certain general considerations apply to all air line filter units. Most impor¬
tant, units should be sized according to airflow demands, not according to
pipe size. For instance, an oversized filter may not impart enough swirling
action to separate all the moisture droplets. Conversely, an undersized filter
creates too much turbulence in the air being processed. The turbulence pre¬
vents the liquids from settling into the quiet zone. Undersized units may
218 Compressed Air

also add excess pressure loss to the system. Flow capacities for a given port
size also vary among manufacturers because of variations in internal construc¬
tion.
Air drop lines to conditioning units should be attached to the top of
the main header to decrease the amount of liquid that might run down to
equipment. A separate drain should be provided for those liquids that ac¬
cumulate at low points in the mainheader line.
Conditioning units should be installed as close as possible to the point
of use, consistent with accessibility for inspection and possible servicing.
Bends in the air lines should be avoided since they cause additional pressure
%

drop in the system. In addition, momentum forces tend to deposit lubricant

at bends. Necessary turns should have as large a radius as possible.
Filters should be installed upstream from, and as close as possible to,
the devices to be protected. Filters remove only droplets and solid contam¬
inants; water vapor is not affected. Thus vapor can condense between the filter
and the components being served. To minimize this possibility, filters should
be located as close as possible to the point of use. The filter bowl must hang
vertically so that free moisture and oil droplets cling to the inner surface of
the bowl as they work their way down to the quiet zone at the bottom of the
bowl. Filters should be located so that manually drained bowls can be ob¬
served and drained when necessary. Drain lines should be provided for fil¬
ters that incorporate automatic drain devices.
Normally, filters have no moving parts to service or adjust. However,
the filter element should be replaced when the pressure differential across the
filter unit exceeds 10 psi. Although a manual drain requires regular attention,
it is necessary to drain the collected liquids and solids only when their level
approaches the lower baffle.

5.2.2 Lubricators
After compressed air passes through an air line filter, it is clean and relatively
free of entrained water. But for some applications, the air must be conditioned
in still one more way —it must be lubricated. Lubrication of compressed air
may be necessary to provide seal lubrication, prevent sticking of moving parts,
and control wear. Air line lubricators work on the basis of developing a con¬
trolled mist of lubricant in an airstream (see Fig. 5.10).
Air entering the inlet runs into a constriction. This results in a higher
pressure at the inlet to the constriction with respect to the small opening of
the mist chamber. This pressure differential is sensed across the pickup tube,
pushing fluid up the tube and into the mist chamber, where it is mixed with
air. The air then exits the outlet carrying suspended oil particles. The amount
of oil mist that exits from this type of lubricator depends on the adjustment
of the needle valve.
Air Line Filters, Pressure Regulators, Lubricators 219

Figure 5.10 Air line lubricator. (Courtesy of Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc., Indian¬
apolis, Indiana.)

Refer to the manufacturer’s instruction manual as to the method of ad¬

justing oil flow and safety precautions while servicing the unit.
Remember that oil injected into an air stream is eventually blown out
as an exhaust. If too much is blown into a confined space, the oil content
of the air may become greater than allowed by regulations.
A pneumatic system may be equipped with the best filters and lubrica¬
tors available, and they may be positioned in the system where they do the
most good; but if they are not serviced when required, the money spent for
their use has been wasted. Lack of proper lubrication in pneumatic power
components creates excessive maintenance costs, production inefficiency, and
premature failure. Proper lubrication allows components to operate with a
minimum of friction and corrosion, and it minimizes wear on the component
parts. The most economical way to lubricate pneumatic components is with
an air line lubricator. In most cases it is also the most efficient.
220 Compressed Air

The Mist Lubricator, the most commonly used in-line lubricator, is of

the direct-flow type. It permits every drop of oil in the sight dome to go down¬
stream into the air line. All the oil observed in the sight dome flows down¬
stream in aerosol form, the particles ranging in size from 0.01 to 500 pm. This
lubricator can be filled while the air line is under pressure because it contains
a pressurization check valve.
The micro-mist lubricator was developed to fulfill the requirements of
more difficult applications. It is a recirculating-flow-type lubricator. This
means that the oil, once injected into the air, is recirculated into the bowl of
the lubricator, where the larger oil particles fall out of the air. Only the smaller
oil particles that float around in the upper part of the bowl go downstream.
The particles going downstream in this type of lubricator range in size from
0.01 to 2 pm. This lubricator, because of its design, cannot be filled under
pressure unless a remote fill button is incorporated into the lubricator.
Oil mist flowing from the lubricators will remain suspended over vary¬
ing distances. Direct-flow mist lubricators can achieve oil particle suspension
in the line over a distance of 20 ft, utilizing the greater portion of the oil supply
available. By comparison, the recirculating-flow micro-mist lubricator can
keep the majority of the oil suspended in the piping for approximately 100
ft. This can be achieved because of the absence of the larger oil particles in
the output of the micro-mist lubricator. The larger particles in the mist lubri¬
cator tend to “eat up” or “coalesce” the smaller particles as that aerosol mix¬
ture flows downstream. Because of the absence of these larger particles in
the micro-mist lubricator, this “coalescing” or “eating up” affect is not preva¬
lent. Consequently, the oil particles that do come from the lubricator can re¬
main suspended over considerable longer distances of piping.

Lubricator Types
Mist Lubricator. The Mist Lubricator injects oil into the air. The re¬
sulting air-oil mixture is then carried directly downstream. Air passes through
the vortex generator, where the oil drips into the airstream and is atomized.
Then the air-oil mixture flows directly into the secondary port cavity and
downstream. During very low airflows the air passes through the center of the
vortex generator. As the airflow increases, the flexible bypass disk starts to
bend, permitting this increasing airflow to bypass the center of the vortex gen¬
erator. The bypass disk allows the pressure drop to be controlled in the
lubricator as the flow changes, thereby providing linear oil delivery. Mist lu¬
bricators start delivering oil when a minimum flow of 1 scfm is reached. This
permits the lubricator to be used for low-flow as well as high-flow applica¬
tions. It can be filled while under pressure simply by hand-removing the fill
plug. The air in the bowl will automatically exhaust as soon as the O-ring seal
is broken on the fill plug. The lubricator can then be filled with oil and the
Air Line Filters, Pressure Regulators, Lubricators 221

fill plug replaced and hand-tightened. No wrenches or screwdrivers are

needed. When the pressure in the bowl is exhausted, the pressurization check
valve reduces the flow of air to the bowl to a minute induced bleed. It is this
bleed that repressurizes the bowl once the fill plug has been replaced.
Micro-Mist Lubricator. The micro-mist lubricator injects oil into the
airstream and then recirculates the resulting air-oil mixture into the bowl of
the lubricator. It is here that the larger oil particles fall out of the air. Only
the smaller oil particles, ranging in size from 0.01 to 2 /mi, go into the air-
stream.
This represents approximately 3% of the oil seen dripping in the sight
dome. (To get one drop downstream, adjust the lubricator to a drip rate of
33 drops per minute.) All of the oil particles above 2 /mi in size (which repre¬
sents approximately 97% of the oil dripping in the sight dome) fall out of
the air into the bowl. The vortex generator and bypass disk assembly is the
same in both lubricators. Consequently, the micro-mist lubricator will also
deliver oil with a minimum of 1 scfm of airflow. The ability to support large
reverse flow with no oil delivery in reverse-flow conditions is another feature
of the micro-mist lubricator. This ability makes the micro-mist lubricator ideal
for piping between a valve and a cylinder.
Micro-mist lubricators are particularly well suited for the following ap¬
plications: (1) where instant oil delivery and lubrication are required, whether
the air line is wet or dry; (2) in systems where multipoint lubrication is re¬
quired, such as lines that contain several valves and cylinders; (3) where large
oil drops from the air exhaust would contaminate either the environment or
the material being processed (the micro-mist lubricator actually permits less
oil to be injected into the air line to perform the lubrication job); (4) where
the air line includes (after the lubricator) valves, bends, and similar baffling
points that would tend to separate out heavier particles; (5) where ease of drip-
rate adjustment is required; (6) for high-cycle pneumatic applications; (7)
where very low flow rates are necessary; (8) where the oil particles stay in sus¬
pension in the air lines for 100 ft or more; (9) where the oil particles must
stay in suspension for more than 10 min; and (10) where the oil mist becomes
a vaporous part of the air and travels as part of the air until it is baffled out
by bearings, vanes, and turbulence.

5.2.3 Pressure Regulators

The amount of pressure needed in a system depends on the force required
to do a job. Because some applications require less force than others, it fol¬
lows that the required pressure varies accordingly. It is also essential that once
a system pressure has been selected, air be supplied at constant pressure to
each tool or actuator regardless of variations in flow and upstream pressure.
222 Compressed Air

Thus it is important to add to the system a pressure regulator which performs

the following functions:

Supplies air at constant pressure regardless of flow variation or upstream

pressure.
Helps operate the system more economically by minimizing the amount
of pressurized air wasted. This happens when the system operates at
pressures higher than those needed for the job.
Helps promote safety by operating the tool or actuator at a reduced
pressure.
Extends component life because operating at higher-than-recommended
pressures increases the wear rate and reduces equipment life.
Increases operating efficiency.

Type of Regulators
Unbalanced Poppet, Non-Pilot-Operated Type. Figure 5.11 shows an
unbalanced poppet regulator, the simplest pressure regulator. Supply pressure
enters the inlet port and flows around the poppet. However, as shown, the

Figure 5.11 Unbalanced poppet, Uonrelieving air line pressure regulator. (Courtesy
of Watts Regulator Co., Lawrence, Massachusetts.)
Air Line Filters, Pressure Regulators, Lubricators 223

poppet is seated on the orifice, not permitting flow. Turning the adjustment
screw down, compresses the adjustment spring, forcing the diaphragm down¬
ward. The diaphragm pushes the stem down and the poppet moves away from
the orifice. As downstream pressure builds, it acts on the underside of the
diaphragm, balancing the force of the spring, and the poppet throttles the
orifice to restrict flow and produces the desired pressure. As the demand for
downstream flow varies, the regulator compensates by automatically reposi¬
tioning the poppet in relation to the orifice. The bottom spring of the pop¬
pet assures primarily that the regulator will close at no-flow.
Unbalanced Poppet, Non-Pilot-Operated, with Diaphragm Chamber.
The next more complex regulator is shown in Fig. 5.12. It is also an unbal¬
anced poppet non-pilot-operated type. However, it has a diaphragm chamber
which isolates the diaphragm from the main airflow. This reduces the abrasive
effects of the air on the diaphragm.
The diaphragm chamber is connected to the outlet chamber through an
aspirator tube. This tube causes a slightly lower than outlet pressure in the
diaphragm chamber as flow increases through the regulator. This reduces the
pressure droop experienced when the regulator opens.

SPRING BUTTON

DIAPHRAGM
ASSEMBLY
ASPIRATOR

m
Sii
SUPPLY REDUCED
PRESSURE PRESSURE

STEM AND
POPPET
SPRING ASSEMBLY

Figure 5.12 Unbalanced poppet, self-relieving air line pressure regulator. (Courtesy
of Scovill-Schrader Corp., Akron, Ohio.)
224 Compressed Air

Remote-Controlled, Pilot-Operated, Balanced Poppet. With some ap¬

plications, the regulator must be installed where it cannot be easily adjusted.
In such cases, the regulation and pressure-setting mechanisms are separated.
A small air pilot line connects the regulator (in the air line at the point of use)
to the remote setting mechanism, where it is convenient to make the adjust¬
ment (such as a control panel) (Fig. 5.13). The remote setting mechanism is
a small regulator used to produce a control air signal.
Piston-Type Regulators. Although diaphragm-type regulators have
been used to illustrate these basic types of regulators, almost every example
is available as a piston regulator, where a piston replaces the diaphragms.

Air Line Pressure Regulator Application

A regulator should be located for convenient servicing. The pressure setting
should be adjusted to the value required by typical operating conditions. The
no-flow pressure setting differs from the secondary pressure under flow con¬
ditions. A slight decrease in secondary pressure with increasing flow through
the unit is normal.
Regulator flow characteristics are affected by the spring rate used to
cover the desired pressure range. Generally, a standard unit is rated for 250
psig primary supply pressure, and adjustable secondary pressure is rated from
3 to 125 psig. Low-pressure and high-pressure units are also available. If an
application requires 30 psig, the standard unit will probably be satisfactory.
If optimum performance is required, the low-pressure unit can be used, since
its lower rate spring gives better performance characteristics. The standard,
adjustable secondary pressure range is satisfactory for most industrial pneu¬
matic applications.
All secondary pressure requirements are covered by one pilot-controlled
regulator, since the secondary pressure range of a pilot-controlled regulator

CONNECTION FOR PRESSURE PILOT AIR

SETTING REGULATOR CHAMBER

PISTON
POPPET

SUPPLY REDUCED
PRESSURE PRESSURE

Figure 5.13 Remote-controlled, pilot-operated pressure regulator. (Courtesy of

Parker Hannifin Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)
Air Line Filters, Pressure Regulators, Lubricators 225

is determined by the range of its pilot regulator. If the pressure and flow re¬
quirements of a system vary widely, a pilot-controlled regulator with a high-
pressure pilot regulator provides the best performance. If the decrease in pres¬
sure under flow conditions seems excessively high for a particular application,
the supply lines, the regulator unit, or other system components may be under¬
sized for the application. A clogged filter element can also cause an excessive
decrease in pressure under flow conditions.
To lower a setting, the regulator should be reset from a pressure below
the final secondary pressure desired. For example, to lower the secondary
pressure from 80 psig to 60 psig, decrease the secondary pressure to 55 psig
or less, then adjust it upward to 60 psig.
In a nonventing regulator some secondary air must be exhausted to
lower the setting. Many regulators include a constant bleed of secondary air
to obtain good pressure cracking characteristics. A small fixed bleed in the
secondary line provides the same effect. This modification is especially im¬
portant in no-flow conditions, and permits the regulator to provide immediate
response.
Pilot-controlled regulators are applied in the same way as standard
spring-controlled regulators. The distance between the pilot-controlled reg¬
ulators and its pilot regulator is not critical. Regulators do not require routine
maintenance in normal service when properly protected by filters. The second¬
ary pressure setting should be checked, however, whenever system require¬
ments change. The combination of an air line filter, pressure regulator, and
lubricator is commonly called an F-R-L or trio unit. A typical such unit is
shown on Fig. 5.14.

5.2.4 Choosing an F-R-L of Adequate Size

A rule-of-thumb sizing method can be used for applications where only one
cylinder is being operated. The trio unit may be selected with the same pipe
size as the cylinder. Where several cylinders are drawing air from the F-R-L
at the same time, the unit should be at least one pipe size larger than the port
of the largest cylinder. An alternative sizing method, for multiple cylinders
operating simultaneously, is to add piston areas of all cylinders; then refer
to a cylinder catalog to find the port size of one large cylinder having about
the same piston area as the combined area of the smaller cylinders, and use
this for the trio size.
On existing installations where cylinder speed is too slow, the F-R-L
should be checked for excessive pressure drop. First, replace the element in
the filter. If this does not improve performance, check catalog specifications
for the F-R-L to see if it is overloaded. Loss through a F-R-L should be less
than 10 psi with the cylinder traveling under full load. If the cylinder speed
226 Compressed Air

Figure 5.14 Air line filter, pressure regulator and lubricator. (Courtesy of Parker
Hannifin Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)

is still too slow after checking the F-R-L, see if the piping is large enough to
carry the airflow. Increasing pipe diameter, especially on long runs, will quite
often increase the speed of an air cylinder to a worthwhile degree.
Safety: Metal Bowls
Normally, clear plastic bowls perform with no difficulty, and they are highly
desirable from the standpoint of visibility of condensate level or oil level (see
Fig. 5.15). Metal bowls are available for most brands of trio units. They are
intended to provide a greater measure of safety when one of these unusual
operating or environmental conditions is encountered:
1. High temperatures’. If internal or external temperature will exceed
about 150°F, most plastic bowls lose their mechanical strength and
should be replaced with metal bowls.
2. Solvents: If solvents are present either in the airstream or in the
atmosphere surrounding the trio, metal bowls should be used. The
composition of plastic bowls varies some between manufacturers,
and the literature should be checked to determine if a given solvent
is harmful to the particular plastic bowl in use. Harmful conditions
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227
228 Compressed Air

might include the use of a lubricator as a chemical injector in a gas

line, a fire-resistant liquid mist in the airstream, or an antifreeze
chemical in the lubricator to prevent moisture freeze-up in the lines.
3. High pressure: Plastic bowls usually carry a lower pressure rating
than metal bowls, and this is primarily because of the possibility
of accidental exposure to solvents or high temperature. Under the
usual atmospheric temperature conditions, most plastic bowls are
as safe as metal bowls.

The pressure gauging port on the side of a pressure regulator is usually 1/8-
or 1/4-in. National Pipe Thread (NPT) and is connected into the regulator
secondary. This is a convenient place to make another air takeoff for a small
quantity of air. On some brands the gauge port has a full 1/4-in. opening
into the airstream and can be used for full capacity of a 1/4-in. line. On other
brands, while the gauge connection may be 1/4-in. NPT, the actual passage
inside the port may be only 1/16-in. in diameter. A visual inspection will deter¬
mine its size.

5.3 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE OF F-R-L UNITS

What Oil to Use
Air line lubricators are designed to work on petroleum oil of low viscosity.
The precise grade, viscosity, or brand is not extremely critical. For general
use, a nondetergent motor oil of not greater than SAE 10W weight is accept¬
able. Avoid the use of oils with additives because of the possible effect of
these additives on components that may be downstream (see Fig. 5,16).
How Much Lubrication
While oil feed rate is not extremely critical, an effort should be made to get
near the optimum amount. Too much oil can be detrimental. Experience has
shown that a feed rate of 1 drop of oil to about every 20 standard cubic feet
of air (free air) used is about right for most applications.

Excessive Oil Feed

Oil feed is excessive if a surplus drips out the exhausts of directional control
valves. Reduce the lubricator feed rate and check again in a few days after
the system has stabilized.

Cleaning Plastic Bowls

Every once in a while the plastic filter bowl should be removed and cleaned.
Use only a damp cloth, with a little soap if necessary. Do not use lacquer thin¬
ner, gasoline, or other solvents because of their possible harmful effect on
the plastic. A bowl weakened by solvent may blow later when under pressure.
Routine Maintenance of F-R-L Units 229

A good lubricant must be compatible with the materials

used in the system for seals and valve poppets. In general
this requires a light bodied mineral or petroleum base oil
with oxidation inhibitors, an aniline point between 82°C
(180°F) and 104°C (220°F) and an SAE No. 10 or lighter
viscosity. A partial list of such compatible lubricants is
shown below.

MAKER BRAND NAME

[Link] Industrial Oil #15
[Link] #32
Pacemaker #46
[Link] 46
Paramount 46
Security 46
[Link] (light)
Vectra (light)
Shell .Tellus#11
Texaco .Rando 32
[Link] RX 150
Unax AW 150
Turbine Oil XD 150

Figure 5.16 Compatible lubricants. (Courtesy of Scovill-Schrader Corp., Akron,

Ohio.)

While cleaning the bowl, inspect and clean the filtering element. Replace it
if necessary.

5.3.1 Troubleshooting

Air Leak at Regulator

A continuous air leak from the small vent hole in the regulator bonnet indi¬
cates a leaky main poppet or diaphragm. In either case repair parts should
be ordered at once and the regulator scheduled for repair. Overhaul kits with
diaphragm and seals are available for most standard regulators.
Important! Replace diaphragm or seals as soon as possible after leak
is discovered. A complete failure of the diaphragm might permit full inlet
pressure downstream. Raising the pressure on some solenoid valves may cause
them to shift by themselves, creating a safety hazard to personnel.

Pressure Regulator Problems

If adjusting the T handle fails to reduce the pressure downstream, check these
possible causes:
230 Compressed Air

1. The regulator may be connected backward, with inlet pressure con¬

nected to the regulator outlet. It positively will not work if con¬
nected in reverse. »

2. The regulator may be connected improperly. A gauge port may have

been accidentally used as one of the main ports. This is not a full-
flow port on some regulators.
3. There may be broken parts inside the regulator. If the diaphragm
is cracked or broken, a high-velocity air leak at the vent hole will
pinpoint this trouble.
4. If the regulated pressure is too low and cannot be raised by screw¬
ing the T handle all the way down, the range must be changed by re¬
placing the main spring with a heavier one.

Filter Problems
Very few problems are encountered with air line filters provided that the ele¬
ment is cleaned or replaced regularly. Here are a few suggestions for best fil¬
tering action:

1. Make sure that the filter is correctly plumbed, with incoming air
entering at the inlet. It will filter in the reverse direction, but the cen¬
trifugal throw-out baffles will be useless, and large particles of con¬
tamination will collect on the inside of the element and cause severe
air restriction, making the element difficult to clean.
2. If the filter manufacturer offers a choice, install a fine filtering ele¬
ment, a 5 ixm rating being preferred. With present-day microfin¬
ishes on cylinder barrels, a finer degree of filtration becomes in¬
creasingly desirable.
3. Service the filter regularly, cleaning or replacing the element. If al¬
lowed to become overly contaminated, the pressure drop through
the unit may increase to the extent that speed in the air circuit will
be significantly reduced.
4. Drain the condensate before it rises above the baffle. If allowed to
rise above the baffle, air turbulence will pick up condensed water
and carry it downstream. If regular draining is a problem, install
an automatic drain in the petcock line, or replace the inner assem¬
bly with a type that has automatic drain feature.

5.4 MAINTENANCE OF COMPRESSED AIR FILTERS

A filter cannot perform its intended function when liquids carry over into
the outlet air because the sump has risen too high, or when a clogged filter
causes excessive pressure drop, interfering with the operation of pneumatic
Maintenance of Compressed Air Filters 231

equipment. A filter maintenance program should be aimed at avoiding these

two situations.
Manufacturers choose transparent polycarbonate for the bowl material
so that sump conditions can be easily and readily inspected while the filter
is on line and operating. The sight gauge on a metal bowl performs the same
function. Visual inspection determines when a manual drain should be actu¬
ated or whether an automatic drain requires servicing.
A filter maintenance program should include physical inspection of the
element. A clogged element may be subjected to pressure differential forces
which exceed the element’s structural limitations, causing the element to dis¬
tort, collapse, or even break apart. Contaminants then bypass the element;
in some cases, broken element pieces migrate downstream. An element that
collapses, but maintains its seal, can cause a severe pressure loss in the down¬
stream system.
The usual signal for indicating a dirty element is pressure drop across
the element. A variety of accessories are available to indicate the degree of
pressure drop.

A pressure gauge upstream with a second gauge connected downstream

shows pressures on either side of the element.
A differential pressure gauge connected across the filter eliminates the
arithmetic required by two gauges. The gauge displays the pressure dif¬
ference between the inlet and the outlet air pressure.
A pneumatic maintenance alarm, adjustable for pressure drop, is con¬
nected across the filter and actually sounds a whistle when the element
is clogged. The same pneumatic signal can also be used to shift a valve,
operate a buzzer, or turn on a light.
A pop-up indicator in a transparent housing is an integral part of one
manufacturer’s filter body.
A colored ball indicator shows its green zone at zero pressure differen¬
tial. As differential pressure increases, the ball rotates and starts to show
its red zone. At 15-psi pressure drop, the visual signal is all red.

It is impossible to predict accurately the service life of an air filter element

because of varying conditions of the incoming air and diverse operating cycles.
However, most manufacturers mention weeks or even months of operation
before cleaning or replacement should be necessary. Even if more frequent
service should be required, the user still gets the degree of filtration speci¬
fied, and the equipment is protected.
Cleanable elements are blown clean with compressed air or washed in
water or solvent according to the manufacturer’s directions. Good safety prac¬
tice calls for the user to replace the dirty element with a spare, then clean the
232 Compressed Air

dirty element elsewhere, preferably in an enclosed area designed for that pur¬
pose.
Most filter designs make it possible to remove and replace a filter ele¬
ment without tools. Be sure to check element orientation and end cap seating
before reassembling. While removed, the bowl can be cleaned for better visi¬
bility.
Oil-absorbing elements act as a wick when wet, and feed oil back into
the air stream. They should be changed before this condition occurs. Oil-ab¬
sorbing elements function properly while wet, and need to be changed only
when solid particle accumulation generates an excessive pressure drop.
With few, if any, moving parts, no adjustments, and moderately priced
replacement elements, a regular maintenance program on a properly specified
and installed industrial air line filter assures that the filter will protect down¬
stream pneumatic components satisfactorily over years of service life.

5.5 AFTERCOOLERS AND AIR DRIERS

5.5.1 Aftercoolers
As its name implies, an aftercooler cools compressed air after compression
has been completed. This is accomplished by passing cooling water or air over
the aftercooler chamber. Besides being the point where air cools, an after¬
cooler is also the place where some dirt and oil vapor fall out of suspension,
and a good portion of entrained water vapor coalesces out. The aftercooler
must have a moisture separator, preferably having an automatic drain.
We know that when a gas cools, its specific volume decreases. This
change usually results in a change (decrease) in the pressure of the gas. Also,
when air cools, its ability to carry water vapor decreases. In an aftercooler,
compressed air and the water vapor it carries are cooled and its water con¬
tent is made to condense into “rain.” As air passes to the air receiver, it has
much less potential energy than when it entered; it is cooler, cleaner, and holds
less water. The air leaving the compressor is typically very humid. This high
humidity requires an aftercooler to remove some of the water vapor.
In a typical water-type aftercooler, the direction of water flow is oppo¬
site that of the airflow. A good aftercooler will cool the air flowing through
it to within 15°F of the cooling water temperature. It will also condense up
to 90% of the water vapor originally contained in the air as it enters the
receiver tank.
Water removal is as vital as heat removal; 1000 ft3 (28.3 m3) of air after
compression can release as much as 1.4 quarts (1.3 liters) of water. Thus a
modest-sized 100-scfm (472-dm3/s) system could produce over 50 gal of con-
Aftercoolers and Air Driers 233

densed water in a single 24-hr day. If demands of a system require drier air,
the compressed air can then be put through the following processes:
1. Overcompression
2. Refrigeration'f "

3. Absorption
4. Adsorption
5. Combination of the methods above

Overcompression
In the overcompression process, the air is compressed so that the partial
pressure of the water vapor exceeds the saturation pressure. Then the air is
allowed to expand, thereby becoming drier. This is the simplest method, but
the power consumption is high. It is usually used for very small systems and
therefore is not as common in industry as are the other methods.

Refrigeration
As was mentioned before, when the temperature of air is lowered, its ability
to hold gaseous water is reduced. This is what takes place in an aftercooler.
However, the typical minimum air temperature attainable in an aftercooler
is limited by the temperature of the cooling water or air. If extremely dry air
is needed, a refrigerant-type cooler is employed. In these devices, hot incoming
air is allowed to exchange heat with the cold outgoing air in a heat exchanger.
The lowest temperature to which the air is cooled is 32.4°F (0.6°C), to pre¬
vent frost from forming. This type of air-drying equipment has relatively low
initial and operating costs.

Absorption
Water vapor in compressed air can be removed from compressed air by meth¬
ods such as absorption. There are typically two basic absorption methods.
In the first, water vapor is absorbed in a solid block of chemicals without
liquefying the solid. The chemicals used in the solid insoluble type are typically
dehydrated chalk and magnesium perchlorate. Another type uses deliques¬
cent drying agents such as lithium chloride and calcium chloride, which react
chemically with water vapor and liquefy as the absorption proceeds. These
agents must be replenished periodically.
Some problems tend to exist with the deliquescent drying process be¬
cause most of these drying agents are highly corrosive. Also, the desiccant
pellets can soften and bake at temperatures exceeding 90°F (32°C). This may
cause an increased pressure drop. In addition, a fine corrosive mist may be
carried downstream with the air and corrode system components. However,
234 Compressed Air

this type of air dryer has the lowest initial and operating cost of the more com¬
mon air dryers. Maintenance is simple, requiring periodic replacement of the
deliquescent drying agent.
Adsorption
Adsorption (desiccant) drying is another industrial method for drying air. Ad¬
sorption chemicals hold water vapor in small pores in the desiccant chemicals.
Processes of this sort typically seek to make use of chemicals such as silica
gel (Si02) or activated alumina (A1203). This type of air drying is the most
costly of the drying methods discussed here. This is because of moderate to
high initial and high operating costs. However, maintenance costs may be
lower than the absorption type, because there are no moving parts. Also, the
replacement of the desiccant is eliminated.

5.5.2 Air Driers

When there is wet air in compressed air lines, money can be lost because
of production losses from damage to machinery, product spoilage, air lost
through corroded and worn components, and instrument and tool repair and
replacement costs. If you total the cost of replacement parts, labor, standby
inventory, and downtime, the figure can be staggering. Eliminating even one
of the above by drying the compressed air can offset the cost of installing
and operating equipment to do the job.

Types of Dryers
In the broadest terms, there are three basic types of air dryers: deliquescent,
regenerative desiccant, and refrigeration. Deliquescent dryers contain a chem¬
ical desiccant that reacts with the moisture in the air and absorbs it, regard¬
less of whether it is already condensed or is still water vapor. The chemical
is consumed in the drying (water-removing) process, and must be replenished
periodically. The drain solution from these dryers contains both condensed
water and some of the chemical. The dryer must be drained daily. Deliques¬
cent dryers reduce the dew point of the air 15 to 25 °F below the inlet air
temperature, so if the incoming air has a temperature of 90°F, it will leave
a deliquescent dryer at a dew point of about 65°F. Depending on operating
conditions, some deliquescent dryers can produce dew points as low as 40°F.
Regenerative desiccant dryers remove water from air by adsorbing it
on the surface of a solid desiccant, usually silica gel, activated alumina, or
molecular sieve. The desiccant does not react chemically with the water, so
it need not be replenished, but it must be dried, or regenerated, periodically
(see Figs. 5.17 and 5.18).
Heatless regenerative dryers use two identical chambers filled with desic¬
cant. As air moves up through one chamber and is dried, a portion of the
Aftercoolers and Air Driers 235

WET AIR INLET

Chamber Chamber
© ©
Drying Regenerating

DRY AIR OUTLET

Figure 5.17 Regenerative air dryer. (Courtesy of Pall Corp., Glen Cove, New York.)
236 Compressed Air

(a)

Figure 5.18 Types of air dryers, (a) Dessicant-type dryer, (b) Tube-to-tube refriger¬
ator dryer, (c) Water chiller refrigerator dryer, (d) Direct expansion refrigerator dryer.
(Courtesy of Zurn, Inc., Erie, Pennsylvania.)

dry, discharged air is diverted through the second chamber, reactivating the
desiccant. The moisture-laden purge air is discharged to atmosphere. A short
time later, air flow through the chambers is reversed.
Heated regenerative dryers use two identical chambers. In this type,
however, air flows through one chamber until the desiccant has adsorbed all
the moisture it can hold, at which time airflow is diverted to the second cham¬
ber. Heated outside air or an external source of heat (steam or electric) then
dries the desiccant in the first chamber. Because desiccants have lower ad¬
sorption capacity at higher temperatures, the desiccant bed must be cooled
from the temperature it reached during regeneration. The regeneration cycle
in these dryers usually lasts several hours, divided between heating (75%)
and cooling (25%) time.
Refrigeration dryers condense moisture from compressed air by cool¬
ing the air in heat exchangers chilled by refrigerants such as Freon gas. These
Aftercoolers and Air Driers 237

WET AIR IN — / /'////

PRECOOLER
///t
REHEATER Id
DRY AIR OUT

THERMAL MASS
EXCHANGER

r
DRAIN

REFRIGERATION
UNIT

LIQUID REFRIGERANT

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 5.18 (continued)

238 Compressed Air

dryers will produce dew points of 33 to 50°F at system operating pressure.

Many refrigeration dryers reheat the compressed air after it has been dried,
either with a heating element or by passing the cooled air back through the
heat exchangers in contact with the hot incoming air. Reheating prevents con¬
densation on air lines downstream from the dryer, and also helps cool incom¬
ing air. Refrigeration dryers must not be used where the ambient temperature
is less than 35°F because lower temperatures will freeze the condensate, block¬
ing air passages, and possibly damaging the evaporator.
Refrigeration dryers can be further classified into three basic types.
Tube-to-tube refrigeration dryers operate by cooling a mass of aluminum
*

granules or bronze ribbon that in turn cools the compressed air. These dryers
can produce dew points of 35 to 50°F. Water-chiller refrigeration dryers use
a mass of water for cooling. An extra heat exchanger is necessary to main¬
tain chilled water flow through the condenser, as in a water pump. The dew
point is 40 to 50°F. Direct expansion refrigeration dryers use a Freon-to-air
cooling process and achieve a dew point of 35 °F under maximum operating
conditions. No recovery period is necessary.
The tube-to-tube refrigeration dryer is a cycling dryer. A thermometer
in the mass senses its temperature. As the temperature rises, a switch turns
on the refrigeration unit; when the temperature drops to a cutoff point, re¬
frigeration stops. Dryers of this type provide a dew point that varies within
a few degrees; check with the manufacturer for further information. Water-
chiller and direct expansion refrigeration dryers run continuously. This con¬
tinuous operation may add slightly to power requirements, and may result
in freezing during light-load conditions if adequate controls for bypassing hot
gas and/or reducing compressor capacity are not included. Figure 5.19 pre¬
sents a chart comparing the various types of compressed air dryers.
How Dry Must the Air Be? The most important criterion in choos¬
ing an air dryer is the dew point, the temperature to which air can be cooled
before water begins to condense from it. The required dew point of the air
system determines how dry the air must be, and, to a great extent, which
type of dryer you choose. Keep the following points in mind.

1. Dew point varies with pressure. For example, an atmospheric dew

point of - 12°F is equivalent to a pressure dew point of 35°F at
100 psig. Be sure that you know whether a manufacturer is speci¬
fying the dew point the dryer can attain at atmospheric pressure
or at a typical system pressure such as 100 psig. You can then de¬
termine what the minimum dew point will be at the system’s oper¬
ating pressure.
2. Required dew point varies with the application. If you are con¬
cerned primarily with preventing condensation in compressed air
Aftercoolers and Air Driers 239

Pressure Operational cost"

dew point per 1,000,000 ft3
Initial (100 psig) (including depre¬ Yearly costs
cost achieved ciation) at maximum per 100-hp
1000-scfm w/100°F flow: 100°F, compressor
Type of dryer unit inlet air (°F) 100 psig inlet capacity*

Refrigeration $6000 40 $3.91 $185

Twin-tower
desiccant
Heated 8000 0 6.64c 315
Heatless 7000 -70 23.00° 1091
Deliquescent
desiccant
Salt or urea 3000 80-85 20.00d 949

“Energy costs based on $0.035/kWh.

fcOperating 80% of time, 8 hr/day, 260 days/year
includes cost of regenerating heat or air plus maintenance of prefilters/after-filters.
includes cost of replacement desiccant, freight, handling, storage, downtime, and maintenance
of prefilters/afterfilters.

Figure 5.19 Dryer comparison chart. (Courtesy of Zurn, Inc., Erie, Pennsylvania.)

lines, the lowest ambient temperature to which the air lines will be
subjected will be the controlling factor (there may be fluctuations
of ±35°F or more from summer to winter). However, for some
applications, dew-point requirements will be more severe, possibly
as low as -40°F at atmospheric pressure. Do not inject too great
a safety factor by starting a dew-point level that is not really needed.
A safety margin of 20°F is about the maximum recommended.
3. You may require extremely low dew points at only a few isolated
points. Consider using individual dryers at each point of use to at¬
tain these low dew points, in tandem with a less expensive dryer that
will dry the air to less stringent requirements for use in the rest of
the air system.

What Flow Capacity Is Needed? An air dryer must not only be able
to dry the compressed air to the required dew point, it must also be able
to handle the airflow required without causing excessive pressure drop. The
flow capacity of a dryer depends on the operating pressure, inlet air tempera¬
ture, ambient air or cooling water temperature, and required dew point. When
any of these conditions change, the flow capacity of the dryer also changes.
240 Compressed Air

Most manufacturers can supply performance curves that show the relation¬
ship of their dryers’ flow capacities to these four factors. They merit careful
consideration.

Installation and Maintenance of Driers

Where you install an air dryer can affect how well it performs. The amount
of maintenance a dryer requires can add to its total yearly cost in terms of
both labor and materials. If all the compressed air will be used inside a build¬
ing where temperature is maintained at a stable level, the required dew point
can be fixed within a range of a few degrees. If, however, some or all of the
compressed air is subjected to outdoor temperature variations, the required
dew point can change from day to day, or even from hour to hour. There
is an upper limit to ambient air temperature for refrigeration air dryers of
about 100 to 110°F. Above this level, there is no efficient heat sink, and the
dryer will not operate properly. Water-cooled condensers can tolerate higher
ambients. (Caution: Refrigerant air dryers should not be exposed to ambient
temperatures much below 40 to 55°F without the addition of low-ambient-
temperature controls, available from some manufacturers.)
When using deliquescent dryers, if the dryer is used in a central system,
add bypass piping around the dryer to maintain the air supply while adding
desiccant to the dryer. Also make certain there is no set of conditions (such
as a valve that can be opened) that will reduce system pressure and cause high
airflow velocity through the dryer, possibly carrying the chemical into the air
lines (Fig. 5.20).
Refrigeration and deliquescent dryers should be drained regularly, de¬
pending on the amount of moisture accumulation. Most refrigeration dryers
have automatic drains. These are available as options on deliquescent dryers.
Some refrigeration dryers require a prefilter to remove oil and dirt that can
coat the inside of the dryer, lowering heat transfer. With regenerative desic¬
cant dryers, oil from the compressor can coat the desiccant, rendering it use¬
less; install equipment designed for oil removal ahead of the dryer.

Troubleshooting the Compressed Air Dryer

Compressed-air-dryer problems generally fall into one of four types:

1. Water carry-over
2. Oil carry-over
3. Excessive desiccant usage
4. Excessive pressure drop

Often, the trouble encountered is the result of more than one of the prob¬
lems. Thus the entire list should be considered.
Aftercoolers and Air Driers 241

BYPASS VALVE

Figure 5.20 Dryer installation.

Water Carry-Over into the Downstream Air Line.

Dryer undersize for the application: Perhaps the original estimate of

airflow in the circuit was in error, or perhaps additional equipment has
been added since the dryer was installed resulting in an undersized unit.
The existing dryer need not be discarded. Drying capacity can be in¬
creased by adding a second dryer, of either the same or different size,
in parallel with the first.
High air temperature: The inlet air may be too warm for proper dry¬
ing action. This may occur only at certain times of the day, so a 24-hr
check should be kept by recording temperature every hour, or perhaps
oftener. First, feel the inlet pipe. If it is above body temperature by even
the slightest amount, this is a fairly certain indication of potential trou¬
ble, such as excessive desiccant use and water carry-over.
Radiant heat: There may be radiant heat soures such as hot air ducts,
steam or hot water pipes, ovens, cupola, or furnaces near the upstream
piping or near the dryer shell. Radiant heat picked up by the airstream
causes caking of the desiccant near the bottom of the bed, even though
242 Compressed Air

the top of the bed looks normal. Radiant heat picked up by the shell
may cause the desiccant to pull away from the sides of the vessel.

Oil Carry-Over into the Downstream Air Line.

Oil source: In nearly every case, unwanted oil in the air line comes
from the air compressor. Desiccant dryers will usually precipitate only
a very small amount of oil —that which will emulsify with the water that
is removed. Any excess above this amount will collect on the surface
of the pellets and can easily be observed by inspection of the bed through
the access cover.
A compressor that is badly in need of an overhaul (pumping oil)
will not provide satisfactory results with an air dryer. If the compressor
uses the splash system of lubrication, and the oil carry-over is excessive,
the remedy is overhaul or replacement of the compressor. Oil extract¬
ing filters installed ahead of the dryer may help to reduce the severity
of the problem. Rotary compressors that inject oil as a lubricant into
the compressor inlet are generally not satisfactory for use with air dryers.
Oil-less rotary compressors give very satisfactory results.
Excessive desiccant consumption: The specific amount of desiccant
that should be used per day or per month cannot be firmly established
in rule form. However, a good procedure is to keep a record of the desic¬
cant quantity added over a period of time, and from this a weekly rate
or monthly rate of consumption can be established. This should be done
when the dryer is installed. Subsequently, if consumption increases, the
various factors that cause excessive consumption can be investigated.
These include the following: drain stoppage, high inlet air temperature,
and intermittent or continuous overloading with excessive airflow.
Excessive pressure drop: If the dryer has been sized correctly, the pres¬
sure drop through it should generally not exceed 2 psi. Excessive pres¬
sure drop is nearly always caused by overloading of the dryer. The in- $

creased velocity of the air causes increased pressure drop. The overload¬
ing may occur either because of excessive air consumption downstream,
or from low inlet pressure to the dryer.
Miscellaneous Information on Compressed Air Dryers
A rule of thumb states that “humidity increase is in proportion to absolute
pressure increase, provided that the temperature remains constant.” This rule
illustrates clearly why we have so much trouble with water in compressed air.
If the air is compressed eight times, the humidity increases to eight times the
original humidity. Thus if compressor inlet air has a humidity greater than
\2V2°7o and is compressed eight times or more, the humidity will exceed 100%
Aftercoolers and Air Driers 243

and the excess water will drop out. But this dropout does not all occur im¬
mediately after compression because the air is still hot from the heat of com¬
pression and will hold more water. But as the compressed air gradually cools,
the excess water drops out, and this may occur all the way along the line from
compressor to air tool. The only remedy is to dehumidify the air after com¬
pression so that any further drop in temperature will not precipitate water.
 6
Hydrostatic Transmissions

6.1 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Generally, hydrostatic transmissions consist of an axial piston pump con¬
nected in a closed loop to an axial piston motor. The pump or the motor or
both can be variable-displacement units. The most commonly used configura¬
tion has a variable-displacement pump and a fixed-displacement motor. The
variable-displacement pump is driven by a prime mover (e.g., internal com¬
bustion engine, electric motor) and the fixed-displacement motor, which is
driven by the fluid from the pump, drives the machine (vehicle, hoist, con¬
veyor, etc.). The direction of rotation and speed of the motor output shaft
depends on the flow from the pump. The system pressure is determined by
the machine load. A relief valve is installed on a hydrostatic system main loop
to limit the maximum pressure and protect all components from catastrophic
failure. Figure 6.1 depicts a closed-loop hydrostatic transmission.
The speed of the pump input shaft can be varied by changing the prime
mover speed. The speed of the input shaft controls the flow output of the
pump because the unit is a positive-displacement device. The flow output can
also be changed by mechanically or hydraulically moving the piston stroke
control device (swashplate or yoke assembly). This motion varies the pump
displacement from zero to maximum. The oil flow from the pump controls
the motor speed. Thus, by varying the pump output flow, the motor speed
is correspondingly varied.
The piston-type pump and motor have a small amount of internal leak¬
age which is removed from the pump/motor closed-loop circuit. This results
in fluid loss from that circuit which must be replenished to prevent cavita-

244
Principles of Operation 245

MODULAR CONTROL

CAM CENTERING
CONTROL
LEVER

CYLINDER
BLOCK

CAM LEVER

CAM
PISTON
SHAFT

bi-rotational/
CHARGE PUMP UNTING
FLANGE

VALVE PLATE nuuoii'i'j

COVER
TRUNNION

Figure 6.1 Closed-circuit hydrostatic transmission. (Courtesy of Hydreco Div., Gen¬

eral Signal, Kalamazoo, Michigan.)

tion. To accomplish this task, a fixed-displacement pump is added to the cir¬

cuit (generally a gear-type pump). It is driven directly by the prime mover
through the piston pump shaft (the two pumps are coupled in tandem). The
pump is called a charge or replenishing pump and it makes available a suffi¬
cient amount of fluid required to replenish the leakage losses in the pump/
motor circuit. The pressure in the charge pump circuit is limited by a relief
valve so that any fluid not needed by the circuit is discharged through this
valve back to the system reservoir.
246 Hydrostatic Transmission

Some of the larger systems use a servo-controlled actuation mechanism

to vary the position of the pump stroke control mechanism. Usually, forces
necessary to move the swashplate or yoke assembly on high-capacity piston
pumps are quite large and a mechanical or hydraulic advantage is needed to
assist the operator. The servo-controller provides this advantage hydraulically.
The servo system works as follows. A speed control lever is moved
which is connected directly to the directional control valve, usually on the
pump. Charge pump flow is diverted through this control valve to either one
of two hydraulic cylinders which rotate the swashplate or yoke. As the cylinders
develop force and move the swashplate, another linkage connected to the
swashplate tends to recenter the direction control valve. This recentering is
a mechanical feedback system designed into the linkage system. In other
words, a given control lever displacement is compared with the resulting
swashplate rotation, and when the error (difference) between these two is zero,
the direction control valve is centered, stopping further swashplate movement.
Oil is trapped in both servo cylinders when the direction control valve is in
neutral, thus preventing it from moving.
In closed-loop systems, an occasional sudden torque increase (pulse) to
the motor can cause increases in hydraulic pressure. When long hoses are used,
this pressure rise will store in expanding the hose. This change in volume
could absorb the entire charge pump flow fed to the low-pressure side intake
of the main pump, thus losing charge pressure. This results in erratic pump
operation. To eliminate such a problem, control either the rate of pressure
rise or the rigidity (sponginess) of long hose lines.
As the extra fluid is forced into the motor when the load (pressure)
decreases, extra fluid can be forced into the motor housing, affecting the shaft
seal or the cooler. Also, the location of the valve block closer to the pump
might be advantageous if long lines are needed between the pump and the
motor, which cause large pressure drops affecting charge pump system pres¬
sure.
Figure 6.2 depicts one type of hydrostatic transmission where the pump
and motor are separated physically and connected only hydraulically. Figure
6.3 shows a close-coupled or back-to-back hydrostatic drive. The motor and
pump shafts are not mechanically connected in the transmission. The ribs have
been added to increase the heat-dissipation ability of the unit.

6.1.1 Circuit Development

To provide a more detailed and clearer understanding of how closed-loop hy¬

drostatic transmissions function, the following step-by-step description is
presented. For illustration purposes, the description uses a variable-displace¬
ment axial piston pump with a swashplate stroke control mechanism and a
fixed-displacement axial piston motor.
Principles of Operation 247

Figure 6.2 Variable-displacement pump-fixed-displacement motor hydrostatic trans¬

mission. (Courtesy of Hydreco Div., General Signal, Kalamazoo, Michigan.)

A. Method of controlling speed and direction of rotation

1. As the swashplate of the variable pump is tilted in one direc¬
tion, fluid is pumped through one line to the motor, resulting
in rotation of the output shaft in one direction. The fluid is
returned to the pump through the other line and the cycle
repeated. The amount of flow (output speed) varies with the
swashplate angle.
2. When the swashplate is tilted in the opposite direction, fluid is
pumped to the motor through the opposite line, causing out¬
put shaft rotation in the oppostie direction.
3. When the swashplate is in neutral (zero angle) the axial pistons
do not stroke; therefore, there is no fluid flow and no output
shaft rotation.
4. The hydrostatic transmission has three major conditions:
neutral, forward, and reverse. The output shaft speed is infinite¬
ly variable between neutral and forward or reverse.
B. Start with a basic closed-loop circuit
1. The first component is a variable-displacement axial piston
pump, which has a control. The pump is unidirectional and re¬
quires internal part changes to reverse its direction of rotation.
2. The second component is a fixed-displacement axial piston fluid
motor, which is bidirectional.
248 Hydrostatic Transmission

Figure 6.3 Back-to-back hydrostatic transmission. (Courtesy of Sperry Vickers,

Troy, Michigan.)

3. These are connected in such a manner that oil flows from the
pump through the motor, back to the pump, then repeats the
cycle. This is termed a closed-loop circuit.
4. The pump swashplate can be tilted to either side of neutral so
that the output (motor) shaft can be rotated in either direction.
C. Add case drain lines
1. A small amount of oil is used internally for the hydrostatic lubri¬
cation of critical wear surfaces. There is also a small amount
of leakage past pistons and other parts.
2. This is the leakage flow and is removed from the circuit to pre¬
vent excessive heat. It is routed from the motor housing through
the pump housing and then back to the reservoir.
3. When a heat exchanger is used, this flow is passed through it
and cooled down before it enters the reservoir.
4. There is a limit to the case pressure, which is 40 psi. Exceeding
this limit will result in gasket and seal leakage.
5. It is important to know what the case pressure is on a given
machine as it is used to determine the working (differential)
charge pressure (see below). For a given machine model, the nor¬
mal case pressure will remain the same machine to machine
Principles of Operation 249

unless the circuit is altered, and should only have to be taken

once for that design. In others words, the case pressure under
various speed and load conditions can be determined at the fac¬
tory (or in the field) on one machine and then be recorded and
used for all machines of that design.
1fr
D. Add a charge pump circuit
1. In the circuit as described to this point we would soon starve
the system, as we are continuously taking the leakage fluid out
of the closed loop and back to the reservoir. It is necessary to
replenish the circuit with fluid to keep it fully charged.
2. To accomplish this, a gear-type charge pump is added to the var¬
iable displacement pump and driven by the input shaft. The
primary purpose of the charge pump is to replenish the oil taken
from the system or to keep the system “charged”; hence the term
charge pump.
3. It is necessary to maintain a pressure at the inlet to the variable
displacement pump to ensure that if fills properly. This pressure
is maintained by a charge relief valve, set at the factory for the
correct differential pressure. It may range from 75 psi for some
transmissions to over 200 psi for others.
a. Differential pressure (denoted as Apsi) is merely the differ¬
ence in pressure from one side of the valve to the other. Dif¬
ferential pressure in this instance is obtained by subtracting
the case pressure from the charge pressure gauge reading. For
example:
Charge pressure gauge reads: 230 psi
Case pressure: 20 psi
Differential charge pressure is: 210 Apsi
b. The charge relief valve is a direct-acting poppet type that is
factory set by shimming the relief valve spring. It is actually
located in the charge pump housing.
4. Two charge check valves are added to direct the charge flow into
the low-pressure side of the main closed loop. The high pressure
in one side of the circuit acts on one of these check valves and
holds it closed while charge pressure opens the opposite check
valve, allowing charge flow to enter the low-pressure leg of the
circuit.
5. The fluid for the charge pump comes directly from the reser¬
voir. Since this fluid is the only fluid that enters the system, it
250 Hydrostatic Transmission

must be filtered to remove contamination and prevent abrasive

particles from entering the system. This filter must have a 10-/xm
nominal rating and must not have a by pass. The transmission
control system is designed to protect itself if the filter becomes
plugged.
6. There is a limit to the amount of vacuum allowed on the inlet
port of the charge pump. This limit is 10 in. Hg at operating
temperatures.
a. It is acceptable for this vacuum to exceed 10 in. Hg during
cold startup of the system; however, the variable-displace¬
ment pump should not be stroked until the vacuum is within
acceptable limits.
b. As with case pressure, once normal inlet vacuums for various
speeds have been determined for a given design, those figures
can be used on all machines of that design.
7. The charge pump is sized so that it continues to replenish the
system even after the leakage has increased due to wear. There
is an excess amount of charge flow, which is passed over the
charge relief valve and back to the reservoir through the pump
case.
E. Control circuit
1. The internal forces acting on the swashplate in larger size pumps
may make it desirable to use a hydraulic control on the vari¬
able-displacement pump. This hydraulic control makes it possi¬
ble to move the swashplate with a minimum of operator effort.
This is a servo or slave type of control and is called the displace¬
ment control.
2. The oil supply to operate this control is from the charge pump,
thus giving a second function to that pump. This oil is fed into
the displacement control through a small orifice. This orifice
provides acceleration/deacceleration control so that no matter
how fast the control lever is stroked, the control system can re¬
spond only at a predetermined rate.
a. This orifice can vary in diameter, depending on the applica¬
tion. When dealing with a variety of pump models, it is nec¬
essary to ensure that proper orifice sizes are maintained.
b. Because of its small diameter, this orifice can become plugged,
resulting in sluggish transmission response to operator com¬
mands.
Principles of Operation 251

3. The internal pumping forces that are acting on the swashplate

are such that charge pressure must be maintained to ensure
proper control. When the charge pressure drops, the swashplate
will automatically return to neutral (due to the internal forces)
and the machine will stop. This feature provides protection if
for any reason charge pressure is lost, including a plugged inlet
filter. The swashplate centers because the charge pressure de¬
creases and the machine will not operate. When the swashplate
returns to neutral, the motor output shaft also stops.
F. High-pressure relief valves
1. It is necessary to protect the hydraulic system from overloads.
Two pilot-operated high-pressure relief valves are added at the
fixed motor to provide this protection. These are nonadjustable,
factory-set, cartridge-type relief valves.
2. The system relief valves open when their pressure setting is
reached and pass just enough flow from the high-pressure side
of the closed loop to the low-pressure side to maintain that pres¬
sure setting. These valves are generally factory set.
3. These high-pressure relief valves will handle the flows normally
required to limit system pressure; however, they are not large
enough to handle full pump flow. If full pump flow is spilled
across one of these valves, even for a short period of time (less
than 10 sec), the transmission will heat up excessively and can
be severely damaged.
G. Addition of cooling circuit
To maintain proper operating temperatures within the hydrostatic
transmission further components must be added. These consist of
a shuttle valve and a second charge relief valve, located at the fixed-
displacement motor (which is the hottest part of the circuit). In
neutral (0° swashplate angle) the shuttle valve is blocked and this
cooling circuit does not function; however, in forward or reverse
the shuttle valve is shifted by the high system pressure and opens
the low-pressure side of the closed loop to this second charge
relief valve. The charge relief valve at the motor is factory set
so that it offers the path of least resistance for the excess charge
oil. The fluid from the charge pump will now flow out of this
valve instead of the charge relief valve at the pump. When in
forward or reverse the entire charge pump flow enters the main
system (closed loop) through the charge check valve, into the low-
pressure side, passes through the variable-displacement pump, then
252 Hydrostatic Transmission

to the fixed-displacement motor, out of the motor, through the

shuttle valve, over the charge relief valve at the motor, through
the case drain system and the heat exchanger, and finally back to
the reservoir.
H. Critical circuit data
1. Charge pressure: as recommended by the manufacturer.
2. Case drain pressure: 40 psi maximum
3. Charge pump inlet vacuum: 10 in. Hg maximum at operating
temperature
4. Inlet filter
a. 10 (nominal)
b. No bypass

Figure 6.4 contains the entire circuit in diagram form. All of the com¬
ponents along with their interconnections are shown to illustrate their func¬
tion in the hydrostatic transmission circuit.

6.2 TRANSMISSION STARTUP PROCEDURE

1. After the transmission has been installed, remove the threaded
plug from the side of the main pump housing. To read charge
pressure at this port, install a pressure gauge. Also, install a
vacuum gauge at the charge pump inlet for reading the inlet vac¬
uum.
2. Check all fittings to make sure that they are tight.
3. Fill the pump and motor cases through the upper case drain open¬
ings with recommended fluid. It is recommended that all fluid be
passed through a 10-/mi filter. Reinstall and tighten the case drain
lines.
4. Loosen the charge pump line, coming from the filter-reservoir, at
the inlet to the charge pump.
5. Fill the reservoir with fluid. When fluid appears at the loosened
hose of the charge pump inlet, install and tighten the hose and con¬
tinue filling the reservoir. Leave the reservoir cap loose so that air
will escape.
6. It is recommended that the control linkage to the pump control
valve be left disconnected until after initial startup. This will allow
the pump to remain in positive neutral.
Transmission Startup Procedure 253

Figure 6.4 Typical heavy-duty variable-displacement pump-fixed-displacement

motor transmission schematic. (Courtesy of Dynapower, a Unit of General Signal,
Kalamazoo, Michigan.)

7. If the prime mover is:

a. Engine (diesel, gasoline, or liquefied petroleum): Remove the
coil wire, close the injector rack or leave the gas turned off, and
turn the engine over until the charge pressure reaches 30 psi or
more.
254 Hydrostatic Transmission

b. Electric motor. Jog the starting circuit until the charge pres¬
sure reaches 30 psi or more.
8. Start the prime mover and, if possible, maintain a 750-rpm pump
shaft speed for 5 min. This will allow the system to fill properly.
During this phase, pressure surges may be seen on the gauge. This
is normal. While running at 750 rpm idle, the pump charge pres¬
sure must be at least 75 psi above the case pressure. If it is not,
stop the system and troubleshoot.
9. Increase the pump speed to approximately 1000 rpm; the charge
pressure on the gauge should be in accordance with the manufac-
turers recommendations.
10. Shut down the prime mover and connect the linkage to the dis¬
placement control valve handle. Caution: If the motor shaft is con¬
nected to the drive mechanism, the necessary safety precautions
must be considered.
11. Check the fluid level in reservoir and add fluid if necessary.
12. Start the prime mover and run the pump at 1500 to 1800 rpm; the
charge pressure should be as specified by the manufacturer.
13. Move the pump control handle slowly to the forward and then to
the reverse position. Repeat or continue to cycle for approximately
5 min.
14. Should the charge pressure fall below 75 psi above the motor
case pressure, discontinue startup until the trouble has been
found.

15. Run the prime mover at maximum rpm with the pump in neutral.
Observe the reading at the vacuum gauge connected to the charge
pump inlet. This reading should not exceed 10 in. Hg at normal
operating conditions.
16. Shut down the prime mover, remove all gauges and replace all
plugs or lines. Check the reservoir fluid level and tighten the oil
fill cap. The machine is now ready for operation.

6.3 SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

Fluid: Generally, a fluid change interval of 2000 hr is adequate with

a sealed reservoir system. A more frequent fluid change is required if
the fluid has become contaminated by water or other foreign material
or has been subjected to abnormal operating conditions. An open reser-
Troubleshooting 255

voir system with an air-breathing filler cap requires the fluid to be

changed every 500 hr.
Filter: As a general recommendation, with a sealed reservoir system,
the 10-jLtm inlet filter should be changed every 1500 hr. With an open
reservoir system utilizing an air-breathing filler cap, the filter should
be changed every 500 hr.
Reservoir. The reservoir should be checked daily for proper fluid level
and the presence of water in the fluid. If fluid must be added to the
reservoir, use only filtered or strained fluid. Drain any water as re¬
quired.
Hydraulic lines and fittings: Visually check daily for any fluid leakage.
Tighten and repair or replace as required.
Heat exchanger: The heat exchanger core and cooling fins should be
kept clean at all times for maximum cooling and system efficiency. In¬
spect daily for any external blockage and clean as required.

6.4 TROUBLESHOOTING

I. The troubleshooting guides that will be used are of the fault-logic

diagram type. They have been arranged so that the simplest opera¬
tions are first, with the most complex (removing the transmission)
last. They are further arranged by the frequency of occurrence
of problems based on experience. The primary goal of these
troubleshooting guides is to get the machine back in operation.
The steps outlined can actually be taken in any order that makes
troubleshooting easier. For example, some transmissions are so
surrounded by the structure of the machine that it is easier to re¬
move the transmission than perform the troubleshooting tasks.
The problems likely to be encountered have been condensed
into five basic statements and set up these guides accordingly. The
first step is to fit the problem into one of these basic statements,
then follow the guide. The problem statements, such as “system
operating hot,” refer to what is normal for the equipment in¬
volved. To troubleshoot properly one needs a set of baseline data,
either written or by experience, that define how the equipment
should operate.
II. Neutral difficult or impossible to find (Fig. 6.5)
A. Check control linkage. This statement is referring to the ma¬
chine control linkage. Disconnect that linkage from the
256 Hydrostatic Transmission

Figure 6.5 Neutral difficult or impossible to find. (Courtesy of Sundstrand Corp.,

Ames, Iowa).

displacement control and see if neutral is still hard to find by

using the lever at the pump. Inspect the linkage for missing
or damaged pins, cables, or rods.
B. Inspect control valve. With the machine control linkage dis¬
connected, check the lever on the displacement control to be
certain that it is still spring centered. The problem may be that
the control spool is out of adjustment. It is recommended that
the control be replaced; however, this adjustment can be made.
The problem may also be internal, such as a sticking control
spool or damaged centering spring. Disassembly of the con¬
trol is not recommended and the control should be replaced
and the unit checked again.
C. Replace the pump. This is the only instance when it is recom¬
mended to replace the pump only. In all other cases replacing
the transmission (pump and motor) is recommended. This is
because any problem (such as contamination) that has resulted
in the malfunction of one unit will cause damage to some
degree to the other unit. Replacing the pump may get the ma¬
chine running today, but in 2 weeks the motor may also have
to be replaced because of a repetition of the same problem.
III. System operating hot (Fig. 6.6)
A. Check oil level in reservoir. This is a common problem. Over
a period of time the unit is worked on or a hose blown or a
fitting leaks and the operator neglects to replenish the reser¬
voir with lost oil and the level has become too low.
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258 Hydrostatic Transmission

B. Inspect inlet filter. At this point in troubleshooting the only

reliable way to check the filter is to put in a new element. It
is also necessary to be certain that it is the correct element
(proper manufacturer’s number for a 10-jian nominal element).
C. Inspect bypass valve (if used). When a bypass valve is used,
if it is left slightly open, the system can operate hotter than
normal, as fluid spills across this valve. Be sure that the valve
is fully shut.
D. Check system pressure. System pressure should be checked at
this point. If ft is too high (i.e., higher than it should be for
the conditions at which it is checked), the machine load is too
high. The problem could be that the output drive is in the
wrong gear or the machine is being operated on too steep a
grade.
E. Replace transmission (pump and motor). If the system
pressure is satisfactory, the transmission should be replaced.
This should be the last resort, as it is time consuming and ex¬
change units must be available. The pump and motor should
both be replaced for the reasons discussed previously.
IV. Transmission operates in one direction only (Fig. 6.7)
The nature of this problem automatically eliminates certain com¬
ponents as a source of the problem. Since the system does operate
satisfactorily in one direction, we can eliminate pump, motor,
charge pump, and filter and look only at components related to
one side.
A. Check control linkage. The problem could be that the control
linkage of the machine is out of adjustment or damaged. Dis¬
connect the linkage from the displacement control and see if
the system operates by using the lever on the displacement con¬
trol (if possible). With this linkage disconnected, check the dis¬
placement control handle to make certain that it is still spring
centered.
B. Inspect high-pressure relief valves. The best method for check¬
ing the system relief valves as a trouble source is to remove
them from the manifold and switch them side for side. If the
problem changes sides, one of the system relief valves is at fault
and should be replaced. Remember that this is a pilot-oper¬
ated relief valve and the light spring load that can be felt on
the main spool does not hold the spool shut against system
pressure.
 Troubleshooting 259

CHECK CONTROL -r\is- INSPECT SYSTEM -r\u-^ INSPECT CHARGE

LINKAGE RELIEF VALVES -OK-
CHECK VALVES
2 4

1DEFECTIVE
1
DEFECTIVE
1
DEFECTIVE

_L_ _*_

REPAIR OR REPAIR OR REPAIR OR

REPLACE REPLACE REPLACE

INSPECT SHUTTLE INSPECT CONTROL

VALVE VALVE
3 1

1
DEFECTIVE
- 1
DEFECTIVE

_\_ 1
REPAIR OR REPAIR OR
REPLACE REPLACE

Figure 6.7 Transmission operates in one direction only. (Courtesy of Sundstrand

Corp., Ames, Iowa.)

C. Inspect charge check valves. The charge check valves are lo¬
cated under the charge pump, which must be removed first.
Like the system relief valves, a simple procedure is to switch
these two valves side for side and see if the problem changes
sides. If it does, the problem is in one of the valves and it
should be replaced. These valves can be checked further by
pushing against the internal ball to make sure that it is still
spring loaded.
D. Inspect control valve. As stated previously, check the control
lever for proper spring loading with the machine linkage dis¬
connected. The control spool can be out of adjustment, caus¬
ing this type of problem. If so, replacing the valve is suggested;
however, this adjustment can be made, as previously discussed,
provided that caution and patience are used. The problem
could also be internal, such as a sticking spool, in which case
the valve should be replaced as disassembly of this component
is not recommended.
E. Inspect the shuttle valve. The shuttle valve spool can be stick-
260 Hydrostatic Transmission

ing or one of its centering springs broken. Remove the two

plugs, check the parts, and make certain that the spool moves
freely in the bore and is not binding.
V. System response sluggish (Fig. 6.8)
A. Check the charge pressure (the location of the various pressure
check points are shown on Fig. 6.9).
1. Remember that there are two charge pressures (neutral and
forward or reverse) that must be read.
2. Inspect the charge relief valve at the pump. If the charge
pressure is low in neutral, inspect the charge relief valve at
the charge pump. Remove the plug, spring, spacers, and
poppet and inspect for dirt, galling, and broken parts.
3. Inspect the charge relief valve at the motor. If the charge
pressure is okay in neutral but low in forward (or reverse),
inspect the charge relief valve at the motor.
4. If, however, the charge pressure is low in both neutral and
forward (or reverse), take the following steps.
a. Inspect the charge relief valve at the pump.
b. Inspect the inlet filter. If that is not the problem, inspect
the inlet filter. The most reliable way to accomplish this
is to replace the element with a new one, making certain
that it is the correct element.
c. Inspect the charge pump. Inspect the charge pump next.
This is done by removing the pump and replacing it with
a new one. Internal repair of the charge pump is not rec¬
ommended. The charge pump is made up of several sec¬
tions, and once taken apart these are difficult to reseal.
d. Replace the transmission (pump and motor). If the prob¬
lem is not the charge pump, replace the transmission.
B. Inspect the control valve. If the charge pressure is okay, in¬
spect the control valve. The small orifice could be partially
plugged or the spool might be sticking.
C. Inspect the bypass valve (if used). Next, check the bypass valve
(if used) to be certain that it is not partially open or defective.
D. Replace the transmission (pump and motor). The last step is
to replace the transmission if the trouble cannot be isolated
in any of the others areas.
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CC > LU
< -J CL >
X < ^ 1
CJ > X)
Figure 6.8

1— LL CL LU
CJ LU 1- LL
UJ □ < LU
Q
£ ^
x oc

261
 262
Hydrostatic Transmission

Figure 6.9 Troubleshooting gauge installation and information. (Courtesy of Sundstrand Corp., Ames, Iowa.)
Troubleshooting 263

VI. System will not operate in either direction (Fig. 6.10)

A. Check the oil in the reservoir.
B. Check the control linkage (on the machine).
C. Inspect the bypass valve (if used).
D. Check the charge pressure.
1. Inspect the charge relief valve at the pump if low in neutral.
2. Inspect the charge relief valve at the motor if okay in neu¬
tral but low in forward (or reverse).
3. If the charge pressure is low in neutral and forward (or re¬
verse):
a. Check the charge relief valve at the pump.
b. Inspect the inlet filter.
c. Inspect the charge pump.
d. Replace the transmission.

E. If the charge pressure is satisfactory, perform the following

steps:
1. Check the system pressure.
2. Inspect the pressure override (if used). If the system pressure
is low, check the pressure override control to be certain that
it is properly adjusted and not malfunctioning.
3. Inspect the control valve. If the system pressure is low
(lower than it should be for the test conditions), the fault
could be in the displacement control valve.
4. Replace the transmission (pump and motor).
 CHECK OIL LEVEL CHECK CONTROL

264
IOK^J lOK J RYSp|oI LkCHECK CHARGE
IN RESERVOIR I ^1 LINKAGE \ \ (IF USED) \ \ PRESSURE

Figure 6.10 System will not operate in either direction. (Courtesy of Sundstrand Corp., Ames, Iowa.)
 7
Temperature Considerations

A hydraulic system that is allowed to overheat can cause costly seal deteriora¬
tion and fluid oxidation or breakdown. This results in corrosion and forma¬
tion of sludge and varnish, which may in turn clog orifices and accelerate valve
wear. In some cases, extreme temperatures will cause seizure of valves, pumps,
and other components. High temperatures can also create a safety hazard
should high-temperature fluid leak, and operating personnel could be severely
burned. It is generally acknowledged that the ideal operating temperature of
industrial oil hydraulic systems should not exceed 150°F. However, the pre¬
ferred maximum operating temperature is below 140°F because above that
level the life of most fluids is shortened (see Fig. 7.1). To design a system that
will maintain thermal stability, it is necessary to understand how hydraulic
systems generate and dissipate heat.

7.1 HEAT GENERATION

Heat is generated in a hydraulic system whenever oil flows from a higher to

a lower pressure without doing mechanical work. This means that if a relief
valve is allowing the oil to flow back to the tank, and the system pressure
is being maintained, the difference in pressure or loss is the difference be¬
tween the system pressure and the tank line pressure. Pressure losses can oc¬
cur from flowing through inadequately sized valving or piping, and kinked
or sharp bends in hose or tubing. The sun can cause excessive heat. High oil
temperature can also be caused from metal parts being worn, or from the seals
being worn, allowing the oil to bypass and cause heat. By checking the reser-

265
266 Temperature Considerations

220
3%
O) 11 ‘
c <j,o 210
*- If) o
"5 ra -sr
mg’-
2 o ® 6%-200
>..E o
oo -o
S™ & T- <D
« 190
°fl) u.>* rj3 12%
a.® ro 180
Marked additional increase in system noises begin
x > -
a> a> a>
^°£ 25%-170
1

J within this range of oil temperature.

Z m a>
O O w Maximum operating
— c temperature for
°^ = 160
Maximum recommended optimum oil life.
c 0 2 50% (150 SSU oil viscosity
5^ a> operating temperature
oca. 150 but with reduced oil life. drops to approx.
60 SSU at 140° F.)
m O w
rf J- C 1
100%-140 Noticeable increase in system noise begins within
this range of oil temperature because oil is thinner
and transmits sound and vibration waves better.
130
a) c
2f w 120
2a, —2 5> ') Optimum
operating
Ideal oil temperature range
for best system performance
S.« 5 110 ) temperature. and longest oil life.

S|_2
o IS'V o 100
E 2-g
®
>.iT I- Lowest advisable start-up temperature.
(f> ° 40 (Below 40° F, most hydraulic fluids are too
viscous—frequently causing cavitation.)

Figure 7.1 Effects of hot oil on system performance. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin
Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)

voir temperature, a system problem can sometimes be corrected before serious

damage can be done.
In most systems, the main heat-generating component is the relief valve.
Generally, the relief valve is used only in a short period of the cycle. It is,
therefore, necessary to find the maximum rate of heat generation by using
the horsepower formula, then calculate an average for an entire hour.
Pressure reducing valves and pressure-compensated flow controls are
another source of heat generation. Some pressure reducing valves should be
checked for heat generation if they are passing high flows or reducing the pres¬
sure from extremely high pressure. Pressure-compensated flow controls, when
used to reduce the flow to or from a cylinder or to and from a motor when
using a fixed-delivery pump, will cause the excess oil not used to move the
actuator to flow over the relief valve. Sometimes it is best to use a pres¬
sure-compensated pump in a system like this or use what is called a bleed-
off circuit. The bleed-off circuit allows the excess oil to flow back to the tank
unrestricted. This type of circuit will help reduce heat generation.
Sometimes it is helpful to figure that 15 to 20% of the electric motor
horsepower will go into heat. This will help calculate this difficult-to-estimate
Heat Generation 267

point in a system, such as: miscellaneous valves, fluid friction in pipes, tub¬
ing or hose, mechanical friction, and slippage of pumps, fluid motors, and
cylinders. In cases of marginal to high heat generation, it is a good practice
to install heat exchanger connections in the main oil return line and relief valve
*

return line. This will allow a heat exchanger to be added at any time.
Pressure drop across controls, or pressure that is the result of pump slip¬
page or line loss, will create heat. The amount of heat generated can be cal¬
culated using the formula

q=1.5(P1-P2)Q
where
q = heat generated, Btu/hr
Q = flow rate, gpm
Px = higher pressure, psi
P2 = lower pressure, psi

Some helpful conversion factors are:

1 hp = 2545 Btu/hr
1 hp = 746 W
1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb/min

Pressure drop across controls, or pressure drop that results from pump slip¬
page or line loss, will generate heat, as has been stated previously. The follow¬
ing examples use the formula given above to compute the amount of heat gen¬
erated (Fig. 7.2).
Pump Slippage. The volumetric efficiency of a pump is indicative of
fluid leaking to the drain or back to the pump inlet, resulting in a pressure
drop. A typical 11-gpm pump will deliver 11.4 gpm at 100 psi and 10.6 gpm
at 1000 psi. This difference of 0.8 gpm is pump slippage; pressure drop is 1000
psi. The heat generated is

1.5 x 0.8 x 1000 = 1200 Btu/hr

Line Loss. As oil flows through lines and fittings, there is a pressure
drop, or line loss, that generates heat. A fluid with a viscosity of 150 SUS
and a flow of 10 gpm through a Vi-in. standard pipe has a pressure drop of
0.55 psi/ft. A 90° elbow has an equivalent length of 1.7, or a pressure drop
of 0.94 psi. Ten feet of pipe and two elbows would have a line loss of 7.38
psi, and the heat generated would be

1.5 x 7.38 x 10= 110 Btu/hr

The heat generated by line loss is usually not a serious problem when tubing
or pipe is used because lines dissipate heat almost as readily as it is generated.
268 Temperature Considerations

System Pressure Heat loss"

component Cause of heat drop (Btu/hr)

11-gpm pump Pressure drop and surface 1000 psi 1200

at 1000 psi tension during slippage back (0.8 gpm)
to pump inlet or to reservoir
through drain
Vi-in. pipe or Normal line pressure drop 0.55 psi/ft 7.25 per foot
hose at 10 gpm and surface tension at walls
Vi-m. 90° elbow Pressure drop plus friction 0.94 psi 14.1 per elbow
pipe at 10 gpm at sharp turn in flow path
3/8-in. four-way Leakage friction across both 0.86 psi 13
spool-type direc¬ lands
tional control valve k
at 10 gpm and Pressure drop plus friction 41 psi 615
1000 psi at turns and orifices
3/4-in. angle Pressure drop plus restricted 65 psi 190
check valve at passage of fluid through valve (spring ten¬
20 gpm while providing back pressure sion)
for shifting piloted valves
Relief valve (on Pressure drop plus restricted 1000 psi 10,500
press) at 10 gpm passage of relief fluid through
valve during feed, dwell, and
reload cycles

“For oil of 150 SSU viscosity.

Figure 7.2 Examples of heat sources in a typical hydraulic system. (Courtesy of

Parker Hannifin Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)

An exception is when the lines are in a hot ambient atmosphere, in which case
they actually absorb heat and transfer it to the system.
Valve Leakage. Spool valves that permit leakage across the sealing
lands will generate heat. A typical directional control valve has a nominal
leakage of 1 in.3/min/land/1000 psi. There are two lands, so the heat gen¬
erated is

1.5 x (2/231) x 1000= 13 Btu/hr

This form of heat generation can normally be neglected.

Valve Pressure Drop. Valve pressure drop is best divided into two
types: The first type is pressure drop that is the result of fluid flowing through
valves (inlet to outlet) which are teed into lines (similar to line loss). For ex¬
ample, consider a typical 3/8-in. four-way directional control valve with a
loop pressure drop of 41 psi at 10 gpm. The heat generated is
Heat Generation 269

1.5 X 10x41 =615 Btu/hr

Depending on the number of valves, their pressure drops, flow rates, and the
degree to which the designer wants to analyze thermal stability, this form of
heat generation may be neglected.
In a second example, the system has a 3A-in. angle check valve with a
65-psi spring, used in a 20-gpm system to provide back pressure for shifting
pilot-operated valves. The heat generated is

1.5 x 20x65 = 195 Btu/hr

In systems with a considerable number of valves, the designer should con¬

sider this source of heat generation.
The second type of pressure drop across valves is that resulting from
controlling pressure, as in the case of pressure relief or pressure reducing
valves. Typical of this type of valve pressure drop, relief valves in fixed-dis¬
placement pumping systems may be the single greatest source of heat genera¬
tion. For example, consider a press that has a 1-min work cycle, during 30
sec of which the pump is dead-headed or holding (8 gpm at 1000 psi). The
remaining time the cylinder is either advancing or retracting (useful work).
The heat generated is

1.5 x 8 x 1000 x (30/60) x 1 = 6000 Btu/hr

As another example, consider a machine with a 30-sec work cycle: 5-sec rapid
advance, 10-sec feed (a flow control is used in a meter-in circuit to limit flow
to 2.5 gpm), 6-sec dwell, 3-sec return, and 6-sec reload. The pump discharges
10 gpm at 1000 psi and passes oil through the relief valve when not doing use¬
ful work. The heat generated is

During rapid advance: negligible

During feed: 1.5 x 7.5 x 1000 x (10/60) x 2 = 3750 Btu/hr
During dwell: 1.5 x 10 x 1000 x (6/60) x 2 = 3000 Btu/hr
During return: negligible
During reload: 1.5 x 10 x 1000 x (6/60) x 2 = 3000 Btu/hr
The total heat generated is 9750 Btu/hr.
As a shortcut, many designers frequently compute the quantity of heat
generated by the major contributors, and multiply this by a factor of 1.25
to take into account those items not considered and to provide a margin of
safety.

Suggestions for Heat Reduction

1. Where heat generation may be a problem in some systems, use a

generous-size reservoir.
270 Temperature Considerations

If reservoir size must be limited because of space limitations,

facilities for adding a heat exchanger should be provided.
Additional baffles in the reservoir may improve the heat dis¬
sipation value by forcing the return oil along the outside walls.
2. Unload the pump when system pressure is not required.
3. Set the main relief valve for the amount of pressure that is required
to do the work —not higher.
4. If possible, when using pressure-compensated flow controls with
fixed-delivery pumps, connect them in a bleed-off arrangement.
5. Reservoirs should be located in the open to ensure good air circula¬
tion. Reservoirs located outside should be shaded from the rays of
the sun. They should not be set directly on the floor but rather
should be slightly raised to allow air to circulate past the reservoir
bottom.
6. Accumulators may sometimes be used in holding or clamping cir¬
cuits where high static pressures are needed.
7. On some systems, compressed air to oil intensifiers may be used
to maintain system pressure with a minimum amount of heat gen¬
eration.
8. Use intensifiers to develop higher pressures when long holding cycles
are involved.
9. Use load-sensing circuits.

7.2 HEAT DISSIPATION

Unless auxiliary heat-removal devices such as heat exchangers are used, the
major method of heat dissipation is by convection. It is therefore important
that the reservoir be located so that all surfaces are exposed to freely circu¬
lating air. Because heat is also transferred by conduction and radiation, it
is important to shield the reservoir from external heat sources such as the sun
or furnaces. Reservoir heat loss may be approximated by
q = 2.5A(Tj — T2)
where
q = heat dissipated, Btu/hr
A = surface area of reservoir exposed to circulating air, ft2
Tx = temperature of oil, °F
T2 = temperature of air, °F

You can calculate the temperature at which thermal stability occurs from the
relationship
Heat Exchangers: Coolers 271

max
= T amb
+
2.5A
where
Tmax = temperature at which thermal stability occurs, °F
Tamb = ambient temperature, °F
q = heat input, Btu/hr
A = surface area of reservoir exposed to circulating air, ft2

For average calculations, assume heat dissipation from the sides, top, and
bottom of the reservoir. The surface area of external plumbing may also be
used or counted as a dissipating surface. Do not include the bottom of the
reservoir unless it is exposed to free air circulation. The cooling capacity of
the reservoir will increase in proportion to the square footage of dissipating
surface, and also in proportion to the difference between the oil temperature
and the ambient air temperature.
For steel reservoirs, this formula will give approximate results:

hp = (heat dissipation) = 0.001 x TD x A

where
A = square footage of dissipating surface
TD = temperature difference between oil and surrounding air
hp = cooling capacity expressed in horsepower

There should be a reasonable amount of free air circulation around the reser¬
voir. A forced blast of air directed on the side of the reservoir is a consider¬
ation, as it can increase the heat dissipating capacity as much as 50%.
When it is found that the reservoir cannot dissipate all of the heat gen¬
erated by the hydraulic system, it is necessary to use a cooler. There are two
principal types of coolers: air coolers and water coolers.

7.3 HEAT EXCHANGERS: COOLERS

Hydraulic systems perform tasks and receive energy from an outside source
to generate fluid pressure to do work. As the actuator operates, it uses energy
generated by the pump to move the load. But when fluid flows from a high-
to a low-pressure condition without doing work, the energy there in turns into
heat. Although the amount of heat generated is variable, it can begin to ap¬
proximate the nameplate horsepower of the driver. Even well-designed hy¬
draulic systems convert as much as 20% input horsepower to heat.
What does heat do to a hydraulic system? Some heat has a desirable
effect. When oil is cold, system operation is sluggish and unsatisfactory. Thus
heating the oil will have a beneficial effect. Overheated oil, on the other hand,
begins to decompose, forms varnish on component surfaces, and can burn
272 Temperature Considerations

seals; viscosity drops and system operation again becomes erratic and poor.
Continued system operation often requires an oil change, seal replacement,
and components can require repair or overhaul. Ideal system temperatures
vary, but the modern trend is toward hotter-running systems. Therefore, heat
exchangers are more of a necessity than ever.
But what is heat? Heat is a form of energy that transfers from one region
to another because of a temperature difference or temperature gradient be¬
tween the regions. It is a transient phenomenon which always and naturally
flows from the hotter to the cooler region.
Heat dissipates from a hydraulic system in two ways: through natural
convection and through forced convection. Natural convection takes place
as heat moves from the various system components, the reservoir, and the
conductors to the surrounding air because of the temperature gradient. It is
wonderful when natural convection can dissipate system heat. If, on the other
hand, natural convection cannot remove generated heat, system temperature
will continue to rise. Then, heat exchange becomes necessary, and the second
heat dissipation mode, forced convection, occurs. Radiation, another mode
of heat transmission, occurs too, but its effect is essentially negligible.

7.3.1 Heat Exchanger Types

Water-Cooled
Shell-and-tube heat exchangers pour cooling water into the tubes of the ex¬
changer while oil, the more viscous fluid, flows around the tubes in the shell
side. Heat exchangers are made of materials such as red brass, copper, cast
iron, admiralty brass, stainless steel, or other special metals (see Fig. 7.3).
They have an outer flanged shell or barrel with end bonnets and appropriate
gasketing to close and seal the ends. Sealed inside the shell is a precise pat¬
tern of tubing which runs the length of the shell and terminates in tube sheets
or end plates. The tube ends are mechanically fastened to the tube sheets and
seal each end of the shell. In another design, the tubes are all bent 180° so
their ends are in one tube sheet.
The tubes of the tube bundle run through a variable number of baffle
plates, which provide support for the tubes and also cause the oil to flow at
right angles to the tubes as it travels from one end of the shell to the other.
Most tube bundles used for hydraulic applications are permanently sealed in
the shell; models with removable tube bundles are more expensive and have
a different set of sealing conditions at the shell ends.
Heat exchangers are available in one-, two-, and four-pass configura¬
tions. The multiple passes result from arranging the tubes in such a fashion
as to let the water flow past the oil one, two, or four times. Selection of the
number of passes desirable is based on available coolant or water temperature.
Heat Exchangers: Coolers 273

Figure 7.3 Water-oil heat exchanger. (Courtesy of Young Radiator Co., Racine,
Wisconsin.)

Air-Cooled
When the air is used as the cooling media or is the choice to receive the waste
heat from the hydraulic system, a heat exchanger commonly known as a
radiator is used. Hot oil passes through the tubes of these heat exchangers.
Turbulators help destroy laminar flow therein to promote efficient heat trans¬
fer from the fluid to the tube wall. The tube metals also have a high thermal
conductivity factor (see Fig. 7.4).
As with shell-and-tube heat exchangers, an increase in area of the heat
transfer surface helps increase heat transfer capability. Fins, physically fas¬
tened to the tubes, increase the surface area, and as an added benefit, help
destroy laminar airflow.
The following are some considerations that help determine radiator core
configurations:

Oval tubes provide more turbulent flow at lower liquid flow rates than
do round tubes.
Round tubes give higher flow rates and lower pressure drops.
Materials generally are admiralty brass, red brass, aluminum, or steel.
Choice can depend on structural needs or service environment.
274 Temperature Considerations

OUTER TUBE INNER-SWIRL

HEAT EXTRACTOR

OUTER FIN

HEADER

Figure 7.4 Air-oil heat exchanger. (Courtesy of Young Radiator Co., Racine, Wis¬
consin.)

Fins vary in heat transfer capability and cleanability. Fin types are flat
plate, humped, and louvered, ranked in order of increasing ability to
generate turbulent flow and decreasing cleanability.

The common terms used with heat exchangers and their definitions are
presented in Fig. 7.5.
Coolers are usually rated at a relatively low operating pressure (150 psi).
This requires that they be positioned in a low-pressure part of a system. If
this is not possible, the cooler may be installed in its own separate circulating
system.
To ensure that a pressure surge in a line does not damage a shell-and-
tube cooler, they are generally piped into a system in parallel with a 65-psi
check valve. The check valve will permit fluid to bypass the cooler when the
pressure in the cooler inlet line exceeds the check valve operating pressure (65
psi). Coolers can be located in a system’s return line, after a relief valve, or
Heat Exchangers: Coolers 275

in a case drain line of a variable-volume, pressure-compensated pump. Sizing

the cooler to have the capacity for dissipating the necessary heat is a complex
problem. It is recommended that the heat exchanger manufacturer be con¬
tacted or that the selection procedures outlined in their catalogs be followed.
As with all hydraulic equipment, mount heat exchangers so that they
are shielded from sources of heat radiation, including the sun. Protect water-
cooled heat exchangers from freezing. Air-blast radiators should also be pro¬
tected from accidental physical damage caused by swinging booms, lift trucks,
and other moving equipment.
Installation of Air-Oil Type
If the air is furnished by an electric-motor-driven fan, the air should be forced
under pressure through the radiator core rather than being pulled by a par¬
tial vacuum. This gives slightly better heat transfer and provides a safety pre¬
caution against fan damage if the fan should become loosened on its shaft.

Core: That section of an oil cooler assembly which is comprised of the heat transfer
surfaces.
Face area: Area defined by the core width times core height (oil-to-air coolers).
Face velocity: The velocity of air approaching the core (Volume per unit time divided
by face area).
Fin: Extended heat transfer surface. Shell-and-tube oil coolers may have fins or other
extended surface.
Header: This term has a dual meaning. It is sometimes used synonymously with tube
sheet or tank.
Heat dissipation: The quantity of heat, usually expressed in British thermal units per
minute, that an oil cooler can dissipate under specified conditions.
Inlet temperature differential: The difference in temperature between the fluid being
cooled and the cooling medium at the point each enters the heat exchanger.
Multipass oil cooler: An oil cooler that is so circuited that either fluid passes across
or through the core more than once.
Operating pressure: That fluid pressure to which the oil cooler is normally exposed
during operation.
Peak pressure: The highest pressure to which the oil cooler is intermittently subjected.
Pressure drop: The pressure differential between inlet and outlet at a specified fluid
flow rate and viscosity.
Notes: (1) Air side is measured in inches (millimeters) of water. (2) Oil side is measured
in psi (kPa), (3) Water side is measured in psi (kPa).

Figure 7.5 Definitions of heat exchanger terms. (Courtesy of Perfex Corp., Mil¬
waukee, Wisconsin.)
276 Temperature Considerations

Additional Cooling Capacity

Additional cooling capacity can be obtained by a favorable location of the
air-oil cooler. If practical, it should be placed so that the high-velocity air
discharge through the radiator core will strike the hydraulic reservoir and keep
air moving past the pump and other components. This can appreciably im¬
prove the heat-radiating ability of the tank.
On moving vehicles driven with an engine, a radiator core, without fan,
may be mounted in front of the regular engine radiator, to make use of the
engine fan blast. The additional restriction to airflow does not appreciably
affect the engine cooling system.

7.3.2 Adding a Second Heat Exchanger

Another heat exchanger may have to be added to a system already contain¬

ing one if a further increase in cooling capacity is found to be necessary. For
greatest compatibility with the existing system, the second heat exchanger
should be an identical model to the first. The question then arises as to
whether it should be plumbed in parallel or in series with the original heat
exchanger (Fig. 7.6).

Oil Circuit
Assuming that the original exchanger was correctly selected to suit the gpm
flow volume of both water and oil circuits, the new heat exchanger should
have its oil circuit plumbed in series with the first. The baffle spacing inside
the shell has been selected to obtain an oil flow velocity between the limits
of 1 to 6 ft/sec, with optimum velocity at 3 ft/sec. If the hydraulic oil were
divided between the two units in a parallel connection, the flow velocity might
be below the permissible range. In a series connection, the original velocity
is maintained through both units.
Water Circuit
For the same reason, the water circuit should normally be connected in series
through the two units to maintain adequate velocity. Again, optimum velocity
is about 3 ft/sec, with maximum at 6 ft/sec. Beyond this, the water erodes
the insides of the tubes, causing early failure. The modulating-type water con¬
trol valve normally keeps the water velocity (and volume) throttled as low
as possible to still give the amount of heat removal required. For this reason
the modulating valve makes more efficient use of the water than does an “on-
off” valve such as a solenoid type operated with a temperature switch.
Important! Inlet hydraulic oil should always be connected to the oil port
that is closer to the end with the water connections. Inlet water should first
be plumbed to the heat exchanger that is downstream in respect to the oil cir¬
cuit. This gives the nearest approach to true counterflow that is possible with
multipass heat exchangers, and the maximum heat transfer.
 Qj_j- Oil Flow Oil

277
Figure 7.6 Adding a second heat exchanger.
278 Temperature Considerations

Parallel Water Plumbing

A further increase in total cooling capacity can be obtained by connecting
the water supply for parallel flow through both units, while maintaining series
flow in the oil circuits. However, the water flow volume should be doubled
to maintain the same internal flow velocity in the tubes for which the ex¬
changer was originally designed.

7.3.3 Miscellaneous Tips on Heat Exchangers

Source of Cooling Water
In those locations where cooling water is scarce or expensive, a free source
is sometimes available by intercepting water intended for other purposes, us¬
ing it for heat exchanger cooling, then piping it on for its normal use. Water
used for toilets, batch mixing, lawn sprinkling, washing, and many similar
purposes can be utilized, and the slightly increased temperature as it comes
out of the heat exchanger would make no difference in its ultimate use. In
the usual heat exchanger the cooling water would have a temperature rise
of 10 to 30°F.

Water Flow Control

To conserve water and avoid overcooling the oil, water flow to the heat ex¬
changer should be regulated automatically. Two methods of doing this will
be discussed here.
Modulating Valve. The usual, and best method of controlling the
water is through the use of a modulating-type water valve. The poppet
gradually opens and closes in response to a signal picked up by the sensing
element, which is immersed in the hydraulic oil at a representative point. The
sensing element is connected to the main valve by means of a capillary tube.
When ordering a modulating valve for the control of water into a heat ex¬
changer, the user should specify the valve to open on temperature rise. Some
manufacturers term this a reverse-acting type. If ordering the valve for shunt
control of water or of oil to bypass a radiator cooler, the user should specify
the valve to close on temperature rise. This is sometimes termed a direct-acting
type.
The modulating control is limited to a remote distance of 6 to 10 ft be¬
tween sensing element and water valve. On longer runs the air temperature
surrounding the capillary tube influences the control and it becomes less ac¬
curate. The capillary connecting tube should be protected from heat (or cold)
sources by means of insulation or a heat shield.
Solenoid Valve. Where for some reason there is a separation of more
than 10 ft between temperature-sensing point and water control point, a sole-
\

noid valve may be used to turn the water on and off in response to a tempera¬
ture switch. Although this method is not as conservative with the water supply
Heat Exchangers: Coolers 279

and is not as accurate in holding temperature, it must sometimes be used.

The solenoid valve must be suitable for water use and will usually be
of the pilot-operated type. The installation recommended is to install a throt¬
tling valve such as a needle type between the solenoid valve and the heat ex¬
changer, and to adjust the valve to limit water flow to a reasonable value when
the solenoid valve is open. The best setting of the needle valve can be deter¬
mined experimentally while operating with a full heat load. It should be
throttled as much as possible and still allow enough water flow to hold oil
temperature to the desired value. The needle valve should be downstream
from the solenoid valve.

7.3.4 Tips on Heat Dissipation by Radiation

The most economical heat transfer system will carry away heat gained in func¬
tional operation through the tank, conductors, and components. Assuming
that the hydraulic system has been carefully engineered and that a certain
amount of heat will be necessary for proper functioning of the equipment, some
installation procedures can aid in heat dissipation. The following list of sug¬
gestions is useful in making maximum use of heat dissipation by radiation:

1. Provide a light sheet-metal hood over the electric motor so that

the air passing through the motor also passes by the pump to pick
up heat radiated from the pump.
2. Keep the tank and plumbing away from steam lines, cleaning lines
using hot water, cleaning tanks, and other sources of heat.
3. Insulate the platens of steam presses and other equipment from
the ram or other hydraulic parts to minimize objectionable heat
transfer.
4. Do not operate at fluid pressures higher than necessary. Keep fluid
pressures as low as is consistent with good machine functioning.
5. Keep line sizes large enough to ensure a minimum of frictional
losses and subsequent heating.
6. Baffle the reservoir so that fluid will be forced to flow along the
outside walls of the tank.
7. Keep the bottom of the tank off the floor so that air can flow
around all tank surfaces.
8. Do not pile objects against the tank. They can stop airflow to the
tank surfaces.
9. Remove all debris from the top of the tank that may be acting as
a natural insulator.
280 Temperature Considerations

10. Consider light metal lines for return flows to increase radiation
capabilities.

7.4 MAINTENANCE AND SERVICE

7.4.1 Replacement of Zinc Anodes

Most brands of shell-and-tube heat exchangers come equipped with replace¬

able zinc anodes. These are screwed into one or both end bonnets in contact
with the fluid that circulates through the inside of the tubes. This should be
the water circuit when the exchanger is used for cooling hydraulic oil. The
purpose of these anodes is to protect the tubes from being eaten away by gal¬
vanic corrosion. Two-metal galvanic corrosion is a rapid corrosion of a metal
due to its being electrolytically connected to another metal in the presence
of an electrolyte. The electrolyte could be any fluild that would conduct an
electric current. Water circulated through a heat exchanger is nearly always
a conductor of electricity because of impurities in it. The cause of galvanic
corrosion is the difference between the individual tendencies of metals to be
acted on, or to combine with, electrolytic materials.
By placing zinc anodes in the water, the galvanic corrosion takes place
on the zinc, which is gradually eaten away. These anodes should be removed
and inspected every few months, or oftener if found necessary. Spare anodes
should be ordered from the heat exchanger manufacturer and always kept
on hand as spare parts. Anodes should be replaced when they have been con¬
sumed to less than half their original volume.

7.4.2 Cleaning Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

Fixed Tube Bundle
The inside of the tubes can be cleaned by removing the end bonnets, then using
a suitable wire brush or cleaning rod running through each individual tube.
The construction does not permit removing the bundle from the outer shell,
so the outside of the tubes cannot be mechanically cleaned. The best that can
be done is to use a solvent inside the shell if cleaning is deemed necessary.
Should steam be available, it can be used for cleaning the outside and the in¬
side of the tubes. It is not necessary to clean the inside surface of the shell
since no heat transfer takes place from this surface. The fact that the inside
of the tubes can be cleaned makes it normally desirable to flow the fluid
through them which is most apt to be fouling. This will generally be water
on oil-cooling applications.
When making the original heat exchanger selection, use a model with
small-diameter tubes if the water supply is clean. This gives the best heat
transfer for a given-size exchanger. If the water is apt to foul the tubes, select
Maintenance and Service 281

a model with larger-diameter tubes so that it can more easily be cleaned from
time to time. Water with a high mineral content will usually deposit a coating
over the tube surface in the course of time, reducing heat transfer capability.

Removable Tube Bundle

The construction of these units is such that the entire tube bundle can be re¬
moved from the shell for easier cleaning. These types of heat exchangers are
more costly than the fixed-tube-bundle models, and the ability to clean out¬
side the tubes is not of particular advantage on hydraulic oil applications since
the circulated oil is very clean and does not dirty the shell. They are of great
advantage when both fluids may cause deposit formations.

7.4.3 Cleaning Air-Oil Heat Exchangers

Dirt that may lodge in the radiator core or fins of these units may be removed
with a brush or with an air blow gun with the airstream directed opposite that
of airflow from the fan. The important thing is to be aware of dirt buildup
and to remove it promptly. Check to see that objects which would restrict
the airflow are not allowed near the radiator core.

7.4.4 Checking for Leaks

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers may occasionally develop a leak between the

shell and tubes. If water leaks into the oil, some of it may emulsify with the
oil, giving the fluid a milky appearance. The excess water will settle out.
To test for water in the oil, draw a small fluid sample and allow it to
stand overnight. This test will detect relatively large amounts of water. Small
amounts of water can form a relatively permanent emulsion that does not
readily settle out.
 8
Hydraulic System Fluids:
Selection and Care

Leading hydraulics system designers regard hydraulic fluids as the single most
important group of materials in hydraulic systems. The fluid is literally the
lifeblood of the system, the one element that ties everything together. With
proper selection and handling of the fluid, most of the potential problems
with the system can be prevented and the system can function more nearly
as it was designed.
Mistakes and oversights in selecting, storing, and installing the fluid or
in maintaining the hydraulic system can cause no end of trouble for operators
and maintenance people. According to fluid power industry spokesmen, be¬
tween, 70 and 85 % of all hydraulic system problems are directly related to
improper choice or handling of hydraulic fluids.
Heat and contamination degrade fluids while they are attacking other
system components: pumps, seals, cylinder walls, and so on. The result may
take some time to surface, but when it does, you can face costly downtime
while the cause is determined and a remedy applied.
People in the industry believe that fully 85% of all hydraulic fluid ever
installed leaks out: either slowly or in major line breaks or failures of fittings,
seals, and the like. Besides the obvious wastefulness, fluid jets, sprays, and
gushers can be very dangerous. Some are capable of penetrating the skin or
damaging the eyes and other organs. One expert estimates that 7 million bar¬
rels of hydraulic fluids are lost each year through leaks and line breaks. Be¬
sides causing human hazards and loss of production, fluid leaks are a major
cause of fires when ignition sources are nearby. Growing recognition of the
serious fire-risk problem has led to the widespread use of fire-resistant fluids
in many high-hazard areas.

282
Fluid Types and Properties 283

There is no such thing as a universal or ideal hydraulic fluid. One major

reason is the imposing list of fluid characteristics considered important by
users, system designers, and manufacturers. For that reason, selection of the
proper fluid for a given application is virtually always a compromise. To do
its job well, a hydraulic fluid must do at least six things:

1. Transfer fluid power efficiently

2. Lubricate the moving parts
3. Provide bearings in the clearances between parts
4. Absorb, carry, and transfer heat generated within the system
5. Be compatible with hydraulic components and fluid requirements
6. Remain stable against a wide range of possible physical and chem¬
ical changes, both in storage and in use

Resistance to oxidation is particularly significant. Burning, of course, is an

oxidation process. Slower oxidation reactions give rise to fluid degradation
with resultant formulation of such troublesome reaction products as sludge,
varnish, and gum, or with the formation of corrosive fluid that can attack
metallic components. Other changes that need to be resisted include physical
wear and pitting on pipe, tubing, and component surfaces; excessive swelling
or shrinking of seals, gaskets, and other materials; significant viscosity varia¬
tion; foaming; and evaporation.
Hydraulic fluid may travel through a system at velocities of 15 or 20
ft/sec or more. In compact mobile systems with small reservoirs, very high
turnover may pass the fluid completely through the circuit two or more times
a minute. On the other hand, where the reservoir is large, the fluid may get
to “rest” a bit between cycles, allowing it to transfer more of its heat and to
release entrained foam-causing air from the system.

8.1 FLUID TYPES AND PROPERTIES

The widespread use of the term “hydraulic oil” reflects the dominance of pe¬
troleum-base hydraulic fluids. Hydrocarbon oils protect well against rust, have
excellent lubricity, seal well, dissipate heat readily, and are easy to keep clean
by filtration or gravity separation of contaminants. Figure 8.1 tabulates the
important fluid characteristics and Figure 8.2 details the characteristics de¬
sirable for the various fluid types.

Petroleum Oils
Petroleum oil is quite a serviceable industrial hydraulic fluid when specifically
refined and formulated with various additives to prevent rust, oxidation
foaming, wear, and other problems, as long as heat and fire hazards are not
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284
Fluid Types and Properties 285

critical. But with all their useful properties, hydrocarbon oils do have one
important drawback —they burn, and at temperatures a good bit lower than
a number of other hydraulic fluid types. For that reason, several types of fire-
resistant hydraulic fluids are available, most of them more costly than petro¬
leum-base fluids, and several of which give away something in performance
for the added resistance to burning. It should be noted that the term “fire-re¬
sistant” is far from meaning “fireproof.” Under certain conditions, almost
any fluid can burn. However, fire-resistant fluid resist ignition, whereas pe¬
troleum-base oils ignite quickly and propagate a blazing flame.

Fire-Resistant Fluids
Apart from the so-called water-additive hydraulic fluids, there are four prin¬
cipal types of fire-resistant hydraulic fluids. Following are some of their prin¬
cipal advantages and limitations.
Phosphate Esters. Sometimes called the straight synthetic fluids, the
triaryl phosphate esters are excellent lubricants. In fact, they are the best
among fire-resistant types. They have good fire resistance and are better at
higher temperature ranges and at higher pressures than many other fire-re-
sistent fluids. However, they are less useful at lower temperatures, their high
specific gravity requires care in selecting pumps, and they are the most costly
of all the industrial fire-resistant hydraulic fluids.
Water Glycols. These fluids are true solutions, not emulsions, con¬
taining a three-component mixture of water (35 to 40%), a glycol, and a high-
molecular-weight water-soluble polyglycol. They have excellent fire resistance,
good lubricating properties, and are available in a range of viscosities. How¬
ever, they should not be used at temperatures higher than 120°F, and require
periodic checks on water content and additive levels because of evaporation.
Water-in-Oil Emulsions. These fluids, sometimes termed invert emul¬
sions, are intended for moderate-duty fire-resistent applications. They consist
of 35 to 40% water dispersed in petroleum oil by means of an emulsifying
additive package. They have adequate viscosity for hydraulic service; how¬
ever, although superior to petroleum oil, water-in-oil emulsions do not have
the inherent fire-resistance characteristics of either phosphate esters or water-
glycol fluids. They require greater care to avoid contamination and should
not be repeatedly frozen and thawed, which will cause the two fluid phases
to separate.
Oil/Synthetic Blends. Where fire hazards are moderate, blends of
phosphate esters and refined petroleum stocks are increasingly used, together
with a coupling agent to stabilize the solution. They have good lubricating
properties. Their fire-resistance characteristics reflect their composition, and
depend largely on the ratio of phosphate ester to petroleum oil.
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288 Hydraulic System Fluids: Selection and Care

Fire-resistant hydraulic fluids need careful selection for compatibility

with system components and even more care to keep them contamination-
free than do petroleum-base oils. A careful evaluation of the fire hazard is
important before using these fluids, both for safety and for economy.
For most users of hydraulic systems, the best rule of fluid selection is
to follow the system manufacturer’s recommendations. The fluid type that
has been chosen meets the system’s various requirements and demands, and
the manufacturer has to stand behind the choice. Just as it is folly to mix two
or more different hydraulic fluids in use, so is it simply asking for trouble
to install a type of fluid other than the one suggested by the hydraulic equip¬
ment manufacturer.

Water
Water in hydraulic systems has had an odd history. Used in some of the very
first hydraulic systems, it was soon replaced by petroleum oils because of the
limitations of water: freezing, evaporation, corrosiveness, poor lubricity, and
low viscosity. Now, with rising consciousness of fire risks, plus concern over
petroleum supplies and the high cost of synthetic chemical fluids, water hy¬
draulics is again attracting widespread interest.
The so-called water-additive fluids are of two basic types: oil-in-water
emulsions, “soluble oils” (water is the continuous phase); and water plus
chemical additives. The oil-in-water emulsions contain 2 to 10% oil dispersed
in water, while the chemicals-in-water fluids contain only 2 to 5% chemicals
and 98 to 95% water.
Making good use of the positive properties of water, such as its low cost,
ease of disposal, and nonflammability, these substances are looked upon as
the next-generation hydraulic fluids for quite a few industrial and mining
hydraulic systems. Industry personnel report that manufacturers of pumps
and other hydraulic system components are working hard to develop appro¬
priate hardware.

8.2 MAINTAINING FLUID PERFORMANCE

Fluid filtration is very important to keep contamination levels down. Many

of the newer fire-resistant fluids require even more attention to filtration than
do conventional hydraulic oils. Selection of appropriate filters, placement in
the proper parts of the system, and careful maintenance are all vital.
Checking the quantity of fluid in the system is important. Insufficient
fluid can limit complete extension of the cylinders. Low fluid levels can also
draw air into the system, creating “spongy” cylinder action and possibly set¬
ting up the conditions for one of the more costly hydraulic problems —pump
cavitation and the resultant high or catastrophic wear.
Maintaining Fluid Performance 289

Cavitation is a compression/expansion process in which tiny gas or

vapor bubbles expand explosively at the pump outlet, causing metal erosion,
leading ultimately to pump destruction. Some experts regard the action as
implosion rather than explosion. Be that as it may, what the user will hear
is a buzzing, rattling sound. This is an early warning signal of cavitation. The
sound is that of a handful of stones tossed into the pump.
When it comes to checking fluid quality, operators should periodically
inspect the cleanliness, color, thickness or viscosity, and perhaps the odor of
the fluid. Beyond these checks, there are numerous standard laboratory tests
that can be used to determine everything from foaming tendencies and load¬
carrying ability to oxidation and thermal stability. The key to checking fluids
in service is to look for changes in fluid properties. Such changes represent
warning signals that can indicate a need for corrective action.
Two other points bear repetition in any discussion of the proper main¬
tenance of fluid in a hydraulic system. First, with the problems and costs
associated with fluid leakage, good practice must include thorough attention
to system integrity or leaktightness to minimize this difficulty. In some in¬
stances, operators have gone so far as to weld many or most connections,
although this is often impractical.
Second, and bearing on the destructive effects of excessive heat on fluids
and other system components, good operating practice limits the temperature
range within which a hydraulic system operates. Proper design and mainte¬
nance of the fluid reservoir is important in this respect. Heat exchangers are
becoming more commonplace in hydraulic systems to aid heat dissipating.
Following is a list of pointers on handling hydraulic fluid.

1. Use only the type and grade of hydraulic fluid recommended by

the hydraulic equipment maker or a fluid manufacturer; do not
mix fluids.
2. Store fluid containers inside or under a roof and on their sides to
minimize entry of water and dirt.
3. Clean the cap and the drum top thoroughly before opening.
4. Use only clean hoses and containers to transfer fluid from cans
or drums to the hydraulic reservoir; use a fluid-transfer pump
equipped with a 25-jnm filter.
5. Use a 200-mesh screen on the reservoir filler pipe.
6. Replace fluid at the recommended interval; drain the system when
it is warm to remove the maximum amount of contaminants.
7. Flush and refill the system exactly as recommended; be certain to fill
to the proper level; overfilling is as troublesome as underfilling.
290 Hydraulic System Fluids: Selection and Care

8. Service hydraulic filters and air breathers at recommended inter¬

vals.
9. Train operators in the proper use of quick-connect fittings to
eliminate contaminant entry; fittings should be wiped clean before
use and should be covered or cupped when not in use. The same
care should be exercised in replacing hydraulic system components
or in general maintenance.
10. Check the hydraulic system thoroughly to eliminate leaks or con¬
taminant entry points; keeping hydraulic fluid out of plant efflu¬
ent makes more sense than having to separate it later for proper
disposal.
11. Never return leaked fluid to the system.

Figure 8.3 lists the viscosity for common hydraulic fluids and Fig. 8.4
tabulates the fluid viscosity range recommended for various hydraulic pumps
and motors. A graphic presentation of the viscosity/fluid temperature rela¬
tionship for a number of different fluids is presented in Fig. 8.5.

Viscosity
Fluid (SSU 100°F)

Plain water 30
High-water content synthetics 30
Water glycol 200
Phosphate ester 230
Oil-synthetic blend 300
Water-in-oil emulsion 450
Petroleum oil 215

Figure 8.3 Viscosities of common hydraulic fluids.

 Viscosity range (SSU)

Component Permissible Optimum

Vane pump, 1200 rpm 80-1000 125-250

Vane pump, 1800 rpm 100-1000 120-250
Vane motor 80-1000 120-250
Radial piston pump 60-300 80-220
Axial piston pump or motor 40-350 80-200
Gear pump 40-1000 120-250
(industrial applications)

Figure 8.4 Typical recommended viscosities.

1078
862
648
431
323
VISCOSITY, SAYBOLT UNIVERSAL SECONDS

216
162
VISCOSITY, CENTISTOKES
108
86
65
48.0
43.2
36.5
32.0
27.5
23.0
20.6
18.2
15.7
14.5
13.2
11.8
10.5
8.8

7.5
6.8
6.1
5.7
5.0

4.2

Figure 8.5 ASTM standard viscosity-temperature chart for petroleum products.

(Courtesy of Sun Oil Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.)

291
 9
Fluid Conductors
and Connectors

9.1 PIPE, TUBING, AND HOSE

Often, the method of marrying interacting components of a system is a minor

consideration. We know that there must be some sort of fluid-carrying link
between components, but the way it is done is sometimes considered arbitrary.
This attitude may result in a system that is inefficient, unsafe, unattractive,
and difficult to service. Conductors of a fluid power system are basically of
three types: pipe, tubing, and hose.

9.1.1 Pipe

Pipe is a rigid conductor that is not intended to be bent or shaped into a de¬
sired configuration. Pipe can be manufactured and purchased in a variety of
materials, such as cast iron, steel, copper, aluminum, brass, and stainless steel.
Pneumatic systems generally require corrosion-resistant pipe. Hydraulic sys¬
tems use steel pipe. Galvanized pipe is not recommended for use in hydraulic
systems because the zinc coating of the pipe interacts unfavorably with oil.
The inside diameter of a pipe, or any fluid-carrying conductor, is an
important consideration. For if the inside diameter is too small, a large
amount of friction results, which translates into undesirable system inefficiency
and wasted energy (see Fig. 9.1). Wall thickness of a fluid conductor de¬
termines its pressure rating. Wall thickness of a pipe is identified by its sched¬
ule number. There are 10 schedule numbers, ranging from 10 to 160. Sched¬
ule numbers 40, 80, and 160 are the most commonly used pipe in fluid power
systems. Schedule 40 pipe has a wall thickness rated for low pressure, schedule
80 is for high pressure, and schedule 160 is for very high pressure (see Fig. 9.2).

292
Pipe, Tubing, and Hose 293

TUBE PIPE

Pipe connections are made by means of threaded joints. To join a pipe

to a component or pipe fitting, a threaded end of a pipe (male end) is screwed
into a female thread of a component or fitting. Pipe threads have another
function besides joining, and that is sealing. To form a seal, pipe threads are
tapered on the diameter 1/16 in. per inch of length. As a male pipe thread
tightens into a female pipe thread, the metal-to-metal interference that oc¬
curs is intended to form a seal. In actual practice, however, temperature
changes, vibration, system shock, or an imperfect thread may tend to destroy
the sealing capabilities of the metal-to-metal joint. For this reason, thread
sealants of various types are commonly used to help make and maintain the
seal.

9.1.2 Tubing

Tubing is a semirigid fluid conductor which is customarily bent into a desired

shape. The use of tubing gives a neat-appearing system, a system less suscep¬
tible to leaks and vibration, and a system whose conductors can easily be
removed and replaced for maintenance purposes.
Tubing is made from a variety of materials, including steel, copper,
brass, aluminum, stainless steel, and plastic. Hydraulic fluid power systems
generally use steel tubing. Just as other tubular materials, tubing is measured
by its outside diameter, inside diameter, and wall thickness. The inside diam¬
eter determines how much fluid flow the tubing can efficiently pass. Wall
thickness determines the maximum pressure at which the material can be used
for any given inside diameter. Tubing size is indicated by its actual outside
diameter. For example, 1/8-in. tubing has an actual outside diameter of 1/8
in. Tubing inside diameter depends on wall thickness.
 Listed as Std., X or XX Listed by schedule numbers

294
Figure 9.2 Dimensions of welded and seamless steel pipe. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)
Pipe, Tubing, and Hose 295

Tubing is connected to system components and to other conductors by

means of tube fittings. Basically, there are two types of tube fittings used:
flared fittings and flareless fittings. A flared fitting consists of a body, sleeve,
and nut. When using a flared fitting, the nut and sleeve are slipped over the
tubing end. The tubing is usually flared to 37 or 45°, depending on the fit¬
ting used. When the nut is screwed onto the body, it draws the sleeve and
tubing flare against the body, forming a seal.
A flareless fitting consists of a body, sleeve, and nut. To use a flareless
fitting, the nut and sleeve are slipped over the tubing. Then the tubing is in¬
serted into the fitting body, where it butts up against a shoulder. As the nut
is screwed onto the body, the sleeve bites into the tubing; and as the nut is
turned more, a ledge of tube material forms ahead of the sleeve, causing it
to bow. The bowed sleeve acts like a spring, ensuring that the nut is held in
place against vibration.

9.1.3 Hose

Hose is a flexible fluid conductor which can adapt to machine members that
move. Hose is made up of three basic elements: inner tube, reinforcement,
and cover (see Fig. 9.3). The inner tube is the lining of a hose, which con¬
tacts a fluid. Inner-tube materials are designed to be compatible with the fluid
being conducted. Hose reinforcement is the fabric, cord, or metal layers that
surround an inner tube. These elements give strength to the hose to withstand
internal pressures and external forces. A hose cover is the outer hose layer.
It is designed to protect the inner tube and reinforcing layers from chemical
attack, mechanical damage, sunlight, and abrasions.
Hose size is customarily given by a dash number, which offers some
identification as to its inside diameter. Dash numbers indicate sixteenths of
an inch. A - 8 is equivalent to 8/16 in. or 1/2 in. A - 8 hose means that the

Cotton layer Steel wire

Cotton layer
I

Figure 9.3 Hose construction. (Courtesy of Aeroquip Corp., Jackson, Michigan.)

296 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

inside hose diameter is 1/2 in. or a little less. The type and number of rein¬
forcing layers of a hose determine under what system conditions it may be
used. Hose pressure classifications are suction, medium pressure, high pres¬
sure, and very high pressure.
Hose is connected to system components and to pipe or tubing by means
of hose fittings. Hose fittings are classified as permanent or reusable. With
a permanent hose fitting, the hose is inserted into the fitting between nipple
and socket. The socket is then crimped or swaged to hold the hose. Barbs
on the outside diameter of the nipple ensure that the hose is securely held
in place. Reusable hose fittings are screwed or clamped to a hose end. They
can be removed from a worn hose and reassembled onto a replacement hose.
A skive-type fitting is a screw-on design for use on hoses with a thick
outer cover. This cover is removed (skived) from the ends prior to fitting in¬
stallation. A no-skive-type fitting is a screw-on design for use on hose with
a thin outer cover. This cover does not require removal prior to fitting in¬
stallation (Fig. 9.4). A clamp-type fitting is designed with a barbed nipple
which is inserted into a hose. Two clamp halves are then bolted together to
provide a leakproof grip.

9.2 CONNECTORS
9.2.1 Tube Fittings
Tubing is the logical choice for flow lines in many hydraulic and pneumatic
systems. The reasons for this preference vary, but more often than not, the
determining factor is the ease of assembly and disassembly associated with
tubing lines.
The key assembly element for tubing connections is the tube fitting. To¬
day, these fittings are produced in many types, styles, forms, and materials,
offering a wide range of choice in solving specific tubing connection prob¬
lems. To determine which fitting is best for a specific job, several factors must
be taken into account. Typical questions that should be answered are: What
pressure and temperature conditions are involved? What is the nature of the
working fluid? In what kind of environment will the system be used? For ex¬
ample, consider a hydraulic system that is to be operated in a highly corro¬
sive atmosphere. In a normal atmosphere, such a system would call for steel
fittings and tubing, but under the circumstances, a change in fitting and tubing
material is dictated.
In certain types of hydraulic systems, the operation of various compo¬
nents can cause dangerous pressure surges or set up severe shock conditions.
It is not uncommon for a hydraulic unit operating at 1000 psi to develop shock
loads of 5000 to 8000 psi when solenoid valves are used. In a similar situa¬
tion, a 5000-psi system was actually found to peak at 30,000 psi, causing fail-
Connectors 297

Figure 9.4 Available hose connector thread configurations, (a) Thread seal, metal
to metal, (b) Flare seal to cone seat, (c) O ring seal, (d) Split-flange O-ring seal. (Cour¬
tesy of Aeroquip Corp., Jackson, Michigan.)

ure of a backwelded pipe system by stress cracking of the pipe. This type of
failure can be both dangerous and costly. It could have been averted by a
thorough examination of system operating conditions. Many more examples
of this type could be cited.
Three basic types of fittings are in common use: (1) flared; (2) compres¬
sion, or flareless; and (3) permanent (brazed, sweated, welded). Some of these
fittings have been standardized. Many have not. In certain instances, oper¬
ating characteristics and assembly features overlap, offering optional choices
in fitting selection.

Flared Fittings
Fittings of the flared type can be further classified into two categories: the
45° style, which is commonly designated the SAE type, and the 37° style. The
angle in each case refers to the slope of the flared tube surface with the cen¬
terline of the tubing. Both of these fitting styles have been standardized by
the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers).
298 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

The 37° flared fitting is a refinement of the 45° design. Two versions
of this fitting are available. One is a two-piece unit. The other 37° fitting
style is a three-piece arrangement, which is made up of an externally threaded
body similar to that of the two-piece version, a shouldered sleeve insert with
the 37° mating tapered seat on one end, and an internally threaded sleeve nut
that is assembled on the body thread to lock the sleeve in proper seated posi¬
tion. When the sleeve is seated, the untapered end extends through the nut
for added tube support (see Fig. 9.5).
The three-piece design is a more rugged construction that is suited for
high-pressure service and severe operating conditions, including vibration,
mechanical strain, and elevated temperatures. These fittings produce a fluid-
tight joint that will hold beyond the burst pressure of conventional tubing
lines. This fitting style is used almost exclusively for hydraulic and pneumatic
systems in aircraft (see Fig. 9.5). The effectiveness and reliability of the fit¬
tings depends primarily on the quality of the tubing flare. The 37° fittings
are available in steel, stainless steel, and brass.
In addition to the conventional flared fittings, a fitting classified as a
self-flaring type is available. This fitting generally consists of four parts: body,
37° flare cone insert, compression sleeve, and nut. The aim of this design is

Figure 9.5 Conventional 45° or 37° flared tube fitting.

Connectors 299

to have the fitting form a flare on the tube end during assembly, eliminating
the need for a separate flaring operation. For assembly, the unflared tube
end is inserted into the fitting. As the nut is tightened, the compression sleeve
grips the tubing and forces it to flare out over the flare cone insert to form
the required seal. A series of cone insert sizes have been developed for use
with the fitting to accommodate tubes of varying wall thickness (see Fig. 9.6).

Compression Fittings (Fig. 9.7)

The need for a tube fitting that would eliminate the separate flaring opera¬
tion was recognized some 60 years ago when the first compression (flareless)
fitting was introduced. Although construction details vary considerably, oper¬
ation of all of these fittings is based on the same general idea: As the nut is
tightened on the body of the fitting, a compression grip is developed by a me¬
chanical locking device to hold the end of the tubing in place.
From a production view, the compression fitting offers several attractive
features. Tube preparation is kept to a minimum and usually can be handled with

4-PIECE CONSTRUCTION 3-PIECE CONSTRUCTION

Figure 9.6 Self-flare fittings.

300 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

Figure 9.7 Compression fittings.

conventional equipment. The need for special tube flaring equipment is eliminat¬
ed. The assembly procedure for tubing connections becomes a relatively simple
operation that can be handled by semiskilled operators with little special training.

Fitting Forms
Each fitting type is usually available in many different forms to meet the
various connection requirements encountered in tubing layouts. These forms
include straights, elbows, tees, crosses, and other configurations for pipe-to-
tube, tube-to-tube, tube-to-component, and port connections. In some in¬
stances, the range of available parts encompasses “jump sizes,” such as 3/8
to 1/2 in., and others.

9.2.2 Straight-Thread O-Ring Fittings (Fig. 9.8)

In the past when leaks occurred in a hydraulic system, it was pretty much
standard practice to grab a wrench and a can of pipe dope and set to work
 Connectors 301

Figure 9.8 SAE O-ring boss design.

302 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

fixing the culprit. Unfortunately, these attempts to overcome leakage fre¬

quently compounded the problem. Pipe fittings were overtightened, result¬
ing in damaged threads and in cracked or distorted valve bodies or other com¬
ponents in the circuit. In addition, positioning requirements of tapered pipe
elbows and tees often forced overtightening with inevitable damage.
In an effort to solve these hydraulic circuit leakage problems, O-ring
fittings were developed. These fittings overcome the problems encountered
with pipe fittings, for at least five important reasons:

1. No casting distortion: SAE straight-thread connector fittings

shoulder securely, providing a positive seal and a tight, mechanical
joint without the hazard of leak-producing distortion.
2. Exact positioning without “backing off ’ or overtightening: With
straight-thread elbow or tee fittings, you can turn the fitting to the
exact position required, then tighten the locknut securely and a leak-
proof seal is assured.
3. “Pipe dope” eliminated: Positive seal of straight thread fittings
in an SAE O-ring boss does away with the need for messy “pipe
dope” (or other auxiliary sealing devices) and the danger that it may
contaminate the hydraulic system.
4. No temperature or shock leaks: With straight threads you elim¬
inate the danger of leaks due to temperature changes or high-shock
conditions.
5. Mechanically rigid connection: Proper torque can be applied be¬
cause in straight-thread ports the fittings are working on full, per¬
fect threads. This results in a solid connection that is completely
rigid.

9.3 INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS

9.3.1 Pipe Installation
Threading of pipe requires removal of metal. This means that bare metal is
exposed at the thread. When a threaded connection is made, it is advised that
some sort of protective and sealant compound be applied to the threads to
avoid corrosion and to effect a seal. Protecting pipe threads from corrosion
will aid in case the joint has to be disconnected. When any type of sealant
and protective coating is applied to a pipe thread, the coating should be ap¬
plied only up to the second pipe thread from the end. This avoids contam¬
inating the system with the coating material.
There is a precaution to observe when screwing in a pipe. Since pipe
threads are tapered, the more a pipe is screwed into a component housing
Installation Considerations 303

or fitting, the more likelihood there is of rupturing the housing or fitting from
the wedging action of the joint.

9.3.2 Tubing Installation

In general, conductors of a system should be kept short and as straight as
possible. This is one of the factors in an efficient system. However, tubing
runs should not be assembled in a straight line. Bends in tubing absorb vibra¬
tions and compensate for the strain of thermal expansion and contraction.
Some tightening, routing, and bending precautions that should be taken with
tubing systems are presented on Figs. 9.9 to 9.11.

Recommended turns of tightness

(after finger tightening)
Line size Flare nut size
(outside (across flats, Tightness Original
diameter, in.) in.) (ft-lb) assembly Reassembly

3/16 7/16 10 1/3 1/6

1/4 9/16 10 1/4 1/12
5/16 5/8 10-15 1/4 1/6
3/8 11/16 20 1/4 1/6
1/2 7/8 30-40 1/6 to 1/4 1/12
5/8 1 80-110 1/4 1/6
3/4 1 1/4 100-120 1/4 1/6

SAE 37° flare installation

Figure 9.9 How to tighten flare-type tube fittings. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co.,
Waterloo, Iowa.)
304 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

(d)
A —Good Bend C —Kinked Bend
B —Flattened Bend D —Wrinkled Bend

Figure 9.10 Tube bending problems. (Courtesy of Aeroquip Corp., Jackson,

Michigan.)

9.3.3 Hose Installation

During operation, hose should not be scraped or chafed. This eventually
weakens the hose. Hose should not be twisted during installation or system
operation. Twisting a hose reduces life considerably and may help in loosen¬
ing hose fittings. A twisted hose can easily be detected by examining the line
along the hose cover. It should not appear twisted. Hose should not be stretched
tightly between two fittings but should be allowed to sag a little. When hose
is subjected to system pressure, it expands in diameter and shrinks in length.

9.4 PLANT AIR LINE PIPING SYSTEMS

Once the air has been compressed, cooled, and dried by the aftercooler and
stored in the receiver tank, it is ready for the piping system. The three types
of piping systems used most commonly are (1) the dead-end or grid system;
(2) the unit or decentralized system; and (3) the loop system. The grid system
is the simplest of the plant air piping systems. It is often called the dead-end
system. It is simple in construction, consisting of a central main with small
feeder lines and headers. The mains decrease in size away from the com¬
pressor, while feeder lines are generally of uniform size. Outlets are provided
at convenient points on the feeder lines, and points between feeders may be
served by cross-connecting any two adjacent legs (see Fig. 9.12). Although
this is perhaps the simplest system and the least expensive to install, only one
flow path is available and work stations near the ends of the system are sub¬
ject to insufficient air supply (air starvation) when upstream demand is heavy.
Plant Air Line Piping Systems 305

The unit or decentralized system may consist of two or more grids, each
with its own compressor. The individual units may be interconnected if de¬
sired, Compressors are closer to the system using the air, allowing shorter
supply lines. This means lower pressure drops, resulting in a more uniform
air supply and system pressure. Decentralized systems are more versatile than
single grids and more easily adapted to changing requirements.
The preferred piping system is the loop system. This type allows the op¬
timum conductor size and assures more equal distribution through the plant.
This arrangement provides a parallel path to all work points. At points of
heavy momentary demands for air, a receiver can be used to store the energy
for peak demands, preventing serious pressure loss and air starvation (Fig.
9.13).
When laying out the circuit or distribution loop, give careful attention
to reducing the number of fittings to a minimum and keeping bend radii as
large as possible. Tubing, because it is smoother than pipe, provides better
flow and reduces pressure drop. Its real advantages are the major reduction
in the number of fittings required with fewer possible leak points and a smaller
pressure drop. Pipe fittings generally have five times the pressure drop of an
equivalent size 90° bend.
Distribution mains, feeders, and headers should have a small slope
(perhaps as much as 14 in./ft) to ensure that condensed water will be swept
by airflow to drains. Water legs fitted with automatic drains should be pro¬
vided at low spots on the main and on drop legs. Drop legs should be taken
from the top of the main header, with the bend made of the same-size con¬
ductor as the leader line, or with a bend of 180° around a radius large enough
to ensure low-pressure drops. By taking air from the top of the main, most
of the dirt and water is excluded. Drains, preferably automatic, should be
provided at the bottom of each drop line at the end of a water leg (Fig. 9.14).
Although pneumatic leaks do not usually promote a housekeeping prob¬
lem such as that caused by hydraulic leaks, fixing them is still important.
Leaks waste air and reduce system performance. In terms of air cost alone,
leaks equivalent to a Vi-in. hole can waste about 12 million cubic feet of air
per month. At an average cost of 10 cents per 1000 ft3 of compressed air, this
leakage costs about $1200 per month. The major cost of leakage is the cost
of electricity to keep the compressor running to make up the losses. Of course,
the longer the compressor runs, the more maintenance is required, and finally
the life of the compressor is reduced (see Fig. 9.15).
Frequently, serious leaks are audible. It is a good idea to “listen” for
leaks when most of the plant is shut down for a shift change or at the end
of a workweek. As another test, soapy water solutions or commercial leak¬
detecting fluid can be applied to suspected runs or connections. One very ef¬
fective method for automatically detecting the presence of leaks and their
306 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

CORRECT

Figure 9.11 Tubing installations. (Courtesy of Aeroquip Corp., Jackson, Michigan.)

Hose and Fittings 307

CORRECT

Figure 9.11 (continued)

order of magnitude is the two-clock system. The clocks are connected to the
compressor system by automatic controls. One clock shows total elapsed time.
The other is circuited through the motor control and runs only when the com¬
pressor is under load. Then at predetermined times, such as on weekends or
at night when the air system is not in use, the clocks are started and run for
a set period, usually 1 hr, and then stopped. Comparing the clocks makes
it possible to determine the amount of air lost through leaks. Automatic equip¬
ment can make a permanent record.
Still another and perhaps faster procedure is to shut the system down
and time how long it takes for system pressure to drop to a minimum value.
This could be done at night when the plant is down. It is during this period
that there is time to repair any leaks and fix other problems.

9.5 SELECTION, USE, AND CARE OF HOSE AND FITTINGS

Hydraulic hose assemblies are the lifelines of modern hydraulic systems. They
carry fluids under tremendous pressure to deliver power where it is needed:
power to move earth, drill through rock, and lift heavy loads. Hose and coup¬
lings have replaced bulky and expensive tubing systems in machinery, ena-
308 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

Figure 9.12 Compressed air distribution systems. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin

Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)

bling complex production operations once thought to be impossible. Hose

assemblies must perform under all types of adverse conditions. Some modern
hydraulic systems reach pressures of over 10,000 psi and temperatures can
be as high as 400°F. Constant shock and vibration adds to the punishment
that hose assemblies must absorb. The outside environment also has an ef¬
fect. Extreme heat or cold, caustic solutions, sunlight, and many other fac¬
tors also affect hose life. Add to this the constant flexing, bending, abrasion,

Figure 9.13 Loop-style air distribution system. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corp.,
Cleveland, Ohio.)
 Figure 9.14 Recommended air drop line arrangement tee off top to supply all equipment. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin
Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)

309
310 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

Approximate
Diameter of Air loss power loss Air loss per Cost per
leak (in.) (cfm) (hp) month (1000 ft3) month

1/32 1 1/5 43 6.5

1/16 4 1/4 7/8 180 27.0
1/8 17 3 1/2 730 109.5
1/4 70 14 3,000 450.0
3/8 150 30 6,500 975.0
1/2 270 54 11,700 1,755.0

Note: Based on cost of $0.15 per 1000 ft3 and orifice coefficient of 0.65.

Figure 9.15 Cost of air leaks. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin Corp., Cleveland,
Ohio.)

and all types of physical abuse a hose is subjected to and you can see why
hose failures are the most common cause of hydraulic system problems. Leaks
can also be real headaches. A steady drip can add up to thousands of dollars
in oil over a short period of time.
While hose assemblies, like many other components, have a certain life
span and are bound to wear out eventually, there are several things you can
do to ensure maximum performance and longer life. We will discuss the im¬
portance of selecting the right hose and couplings for the job, following the
correct assembly procedures, using good installation and routing techniques,
and diagnosing failures to prevent their reoccurrence.
Hose and couplings are manufactured in a wide range of designs, each
meeting certain requirements. If the hose selected does not meet the pressure
requirements of the system, cannot withstand the heat, or is not compatible
with the fluid used, you are in for an early failure (Fig. 9.16).
Hoses consist of three basic parts: the inner tube, which carries the fluid;
the reinforcement, which provides the resistance to pressure; and the cover,
which protects the hose from outside elements. The inner tube must be flexi¬
ble and compatible with the fluid being carried. Synthetic rubber, thermo¬
plastic, nylon, and Teflon are some of the compounds used. The reinforce¬
ment layer provides the strength to withstand the system’s pressure. One or
more layers of cotton, synthetic yarn, or wire are braided or spirally wound
or wrapped over the inner tube. The spiral wire reinforcement provides bet¬
ter flexibility, more resistance to failure, and a greater maximum working
pressure than does braid reinforcement, it is also more expensive to manu¬
facture. The hose cover protects the reinforcement from abrasion and corro¬
sion. The cover carries a name, part number, the hose size, SAE number or
Hose and Fittings 311

rating, and date of manufacture. This information on the cover is referred

to in the industry, as the lay line.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has recommended stand¬
ards for the hydraulic hose industry. 100R numbers from R1 to R11 are used
to indicate hose performance capabilities and construction. For example,
100R1 is rubber hose with one layer of wire-braid reinforcement. It is suit¬
able for the most medium-pressure applications. 100R11 has a heavy wire-
wrap reinforcement and is used in extremely high pressure systems.
Hose and coupling sizes are usually expressed in dash numbers. The in¬
side diameter of the hose is converted to sixteenths of an inch, and the num¬
ber of sixteenths becomes the dash number. A Vi-m. ID would equal 8/16
in. or - 8. A 1-in. ID would equal 16/16 or - 16. Couplings or fittings are
manufactured to very close tolerances. Each is designed to be used with a spe¬
cific type and size of hose. There are both permanent and reusable couplings.
Permanent couplings are generally of one-piece design. These couplings
grip the hose when the outer shell or ferrule is crimped or swaged. Die marks
are visible on crimped couplings. Permanent couplings are less expensive and
more compact than reusables, but when the hose fails, the entire assembly,
including the couplings, must be thrown away. Reusable couplings come in
three basic styles: push-on, screw-together, and clamp type. One advantage
of these couplings is that they can be reused if the hose fails.

1. Use single wire 2. Use double wire

braid hose if braid hose if 3. Use spiral wire
system working system working hose if system
Hose size pressure equals pressure equals working pressure
(in.) (psi): (psi): equals (psi):

1/4 3000 5000

3/8 2250 4000 5000
1/2 2000 3500 4000
5/8 1750 2750
3/4 1500 2250 3000
1 800 1875 3000
1 1/4 600 1625 3000
1 1/2 500 1250 3000
2 350 1125 2500

Figure 9.16 Selecting hose for various pressures. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co.,
Waterloo, Iowa.)
312 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

The connecting or threaded end of a coupling enables one to attach the

hose assembly to a component in a hydraulic system. The socket accepts nip¬
ples with many different types of connecting ends. You can select a connect¬
ing end to match the port on the piece of equipment on which you are work¬
ing. Be careful not to confuse 37° with 45° flares, or National Pipe Thread
with SAE O-ring boss ports. Couplings must be compatible with the fluid be¬
ing carried through them. Carbon steel couplings are acceptable for most ap¬
plications, but when corrosive chemicals are present, stainless steel or brass
couplings should be used.
While we are dealing with the subject of couplings, let us look at the
basic causes of fluid system leakage. The basic causes of fluid system leakage
with connections are:

1. Human error
2. Lack of quality control
3. Poor protection of fittings in handling
4. Difficulty in reaching fitting connections
5. Lack of training
6. Poor selection of materials
7. Improper design of system

A common cause of leakage in hydraulic hoses and hose assemblies is exces¬

sive twisting. This occurs most often on equipment where the hose connects
two parts and one or both move. To find leaks, first pinpoint the location.
To make sure that the leak is not up higher and draining down, wash down
the leakage area and watch for the leak to reappear. You can place a paper
towel above the connection and it will catch any fluid dropping from above.
Next, you must determine if the leak is from a valve, motor, pump, shaft,
a cracked casting, or if indeed it is from the fitting connection on the hose
assembly. Remember that seepers or weepers can be hard to locate, and do
not assume that it is the hose/fitting without first checking the rest of the sys¬
tem.
Leak problem areas on Dryseal Pipe Thread and SAE 45° and 37° fit¬
ting seats are due to the lack of tightening, human error, or just the lack of
training. You cannot tell if the nut has been tightened by just looking at the
connection. If it is more than finger-tight, you cannot tell from observation
how much it has been tightened. A torque wrench is a good solution for this
problem —but only when it is used. Furthermore, you must rely on the user
of the wrench to be sure that the torque wrench becomes a common practice
in that shop. Also, the employee must depend on his or her memory —has
he or she tightened all the connections?
Hose and Fittings 313

One foolproof method of tightening a fitting is to tighten the nut until

it bottoms the seat, by hand, then mark a horizontal line on the nut and ex¬
tend it on to the adapter or other connection. Now, using a wrench, rotate
the nut to tighten an amount equal to one-third or more of a revolution, de¬
pending on the size of the fitting. The misalignment of the marks previously
made will show how much the nut was tightened, and best of all, that it was
tightened.
Now, what must be done if the joints leak after they have been tight¬
ened? First, disconnect the line and check for the following:

1. Are any foreign particles in the fittings? If so, wash them off.
2. Does the fitting have a cracked seat caused by overtightening? If it
does, you will have to replace the fitting and start over.
3. Are the threads compatible? If not, select fittings that are.
4. Check for deep nicks in the seats; if present, replace fittings.
5. Look for excessive seat impression; this indicates too soft a material
for the pressure involved. Threads will stretch under high pressure,
so you may want to use a fitting made out of different and/or
stronger material.
6. Check for chatter or tool marks on the seats. If present, replace
the fitting.

Remember, on many of the leakage problems on these types of connections

the indications will not show up for a number of service hours.
Leak problem areas on SAE straight-thread O-ring seals may be caused
by the following:

1. Elbows loosen up after a short service

2. O-ring leakage after short service or after long service
3. Leakage right after startup
All of these problems may be caused by either human error or faulty parts.
The cures for these are: (1) jam nut and washer must be to the back side of
the smooth portion of the elbow adaptors; (2) lubricate the O ring —this is
very important; (3) thread into port until washer bottoms onto the spot face;
and (4) position elbows by backing up the adapter and tighten the jam nut.
O-ring lubrication is important because the fitting engages to a point
where the O ring touches the face of the boss into which it is being fastened.
Lubrication on the O ring will permit it to move in the downward direction
into the chamfer or recess. When the O ring and the boss are dry, rotary mo¬
tion of the assembly can cause friction and the O ring will tend to turn and
314 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

twist. Also, the jam nut and washer cannot bottom fully if the O ring is be¬
tween the washer and the face of the boss.
The SAE four-bolt split flange is a face seal. The shoulder, which con¬
tains the seal, must fit squarely against the mating surface and be held there
with even tension on all bolts. The shoulder protrudes past the flange halves;
this is to ensure that the shoulder will make contact with the mating acces¬
sory surface before the flange does. The flange halves overhang the shoulder
on the ends so that the bolts will clear the shoulder.
This connection is very sensitive to human error and bolt torquing. Be-
cause of the shoulder protrusion on the flange overhang, the flanges tend to
tip up when the bolts are tightened, first on one end, then on the other, in
a seesaw manner. This pulls the opposite end of the flange away from the
shoulder and when hydraulic pressure is applied to the line, it pushes the
shoulder back into a cocked position.
To cure this, all bolts must be installed and torqued evenly. Finger
tightening with the use of a feeler gauge will help to get the flanges and
shoulder started squarely. When the full torque is applied to the bolts, the
flanges often bend down until they bottom on the accessory or the O-ring
seal. This also causes the bolts to bend outward. Bending of the flanges and
bolts tends to lift the flanges off the shoulder in the center area. In order to
prevent this from occurring, one should lubricate the O ring before assem¬
bly. All mating surfaces must be clean and all bolts must be torqued evenly.
To determine what hose and coupling you need, look in the appropriate
parts or service manual for the equipment that is being worked on. Here you
should be able to locate the part number and/or more important, the per¬
formance requirements, to help you make the proper selection (see Fig. 9.17).
If a hose fails simply because of old age, check the lay line for the SAE 100R
rating number and hose size. Your job becomes easy here; just replace it with
the same type of hose.
For best performance, a hose should be selected to meet the service con¬
ditions under which it is to be used. Before deciding on the size and type, you
must consider the pressure, temperature, fluid type, and possible contam¬
inants. Catalogs supply information on operating and burst pressures, tem¬
perature ranges, bend radius, and fluid compatibility which can make select¬
ing a replacement hose easier. If you are not sure which hose to pick, select
a higher-pressure hose than you feel the job calls for. It is better to spend
a few extra dollars than to risk an early failure.
Once you have selected the correct hose and couplings, they must be
assembled properly. First, hoses must be cut to the proper length. The hose
length equals the overall length of the assembly minus the distance the coup¬
lings extend beyond the ends of the hose. The cut must be clean and square
Hose and Fittings 315

REUSABLE, CLAMPED (Anchor Coupling Co.)

INTERNALLY SEGMENTED (Aeroquip Corp.)

Figure 9.17 Typical hose fitting styles.

in order to seat properly. Be careful of the hose ends; those exposed wires
are sharp! Under pressure, hoses can shorten up to 4% of their total length
or lengthen by as much as 2%. A 50-in. assembly, for example, can shorten
as much as 2 in. Provide enough slack to account for this change in dimension.
To assemble push-on couplings, place the coupling in a vise and lightly
oil the nipple and the inside of the hose. Then grip the hose a few inches from
the end and push it on all the way. To remove the coupling, slit the end of
the hose, being careful not to nick the shank. Grasp the hose near the coup¬
ling and snap it off.
316 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

To assemble screw-together couplings, place the socket in a vise and turn

the hose into the socket until it bottoms. Then back it off one-fourth to one-
half turn. Next, lubricate the nipple and the inside of the hose with heavy
oil. Then thread the nipple into the socket, leaving a small gap. Always make
certain that the lubricating oil is compatible with the tube. Some couplings
require a mandrel for assembly. It is threaded to the nipple and prevents the
end of the nipple from damaging the inner tube during assembly. Some coup¬
lings are designed to bite directly into the wire reinforcement. For these, the
cover must be skived or peeled off. The notch or knurl on the coupling can
be used as a guide for the skiving length. To skive a hose, first mark the length,
then place it in a vise and cut through the cover with a knife or with a hack¬
saw, using backstrokes. Make a diagonal cut and peel the cover off with pliers.
Be sure not to damage the reinforcement.
To assemble clamp-type couplings, apply heavy oil to the nipple and
the inside of the hose, then insert the nipple into the hose and bolt the seg¬
ments together over the hose. Be sure to tighten the bolts evenly. While
crimped assemblies are often assembled by the manufacturer, field crimpers
allow hose assemblies to be made up on the job site.
Proper hose installation and routing is also very important. Careful at¬
tention to a few details here will prevent many early failures. Following are
a few rules that should be followed.

1. Route for good appearance. This may not seem important, but a
neat routing job often means less hose, fewer connections, more
accessibility, and fewer problems.
2. Route hoses together if they have the same pressure rating in the
system.
3. Do not twist the hose during installation. A slight twist in a hose
can reduce its life by 70% and the lay line is a good guide to see
if the hose is twisted.
4. Keep hose assemblies clear of sharp edges and moving parts. Use
clamps or spring guards to keep the cover from being damaged.
5. Where hoses must flex, they should be long enough to allow for
the required movement.
6. Route hoses so that they bend freely, without twisting.
7. If hoses crisscross, a sawing action can destroy their covers. Use
clamps or guards to prevent this.
8. Always route hoses away from hot manifolds and other sources of
heat. Use sleeves or shields to protect hose covers from extreme
heat.
Hose Assembly Failures 317

9. The use of adapters is essential in making connections more acces¬

sible and neat. Proper use of adapters eliminates unnecessary bends
and reduces the amount of hose needed for the assembly.

The final point we would like to discuss here concerns diagnosing hose
failures and methods to prevent their reoccurrence. When a hose assembly
fails, do not just replace it —study it. Determine what caused the failure. This
will help you when selecting a replacement or when installing and routing
the new assembly. For example, a hose may have burst and an examination
shows that the wire braid is rusty and the cover is worn. Chances are that
abrasion of the cover allowed air and moisture to rust and weaken the rein¬
forcement. Reroute or protect the replacement hose to keep this from reoc¬
curring. An inspection of another burst hose by stripping back the cover re¬
veals random wires broken along the entire length of the hose. High-frequency
pressure impulses have caused friction and wear at the crossover points in
the braid. A spiral wrap reinforcement eliminates the crossover points and
should be used where high-pressure impulses are a problem.
A clean burst usually means that a hose has been subjected to pressure
that exceeds its rating. A higher-pressure hose may be the answer; however,
first check the system to see if it is operating at the rated pressure. The prob¬
lem could be a faulty relief valve or other system malfunction. The inner tube
may show signs of swelling. Sections may be washed out. This usually means
that the inner tube is not compatible with the fluid. Select a hose with a com¬
patible inner tube material.
When a coupling blows off, it can mean that the wrong coupling was
used, or that the coupling was not assembled or crimped properly. Remember
to check the threads on reusable couplings. They can wear down after several
uses and will not be gripping the hose properly. When a hose is stiff and the
inner tube is cracked and hardened, this generally means that it was caused
by excessive heat. Select a hose that can handle this heat or check the system
to see why it is running so hot. In a case where the inner tube has broken loose
from the reinforcement and has piled up at the end of the hose, the wrong
hose is used in a vacuum application.

9.6 HOSE ASSEMBLY FAILURES

Everyone in maintenance encounters hose failures. Normally, there is no prob¬
lem. The hose is replaced and the equipment goes back on line. Occasional¬
ly, though, the failures come too frequently —the same equipment with the
same problems keep occurring. At this point, the task of maintenance per¬
sonnel is to determine and correct the cause of these repeated failures.
Failure to look into the problem, if the fault lies with the hose, will sim-
318 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

ply result in repeated loss of hose lines. If the problem lies with the equipment,
failure to determine the cause could eventually result in loss of the equipment.
A little effort in the beginning can avoid a big headache in the long run.
Every failure should be analyzed, even if that analysis is as basic as de¬
ciding that the failure was normal and acceptable. In that case, simply re¬
place the hose line. However, if the failure rate is unacceptable, probe a lit¬
tle deeper to determine the cause of the failure and correct the situation. Hose
failures fall into five major categories:

1. Improper application
2. Improper assembly and installation
3. External damage
4. Faulty equipment
5. Faulty hose

9.6.1 Improper Application

To investigate the most common cause of hose failures, improper applica¬
tion, compare the hose specifications with the requirements of the applica¬
tion. The following areas must be considered: (1) maximum operation pres¬
sure of the hose, (2) the recommended temperature range of the hose, and
(3) the fluid compatibility of the hose. Check all of these areas against the
requirements of the application. If they do not match up, another type of
hose must be selected.
When contacting a distributor or manufacturer for help, provide all of
the information needed to solve the problem. Use the following checklist when
describing the problem.

1. Either send in a sample of the hose or provide the part number and
date of manufacture. This information is supplied on the lay line
of the hose.
2. Describe the type of equipment on which the hose is used and the
location of the hose on this equipment.
3. Provide the brand name and type of the fluid used with the hose.
4. Give the maximum and minimum temperature, both internal and
external, at which the hose operates. Remember that temperatures
can vary widely from one part of the equipment to another. Try
to get a reading as close to the failed hose as possible.
5. If the hose is bent, provide the bend radius along the inside of the
curve or send along a tracing of the curve on a piece of paper. If
the hose bends in more than one plane, say so.
Hose Assembly Failures 319

6. Provide the flow rate (gpm) through the hose.

7. List the maximum pressures, both static and transient, to which the
hose is subjected.
8. Describe the environment in which the hose operates.

By providing complete information, better and faster answers will result.

9.6.2 Improper Assembly and Installation

The second major cause of premature hose failure are improper assembly and
installation procedures. This can involve anything from using the wrong fit¬
ting on a hose, to poor routing of the hose. The solution to this cause of failure
is to become thoroughly familiar with the proper assembly and installation
of hoses and fittings.

9.6.3 External Damage

External damage can range from abrasion and corrosion, to a hose that is
crushed by a lift truck . These are problems that can normally be solved simply
once the cause is identified. The hose can be rerouted or clamped, or a fire
sleeve or abrasion guard can be used. In the case of corrosion, the answer
may be as simple as changing to a hose with a more corrosion-resistant cover
or rerouting the hose to avoid the corrosive element.

9.6.4 Faulty Equipment

Too-frequent or premature hose failure can be the symptom of a malfunc¬
tion in your equipment. This is a factor that should be considered, since
prompt corrective action can sometimes avoid serious and costly equipment
breakdown. The corrective action here would be to review the operation of
the equipment to establish that all is proper.

9.6.5 Faulty Hose

Occasionally, a failure problem will lie in the hose itself. The most likely cause
of a faulty hose is old age. Check the lay line on the hose to determine the
date of manufacture. The hose may have exceeded its recommended shelf life.
If it is suspected that the problems lies in the manufacture of the hose, con¬
tact the supplier.

9.6.6 Analyzing Hose Failures

A physical examination of the failed hose can often offer a clue to the cause
of the failure. Following is a list of problems to look for together with the
conditions that could cause them.
320 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

Problem Cause

1. The hose inner liner is very hard Heat has a tendency to leach the plasti¬
and has cracked. cizers out of the tube. This is a material
that gives the hose its flexibility or plas¬
ticity (see Fig. 9.18).
Aerated oil causes oxidation to occur in
the inner tube. This reaction of oxygen
on a rubber product will cause it to
harden. Any combination of oxygen and
heat will greatly accelerate the hardening
of the inner liner. Cavitation occurring
inside the inner liner would have the
same effect.
2. The hose is cracked both externally The probable reason is intense cold am¬
and internally, but the elastomeric ma¬ bient conditions while the hose was
terials are soft and flexible at room flexed (see Fig. 9.19).
temperature.
3. The hose has burst and examination This would indicate a high-frequency
of the wire reinforcement after strip¬ pressure impulse condition. If the ex¬
ping back the outer cover reveals ran¬ trapolated impulses in a system amount
dom broken wires the entire length of to over 1 million in a relatively short
the hose. time, a spiral reinforced hose should be
chosen (see Fig. 9.20).
4. The hose has burst, but there is no This would indicate that the pressure
indication of multiple broken wires the has exceeded the minimum burst strength
entire length of the hose. The hose of the hose. Either a stronger hose is
may have burst in more than one needed or the hydraulic circuit has a
place. malfunction (see Fig. 9.21).
5. The hose has burst. An examina¬ The only function that the outer
tions indicates that the wire braid is cover has is to protect the reinforce¬
rusted and that the outer cover has ment. Elements that may destroy or re¬
been cut, abraded, or deteriorated move the outer cover are abrasion,
badly. chemicals, temperature, and cutting or
pinching (see Fig. 9.22).
Once the cover protection is gone, the
reinforcement is susceptible to attack
from moisture or other corrosive matter.
6. The hose has burst on the outside Violation of the minimum bend
bend and appears to be elliptical in the radius is probably the problem in both
bent section. In the case of a pump cases. Check the minimum bend radius
supply line, the pump is noisy and very and make sure that the application is
(continued)
Hose Assembly Failures 321

Figure 9.18 Hose failure due to high fluid temperature. (Courtesy of Aeroquip
Corp., Jackson, Michigan.)

Figure 9.19 Cracked hose due to cold temperature. (Courtesy of Aeroquip Corp.,
Jackson, Michigan.)
322 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

Figure 9.20 Broken wire reinforcement due to pressure pulsations. (Courtesy of

Aeroquip Corp., Jackson, Michigan.)

Figure 9.21 Burst strength of hose exceeded. (Courtesy of Aeroquip Corp., Jack-
son, Michigan.)

Figure 9.22 Hose failure due to outer-cover deterioration. (Courtesy of Aeroquip

Corp., Jackson, Michigan.)
Hose Assembly Failures 323

Problem Cause

hot. The exhaust line on the pump is within specifications. In the case of the
hard and brittle. pump supply line, partial collapse of the
hose is causing the pump to cavitate,
creating both noise and heat. This is a
most serious situation and will result in
catastrophic pump failure if not cor¬
rected.
7. The hose appears to be flattened out Torquing of a hydraulic control hose
in one or two areas and appears to be will tear loose the reinforcement layers
kinked. It has burst in this area and and allow the hose to burst through the
also appears to be twisted. enlarged gaps between the braided wire
strands. Be sure that there is never any
twisting force on a hydraulic hose (see
Fig. 9.23).
8. The hose has burst about 6 to 8 in. Improper assembly of the hose and fit¬
away from the end fitting. The wire ting, allowing moisture to enter around
braid is rusted. There are no cuts or the edge of the outer shell. The mois¬
abrasions of the outer cover. ture will wick through the reinforce¬
ment. The heat generated by the system
will drive it out around the fitting area,
but 6 to 8 in. away it will be trapped be¬
tween the inner liner and outer cover,
causing rusting of the wire reinforce¬
ment.
9. There are blisters in the outer cover A minute pinhole in the inner liner is
of the hose. If one punctures a blister, allowing the high-pressure oil to seep be¬
oil will be found. tween it and the outer cover. Eventually,
it will form a blister wherever the cover
adhesion is weakest. In the case of a
screw-type reusable fitting, insufficient
lubrication of the hose and fitting can
cause this condition because the dry in¬
ner liner will adhere to the rotating nip¬
ple and tear enough to allow seepage. A
faulty hose can also cause this condition
(see Fig. 9.24).
10. The fitting blew off the end of the It may be that the wrong fitting has
hose. been put on the hose. Recheck the man¬
ufacturer’s specifications and part num¬
bers.
In the case of a crimped fitting, the
wrong machine setting may have been
(continued)
324 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

Problem Cause

used, resulting in over- or undercrimp¬

ing. The outer socket of a screw-to¬
gether fitting for multiple wire-braided
hose may be worn beyond its tolerance.
Generally, these sockets should be dis¬
carded after being reused about six
times. The swaging dies in a swaged
hose assembly may be worn beyond
tolerance.
The fitting may have been improperly
applied to the hose. The hose may have
been installed without leaving enough
slack to compensate for the possible 4%
shortening that may occur when the
hose is pressurized. This will impose a
great force on the fitting. The hose itself
may be out of tolerance.
11. The inner liner of the hose is badly Indications are that the hose inner liner
deteriorated, with evidence of extreme is not compatible with the fluid being
swelling. carried. Consult the hose supplier for a
compatibility list or forward for analysis
a sample of the fluid being conducted by
the hose. Be sure that the operating tem¬
peratures, both internal and external, do
not exceed recommendations (see Fig.
9.25).
12. The hose has burst. The hose cover This could simply be old age. The
is badly deteriorated and the surface of crazed appearance is the effect of weath¬
the rubber is crazed. ering and ozone over a period of time.
Try to determine the age of the hose.
13. A spiral reinforced hose has burst The hose is too short to accommodate
and literally split open, with the wire the change in length occurring while it is
exploded out and badly entangled pressurized (see Fig. 9.26).
14. The hose is badly flattened out in The hose has been kinked either by
the burst area. The inner tube is very bending it too sharply or by squashing it
hard downstream of the burst but ap¬ such that a major restriction was
pears normal upstream of the burst. created. As the velocity of the fluid in¬
creases through the restriction, the pres¬
sure decreases to the vaporization point
of the fluid. This condition causes heat
and rapid oxidization to take place,
which hardens the inner liner of the hose
(continued)
Hose Assembly Failures 325

Figure 9.23 Hose failure due to torquing (twisting). (Courtesy of Aeroquip Corp.,
Jackson, Michigan.)

Figure 9.24 Blistering of the outer cover. (Courtesy of Aeroquip Corp., Jackson,
Michigan.)

Figure 9.25 Incompatibility between hose and fluid. (Courtesy of Aeroquip Corp.,
Jackson, Michigan.)
326 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

Problem Cause

downstream of the restrictions (see Fig.

9.27).
15. The hose has not burst but is leak¬ This failure would indicate that erosion
ing profusely. A bisection of the hose of the inner liner has taken place. A
reveals that the inner liner has been high-velocity needle-like fluid stream
gouged through to the wire braid for a being emitted from an orifice and im¬
distance of approximately 2 in. pinging at a single point on the hose in¬
ner liner will hydraulically remove a sec¬
tion of it. Be sure that the hose is not
bent close to a port that is orificed.
In some cases where high velocities are
encountered, particles in the fluid can
cause considerable erosion in bent sec¬
tions of the hose assembly.
16. The hose fitting has been pulled Insufficient support of the hose. It is
out of the hose. The hose has been mandatory to support a very long
considerably stretched out in length. lengths of hose, especially if they are
vertical. The weight of the hose, togeth¬
er with the weight of the fluid inside the
hose, is being imposed on the hose fit¬
ting. This force can be transmitted to a
wire rope or chain by clamping the hose
to it.
17. The Teflon hose assembly has col¬ One of the most common causes for this
lapsed internally in one or more places. is improper handling of the Teflon as¬
sembly. Teflon is a thermoplastic mater¬
ial which is not rubber-like. When bent
sharply it simply collapses.
18. The hose fittings keep blowing off Provided that the right fittings for the
nylon hose. hose has been selected and properly at¬
tached, the probable cause of failure is
heat. Nylons under compression have a
tendency to soften and flow out of the
compression area when subjected to
temperatures bordering 200°F (93°C).

To provide some assistance with hose assembly applications that should

be avoided and to indicate suggested means for doing so, Figs. 9.28 and 9.29
are presented. The attachment methods to be avoided appear straightforward.
Yet they are frequently used in violation of both manufacturers’ recommenda¬
tions and common sense. Each of these avoidance methods contributes sig¬
nificantly to hose assembly life.
Modular Manifold 327

Figure 9.26 Hose too short for application. (Courtesy of Aeroquip Corp., Jackson,
Michigan.)

9.7 MODULAR MANIFOLD HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

In recent years, the area of component and system maintenance has received
more attention than any other facet of the fluid power industry. It has led
to modularized systems, plug-in components, integrated manifold circuits,
and building-block spool cartridges. The reason for this activity is simply eco¬
nomic. Equipment downtime is becoming intolerably expensive. Also, main¬
tenance time has increased in cost to a point where hydraulic equipment users
are willing to pay extra for components that exhibit higher reliability, are
easier to repair or replace, and can be serviced without dismantling the ma¬
chine system.

Figure 9.27 Hose failure due to kinking. (Courtesy of Aeroquip Corp., Jackson,
Michigan.)
328 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

Figure 9.28 Flexing applications. (Courtesy of Aeroquip Corp., Jackson, Michigan.)

A new method of assembling and piping hydraulic systems through

manifold modules has been developed and is presently being marketed by sev¬
eral manufacturers. The key to the circuits evolved with this system is the basic
building-block module that can perform any and all hydraulic modulating
functions with a standard valve body. It incorporates standard interface
mounting and sealing arrangements. The primary element of the system is
a center block. This center block is a special, predrilled, multiported mod¬
ular element which can accept directional valves and port adapters. Standard
valves can be used in the circuits without special modifications. A typical cir¬
cuit arrangement made up with typical building-block components is de¬
picted in Fig. 9.30. The basic elements comprising this system are shown in
Fig. 9.31.
Elastomeric or plastic seals are used to prevent leakage between the
module interfaces. Pressure drop through each module is low because of the
short passages. The modular circuits also eliminate a major portion of hy¬
draulic interconnecting piping and fittings, lessen system complexity, and per-
Modular Manifold 329

mit versatility in circuit additions and alterations on field-operated hydrau¬

lic equipment.
Parallel systems permit mounting of integrated manifold subcircuits
with associated valves to the main pressure and return lines. Individual sub¬
circuits can be removed for servicing, replacement, change, and so on, with¬
out interference from other functional elements.

12. AVOID LOOPS

|4. AVOID RUBBINGl

l i
i I

Figure 9.29 Hose assembly installation tips. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co.,
Waterloo, Iowa.)
330 Fluid Conductors and Connectors

Figure 9.30 Building-block-style, color-coded, hydraulic circuit manifold arrange¬

ment. (Courtesy of Hydro-Stack Mfg. Corp., Milwaukee, Wisconsin.)

Figure 9.31 Modular manifold hydraulic control system. (Courtesy of Hydro-Stack

Mfg. Corp., Milwaukee, Wisconsin.)
Modular Manifold 331

The practical development of a circuit follows a logical design proce¬

dure, First, a functional schematic circuit is developed for the hydraulic con¬
trol system. This schematic is then divided as efficiently as possible into bus,
branch, and subcircuits.’♦

Bus circuits include all valves and accessories that are associated with
the power supply, pressure, and return flow paths connected to a number of
branch circuits. Branch circuits include all valves and accessories that directly
control an output motor such as a cylinder. Branch circuits are served by bus
circuits. Subcircuits cover any grouping of two or more valves into suitable
modules to permit a workable combination as needed. A circuit diagram of
the modular style system can then be prepared which will be equivalent to
the functional schematic circuit.
 10
Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

Any hydraulic system requires seals to prevent fluid from escaping and causing
a leak. The seals hold the fluid under pressure in the system and keep dirt
and grime out of the system. Visually, hydraulic seals appear to be simple
in construction and design. However, in use they are complex, precision com¬
ponents that must be treated carefully and installed correctly if they are to
do their job properly.
Hydraulic seals can be classified into two general categories based on
their application: (1) static seals, used where no motion occurs between the
parts, and (2) dynamic seals, used to seal moving parts. Seals are also classi¬
fied in accordance with their form or shape. Following is a brief discussion
of each type of seal according to form and its application (see Fig. 10.1).

10.1 SEAL FORMS

O Rings
The simple O ring is the most popular seal in hydraulics. Usually made of
synthetic rubber, it is used in both static and dynamic applications. O rings
are designed for use in grooves, where they are compressed (about 10%) be¬
tween two surfaces. In dynamic use, they must have a smooth surface to work
against. O rings are not used where they must cross openings or pass corners
under pressure. In static use, under high pressure, they are often strength¬
ened by a backup ring to prevent them from squeezing or extruding out of
their grooves. The backup ring is usually made of fiber or synthetic plastic.
They are generally not used in rotating applications because of wear problems.

332
Seal Forms 333

1 2 3.4 5

Figure 10.1 Types of hydraulic seals: 1, cup packing; 2, flange packing; 3, U pack¬
ing; 4, V packing; 5, spring-loaded lip seal; 6, O ring; 7, compression packing; 8
mechanical seal; 9, nonexpanding metallic seal; 10, expanding metallic seal. (Courtesy
of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Michigan.)

U and V Packings
U and V packings are dynamic seals for pistons and rod ends of cylinders,
and for pump shafts. They are made of leather, synthetic and natural rubber,
plastics, and other materials. These packings are installed with the open side, or
lip, toward the system pressure so that the pressure will push the lip against the
mating surface to form a tight seal. They are pressure-energized seals.
U and V packings are made of several U- or V-shaped elements and are
used in packing glands or cases which hold them in one piece. They are pop¬
ular for sealing rotating shafts, pistons, and the rod ends of cylinders.

Spring-Loaded Lip Seals

These seals are refinements of the simple U or V packing. The rubber lip is
ringed by a spring which gives the sealing lips tension against the mating sur¬
face. Usually, the seal has a metal case which is pressed into a housing bore
and remains fixed. This seal is often used to seal rotary shafts. The lip nor¬
mally faces in toward the system oil. Double-lip seals are sometimes used to
seal in fluids on both sides of an area.

Cup and Flange Packings

Cup and flange packings are dynamic seals and are made of leather, synthetic
rubber, plastics, and other material. The surfaces are sealed by expansion of
the lip or beveled edge of the packing. They are used to seal cylinder pistons
and piston rods.
334 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

Mechanical Seals
These seals are designed to eliminate some of the problems in using chevron
packings for rotating shafts. They are dynamic seals, usually made of metal
and rubber. Sometimes the rotating portion of the seal is made of carbon,
backed up with steel.
The seat has a fixed outer part attached to the housing. An inner part
is attached to the revolving shaft and a spring holds the two parts of the seal
tightly together. A rubber ring (flange-shaped) or a diaphragm is usually in¬
cluded to permit lateral flexibility and to keep the rotating part of the seal
in motion.

Metallic Seals
Metallic seals used on pistons and piston rods are very similar to the piston
rings used on engines. They may be either expanding or nonexpanding. Used
as dynamic seals, they are usually made of steel. Unless fitted very closely,
nonexpanding seals will leak excessively. Expanding seals (for use on pistons)
and contracting seals (for use on piston rods) are subjected to moderate fric¬
tion and leakage losses. Precision metallic seals, however, are not as subject
to leakage, and are especially well adapted for use in extremely high
temperatures. Since metallic seals are more subject to leakage than others,
fluid wiper seals with external drains are often used.

Compression Packings
Compression packings (jam packings) are used in dynamic applications. They
are made of plastics, asbestos cloth, rubber-laminated cotton, or flexible
metals. Compression packings are generally suitable only for low-pressure
use. Lubrication is very important, since they will score or scratch moving
parts if allowed to run dry.

10.2 DYNAMIC SEAL APPLICATION AND FAILURES

Dynamic seals prevent or control leakage between surfaces that move past
each other. Since these seals contact moving surfaces, they will eventually wear
out or fail. Periodic replacement of the seal is required. With proper instal¬
lation and maintenance, however, dynamic seals may last several hundred to
several thousand hours. High pressure, high temperature, high speed, and
surface roughness work to reduce seal life.
Typical locations for dynamic seals are pump and hydraulic motor drive
shafts, pintles on variable-displacement pumps, directional valve pushpins,
and actuator rods. In brief, dynamic seals prevent leakage where the action
is taking place. Three types of dynamic seals commonly used are lip seals,
face seals, and packings.
Dynamic Seal Application and Failures 335

10.2.1 Radial Lip Seals

Radial lip seals, commonly called oil seals or shaft seals, are used to retain
fluids in or keep dirt out of equipment with reciprocating or rotating shafts.
The simplest type, the single-lip seal, is used only for low speeds and low pres¬
sures (Fig. 10.2).
Sealing is normally a result of an interference fit between the flexible
sealing lip and a shaft. However, as seals age and temperatures change, the
interference fit or lip pressure falls off. To maintain a more constant load
on the shaft, a garter or finger spring is used. This permits operation at higher
speeds and moderate pressures. It should be noted that the seal lip does not
act like a squeegee to wipe the shaft dry. The lip must ride on a thin film of
lubricant to be successful in its function. If the film gets too thick, the seal
leaks. If it gets too thin, the seal wears and gets hard. The harder the seal,
the more difficulty the lip has in following the shaft movement (Fig. 10.3).
Tests have shown that maximum seal life is obtained when the shaft seal¬
ing surface is 8 to 20 /dn. in roughness. If the shaft is too smooth, it will not
support a film. If too rough, it wears the seal lip. In either case, premature
seal failure may occur. Finish marks should be circumferential rather than
axial to retain the fluid.
Seal performance can be impaired by two types of eccentricity:

1. Shaft-to-bore misalignment: the distance from the center of shaft

rotation to the center of the bore. It can be measured by attaching
a dial indicator to the shaft to read off the seal bore while the shaft
is rotated. This misalignment can cause uneven wear of the sealing
lip and shorter life.
2. Dynamic runout: the distance that the center of the shaft is dis-

ATMOSPHERIC

Figure 10.2 Simple lip seal. (Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Michigan.)
336 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

OUTER CASE

CONTACT POINT FOR CONTACT POINT FOR

AUXILIARY LIP MAIN SEALING ELEMENT

Figure 10.3 Spring-loaded lip seal. (Courtesy of Federal Mogul Co., Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.)

placed from the actual center of rotation. It is usually the result of

misalignment, shaft imbalance, or actual flexing of the shaft. Dy¬
namic runout causes wear around the entire sealing element. A
spring-loaded seal with an adequate flex section will operate satis¬
factorily if the total runout is not too great (beyond 0.035 in.).

Figure 10.4 tabulates some shaft seal application considerations. Lip seal
troubleshooting guidelines are presented in the following chart.

Problem Cause Solution

1. Worn shaft Shaft too soft; dirty Check shaft sealing sur-
fluid; lack of lubrication face hardness —Rockwell
C30 minimum necessary;
replace seal; use wear
sleeve on shaft if available,
otherwise replace shaft; lu¬
bricate parts
Dynamic Seal Application and Failures 337

Problem Cause Solution

2. Rough finish on shaft Poor machining Finish shaft surface to 8-

to 20-/dn. surface finish
3. Damaged shaft Improper handling Replace shaft; protect seal¬
ing surfaces during han¬
dling and assembly
4. Adhesive or paint on Lack of care in assembly Clean with crocus cloth;
sealing surface mask shaft during seal as¬
sembly into bore or paint¬
ing of unit
5. Seal cocked in bore Improper installation Use proper driving tool;
install seal at right angle to
shaft surface
6. Seal lip reversed Improper installation Before replacement, check
stock seal to see if it has
double lip: one lip faces in¬
ward to retain fluid, one faces
outward to exclude dirt
7. Seal lip cut or torn Installed over sharp Replace seal; lubricate seal
edges; damaged shaft and shaft; use thimble to
carry lip over key ways,
splines, and sharp edges;
make sure that lip ID is
not stretched
8. Seal lip worn, glazed, Overheated system; in¬ Check for hot oil, high case
or hardened; shaft is in¬ correct seal size; case pressure, and correct seal size;
tact pressure too high also check to see whether
seal lubricant is good
9. Seal spring damaged Excessive pressure or Replace seal, avoiding ex¬
clearance cessive spreading of sealing
lip and spring; check for
proper storage and han¬
dling of seals
10. Excessive eccentricity Excessive side load Align shaft, eliminate shaft
or misalignment; seal lip side load, or use a better
cannot follow shaft flexible coupling
movement
11. “Built-in” seal flaw Manufacturing error Replace seal
such as contamination,
poor rubber bond to
metal, or flash on seal lip
Parameter Comments Limits

Shaft speed Important factor in seal Slow 0-1000

selection (shown in sur- Moderate 1001-2000
face feet per minute) High 2001-3000
Temperature Limits shown are points Continuous - 50 to + 225°F
where seal material or Intermittent - 65 to +250°F
medium sealed becomes
ineffective; for extreme
temperatures, special
compounds can be used
Pressure Oils seals are not pres- Slow 7 psi
sure seals; where pres- Moderate 5 psi
sures above those shown High 3 psi
exist, special seals should
be used or pressure
against sealing lip relieved
Shaft finish Surface finish, direction, Slow 10-25 ixin.
and spiral of finishing Moderate 10-20 ^in.
marks and leads as well High 10-20 jdn.
as surface finish value af¬
fect sealing; polished or
ground surfaces with con¬
centric finish marks are
preferred
Shaft hardness Although shafts as soft Abrasives Above C-45
as cold-rolled steel can No abrasives Above B-80
be sealed successfully,
hardness of Rockwell C30
or greater is preferred;
fluid starvation, abrasives,
and high surface speeds re
quire hard shafts
Shaft to bore Fixed misalignment of Slow 0.015 TIR
misalignment center of shaft rotation Moderate 0.010 TIR
with bore center; con¬ High 0.010 TIR
centrates wear at one side
of seal; becomes more se¬
vere as speed increases
Shaft runout Runout (eccentricity or 0-800 rpm 0.025 TIR
shaft whip) should be 800-2200 rpm 0.020 TIR
kept to an absolute min¬ 2200-4200 rpm 0.015 TIR
imum; creates a difficult
sealing problem

Figure 10.4 Shaft seal application considerations. (Courtesy of Federal Mogul Co.,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.)
338
Dynamic Seal Application and Failures 339

10.2.2 Face Seals

The mechanical face seal is one of the most effective devices in preventing
leakage along a rotating shaft which passes in or out of an area of pressurized
oil. Two ultra-flat sealing faces are mounted perpendicular to the shaft. The
seal seat is attached to and rotates with the shaft, while the spring-loaded seal
head is stationary.
The usual seal face materials in hydraulic applications are hard carbon
and bronze for the seal head. Many shaft seals now use bronze elements rather
than carbon. They are stronger and less susceptible to chipping and similar
problems. Also, they are not attacked by synthetic fluids such as the phos¬
phate esters. Steel or cast iron is usually used for the seal seat. The two are
separated by an oil film. With an excellent matching of sealing forces and
seal flatness, oil surface tension can complete the seal and there is no leak¬
age. Elevated pressures can induce seal wear, but with proper balancing, pres¬
sure-induced sealing forces can be kept low.
Only a properly trained person should attempt to repair the sealing sur¬
faces of face seals. The condition of the seal surfaces is so critical that one
company provides 40 hr of training to its personnel on face seal operation,
repair, and installation. With new replacement parts, do not touch the seal¬
ing surfaces with fingers or an old wiping rag. Make sure that the seal seat
is perpendicular to the shaft within 0.001 in. TIR (TIR is the total change
in indicator reading during one complete rotation of the shaft). Lubricate the
sealing surfaces well with the fluid to be sealed before installation.
Examine the old parts for signs of the failure mode that was experienced
by the seal. Abrasive wear of the sealing faces means that contaminated oil
is in the system. Burned faces indicate dry running of the seal. Heavy wear
may mean either excessive operating pressure or a hung-up spring. A cracked
carbon ring leaks badly. Worn bearings should be replaced if end play ex¬
ceeds 0.002 in. or radial looseness is greater than 0.004 in. Replace the shaft
with a new one if runout exceeds 0.002 in. TIR. Polish the new shaft to remove
burrs or scratches that might damage the seals. Figures 10.5 to 10.17 depict
typical seal damage and their cause. The following chart lists some face seal
symptoms and causes of leakage.

Problem Cause Solution

1. Seal leaking steadily Secondary seal leakage Replace seal assembly;

despite apparent full con¬ caused by: check compatibility of oil
tact of mating rings a. Nicked, scratched, or and seal materials
porous seal surfaces
b. O-ring compression set
c. Chemical attack (continued)
340 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

CONTACT
PATTERN

MATING RING PRIMARY RING

Figure 10.5 Full contact pattern. (Courtesy of John Crane Packing Co., Morton
Grove, Illinois.)

POSSIBLE
EDGE
CHIPPING

SIMILAR
PATTERN ON
NO CONTACT PRIMARY RING

HEAVY TO MODERATE DEFLECTION OF

CONTACT PRIMARY RING DUE
TO PRESSURE

Figure 10.6 Coning (negative rotation). (Courtesy of John Crane Packing Co., Mor¬
ton Grove, Illinois.)
Dynamic Seal Application and Failures 341

Problem Cause Solution

2. Steady leakage at low Deflection of primary Replace seal

pressure; little or no leak¬ ring from overpressuriza¬
age at high pressure tion; seal faces not flat
because of improper lap¬
ping
3. Seal leaks steadily Thermal distortion of Replace seal
when shaft is rotating; seal faces; seal faces not
little or no leakage when flat because of improper
shaft is stationary lapping
4. Seal leaks steadily Mechanical distortion Check torque on mounting
whether shaft is station¬ caused by: bolts
ary or turning a. Overtorqued bolts Check flatness and square¬
b. Out-of-square clamp¬ ness of parts
ing parts Check for nicks and burrs;
c. Out-of-flat stuffing remove these with fine
box faces crocus cloth
d. Nicked or burred
gland surface
e. Hard gasket
5. Seal leaks steadily Sealed liquid vaporizing Check for vacuum by drip¬
whether shaft is station¬ at seal interface, caused ping fluid on seal to see if
ary or rotating; noise by: noise disappears temporar¬
from flashing or face a. Low suction or stuff¬ ily
popping ing box pressure Check clearance between
b. Improper running seal and shaft
clearance between shaft Replace seal
and primary ring
c. Insufficient cooling
d. Improper bushing
clearance
e. Circumferential flush
groove in gland plate
missing or blocked
6. Seal leaks steadily Poor lubrication from Clean fluid with filters
whether shaft is station¬ sealed fluid; abrasives in and/or change fluid
ary or rotating; high fluid Check seal material and
wear and grooving fluid compatibility
7. Steady leakage when Out-of-square mating Check alignment
shaft is rotating; no leak¬ surface, caused by: Check for pump housing
age when shaft is station¬ a. Nicked or burred distortion
ary gland surfaces Check pump bearings
b. Improper drive pin Replace seal
extension (continued)
342 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

Problem Cause Solution

c. Misaligned shaft
d. Piping strain on pump
casing
e. Bearing failure
f. Shaft whirl
8. Damaged mating ring; Misaligned mating ring, Check concentricity be-
seal leaks whether shaft caused by: tween shaft and seal
is rotating or stationary a. Improper clearance mounting bore; correct if
between gland plate excessive
and stuffing box
b. Lack of concentricity
between shaft OD and
stuffing box ID
9. Seal squeals during op- Inadequate amount of Bypass flush line may
eration liquid to lubricate seal be needed if not in use
faces Enlarge bypass flush line
and/or orifices in gland
plate
10. Carbon dust accumu- Inadequate amount of Bypass flush line may be
lating on outside of gland liquid to lubricate seal needed if not in use
ring faces Enlarge bypass flush line
Liquid film evaporating and/or orifices in gland plate
between seal faces Check for proper seal de-
sign with seal manufactur¬
er if pressure in stuffing
box is excessively high
11. Short seal life Abrasive fluid Prevent abrasives from ac-
cumulating at seal faces
Bypass flush line will be
needed if not in use
Use abrasive separator or
filter
Seal running too hot Increase cooling of seal
faces
Increase bypass flush line
flow
Check for obstructed flow
in cooling lines
Equipment mechanically Align this equipment
out of line Check for rubbing of seal
on shaft
 Dynamic Seal Application and Failures 343

POSSIBLE
EDGE
CHIPPING

SIMILAR
PATTERN ON
HEAVY TO MODERATE PRIMARY RING
CONTACT
DEFLECTION OF
NO CONTACT MATING OR
PRIMARY RING DUE
TO TEMPERATURE

Figure 10.7 Thermal distortion (positive rotation). (Courtesy of John Crane Packing
Co., Morton Grove, Illinois.)

HIGH SPOTS

EXCELLENT
CONDITION
no CONTACT AFTER SHORT
STATIC AND
DYNAMIC TESTS
POSSIBLE EROSION OF POSSIBLE EROSION OF
THE PRIMARY RING (WIRE THE PRIMARY RING WIRE
DRAWING) IF ALLOWED TO BRUSHING) IF ALLOWED
REMAIN STATIONARY' TO ROTATE. OLiTOP-FLAT
MATING SURFACE WILL
CAUSE DIRT TO ENTER
THE SEAL AREA

Figure 10.8 Mechanical distortion. (Courtesy of John Crane Packing Co., Mor¬
ton Grove, Illinois.)
344 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

NO CONTACT

EXCELLENT
CONDITION
AFTER SHORT
STATIC AND
DYNAMIC TESTS,
CONTACT PATTERN
OF THE PRIMARY RING POSSIBLE EROSION OF
I WIRE DRAWING! IF ALLOWED THE PRIMARY RING (WIRE
TO REMAIN STATIONARY BRUSHING! IF ALLOWED TO
UNDER PRESSURE. ROTATE OUT-OF-FLAT MATING
RING WILL CAUSE DIRT
TO ENTER THE SEAL AREA

Figure 10.9 Mechanical distortion. (Courtesy of John Crane Packing Co., Mor¬
ton Grove, Illinois.)

NO CONTACT

contact only at high spots

EXCELLENT CONDITION AS
INITIAL LEAKAGE WILL BE
HIGH, PREVENTING ANY LONG
TERM SERVICE LIFE

Figure 10.10 Mechanical distortion. (Courtesy of John Crane Packing Co., Mor¬
ton Grove, Illinois.)
Dynamic Seal Application and Failures 345

CHIPPING ON OD AND ID WEAR AT DRIVE

NOTCHES

Figure 10.11 High wear or thermally distressed surface. (Courtesy of John Crane
Packing Co., Morton Grove, Illinois.)

GOOD CONTACT
PATTERN AT
FLUSH INLET

DISTRESSED OR HEAT- POSSIBLE WEAR

CHECKED AREA AT DRIVE NOTCHES

Figure 10.12 Section of thermally distressed surface. (Courtesy of John Crane Pack¬
ing Co., Morton Grove, Illinois.)
346 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

GOOD CONTACT

DISTRESSED SURFACE POSSIBLE WEAR AT

OR HOT SPOT DRIVE NOTCHES

Figure 10.13 Patches of thermally distressed surface. (Courtesy of John Crane Pack¬
ing Co., Morton Grove, Illinois.)

AT DRIVE NOTCHES

DEPTH OF GROOVE POSSIBLE EDGE CHIPPING OF SOFT

FULL CONTACT PATTERN CARBON PRIMARY RINGS. EDGES
Will BE ROUNDED FOR HARD MATERIAL
OF CONSTRUCTION LIKE TUNGSTEN
CARBIDE

Figure 10.14 High wear and grooving. (Courtesy of John Crane Packing Co., Mor¬
ton Grove, Illinois.)
Dynamic Seal Application and Failures 347

SLIGHTLY WIDER CONTACT WEAR m

POSSIBLE OPPOSITE DRIVE AREA ON MATING RING DRIVE NOTCHES
PINHOLE (ONLY IF PIN
HAS BEEN USED}

Figure 10.15 Out-of-square mating ring. (Courtesy of John Crane Packing Co.,
Morton Grove, Illinois.)

WIDER THAN WIDTH OF POSSIBLE WEAR

PRIMARY RING FACE AT DRIVE NOTCHES

Figure 10.16 Wide contact pattern. (Courtesy of John Crane Packing Co., Mor¬
ton Grove, Illinois.)
348 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

WHICH MAY CRACK MATING RING RING HAS NOT BEEN DAMAGED

Figure 10.17 Eccentric contact pattern. (Courtesy of John Crane Packing Co., Mor¬
ton Grove, Illinois.)

10.2.3 Packings
A packing is a material deformed so as to throttle leakage between a moving
or rotating part and a stationary one. With rapid motion, there must be
enough leakage to lubricate and cool the packing. On some large applications
using compressed packings, the desired leakage rate may be as high as 10
drops per minute. On some small O-ring applications with rapid motion, the
leakage rate may be as low as 1 drop per every 2 hr. Where there is relatively
little motion, packings can seal without fluid leakage. Three basic types of
packings are: compression, lip and squeeze type.
The packing is sufficiently pliable when axially compressed to provide
radial sealing for a moving shaft or rod. It will not scratch or corrode the
moving shaft or rod. It requires frequent adjustment to compensate for pack¬
ing wear. Some typical packing failures and suggested solutions are described
in the following chart.

Problem Cause Solution

1. Shaft worn or rod Shaft too soft; dirty oil; Replace shaft; for contam-
worn dirty atmosphere inated fluid, change filter;
for dirty atmosphere, in-
stall protective shield or
boot; check shaft hardness
(Rockwell C30 minimum)
0continued)
Static Seal Application and Failures 349

Problem Cause Solution

2. Sealing surfaces are Improper handling and Use proper assembly and
scratched; seals damaged assembly disassembly tools on over¬
haul; replace damaged
parts
3. Dynamic runout of Excessive shaft runout; Inspect bearings, replace if
shaft or eccentric motion excessive side load too loose; check side loads
is excessive on shaft or rod; seals are
not to be used as bearings
4. Rapid wear-out of seal Seal compressed too Loosen if adjustment is
much; incorrect seal size available; otherwise, check
to be certain of correct
seal size
5. Glazed or hardened High oil temperature; Check for high oil temper¬
seal lack of lubrication ature; if seal lubrication is
inadequate, correct
6. Seal edges are ex¬ Too much clearance be¬ Check parts for too much
truded tween mating parts clearance; replace faulty
parts; use antiextrusion
rings on low-pressure side
of seal

10.3 STATIC SEAL APPLICATION AND FAILURES

Static seals prevent leakage between stationary surfaces. To contain pressure,
the seal and its mating parts must be in contact at a pressure level higher than
the pressure to be sealed. This pressure level may be obtained by parts in¬
stallation. In other applications, such as when O ring, V ring, and X ring,
the initial sealing pressure from installation alone is sufficient to contain only
low-pressure oil. High pressure deforms or changes the seal shape and in¬
creases the sealing pressure level to complete the seal.

10.3.1 Gaskets
A gasket is an installation-activated seal made of relatively soft material. It
must be deformed or compressed to fill surface irregularities and close the
gasket structure to fluid leakage. The O ring is replacing the gasket in many
of the new hydraulic designs because of its greater reliability and ease of ap¬
plication (Fig. 10.18).
In general, the more compressible (softer) materials are used for low-
350 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

Figure 10.18 Gasket configurations, (a) Flat face, (b) Grooved face.

pressure gasket applications. Common materials are asbestos, cork, paper,

plastic, rubber or a combination of these materials. The majority of gasket
applications can be represented by two basic flange designs: (1) the flat face
or (2) the grooved face. For a given gasket cross section, each material has
a minimum clamping load necessary to close its structure to fluid leakage and
cause surface irregularities to be filled. Most gasket materials relax and creep
after being clamped. A loss in loading then occurs, most of it within the first
18 hr. For critical applications, wait a day after initial assembly and retighten
to the original loading, preferably at system operating temperature but with
no internal pressure.
As pressures rise and operating conditions become more severe, metal
or metal-with-soft-core gaskets are necessary. The required clamping force
and surface finish to obtain a good seal vary widely, depending on the type
of gasket.

10.3.2 O Rings
One of the most common static seals is the O ring. It has found increasing
use as a high-pressure seal. Recommended surface roughness is 32 to 63 /xin.
With high pressure, the sealing surfaces may either slide or separate. Sliding
causes wear. The rougher the surface, the greater the rate of seal wear. If
sliding cannot be prevented, a surface roughness of 16 /xin. may be necessary
to obtain satisfactory seal life.
Separation of the sealing surfaces permits the O ring seal to be extrud¬
ed into the clearance gap. A sudden pressure drop will trap the extruded edges
of the seal. With pressure pulsations, the extruded edges will be nibbled away.
Eventually, the seal will leak (Fig. 10.19).
Static Seal Application and Failures 351

It has been found that as O-ring hardness (called Durometer) increases,

its resistance to extrusion damage also increases. For example, in laboratory
tests with 160° oil, 100,000 pressure pulsations at 1500 psi caused significant
O-ring extrusion damage when the diametral extrusion gap was greater than
0.004 in. with 70-Durometer seals, 0.008 in. with 80-Durometer seals, and
0.014 in. with 90-Durometer seals. Do not jump at the first chance to put in
high-Durometer O rings. As pressure levels rise, they resist extrusion better
than softer seals. But they leak more readily against rougher surfaces (Fig.
10.20).
In all work with O rings, they should be protected as follows: (1) lubri¬
cate with light grease or fluid to be sealed; (2) avoid use of sharp tools dur¬
ing assembly or parts removal; and (3) use a brass, paper, or plastic cone to
pass the O ring over threads.
Some O-ring problems that are caused by improper installation or ap¬
plication are summarized in Fig. 10.21.
Following is a list of some possible sources of trouble with static seals
and some suggested solutions.

Problem Cause Solution

1. Seal has been extruded Improper installation; Replace seal and check the
or been nibbled to death excessive pressure pulsa¬ following:
tions; parts not flat or a. Sealing surfaces must be
smooth flat within 0.0005 in.; re¬
place part if out of limits
b. Initial bolt torque may
have been too low; check
manual for proper torque
c. Check for proper relief
valve setting
d. If normal operating
(icontinued)

Figure 10.19 O-ring extrusion.

 352 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

|CORRECT: SLIGHT SQUEEZE

O-Ring in Static Use

IlNCORRECT: NO ROLLING ACTION

(CORRECT: ROLLING ACTION

O-Ring in Dynamic Use

Figure 10.20 O-ring application.

Checking for Leaks 353

Problem Cause Solution

pressures exceed 1500 psi,

backup rings are required
2. Seal is badly worn Surfaces too rough; seal Replace seal and check the
too soft; dirty oil following:
a. Sealing surface too
rough; polish to 16 ^in. if
possible or replace part
b. Undertorqued bolts per¬
mit movement; check man¬
ual for correct setting
c. Seal material or Duro-
meter may be wrong;
check manual if in doubt
3. Seal is hard or has Oil too hot; wrong seal Replace seal and check the
taken excessive perma¬ material following:
nent set a. Determine what normal
operating temperature is;
check system temperature
b. Check manual to deter¬
mine that correct seal ma¬
terial is being used
4. Sealing surfaces are Careless handling; im¬ Replace faulty parts if
scratched, gouged, or proper machining marks cannot be polished
have spiral tool out with fine emery paper
marks
5. Seal has been pinched Improper assembly Use the fluid or petro¬
or cut on assembly latum to hold seal in place
with blind assembly; use
protective shim if seal
must pass over sharp
threads, key ways, or
splines
6. Seal leaks for no ap¬ Incorrect seal size Check seal size and parts
parent reason size; get correct replace¬
ment parts

10.4 CHECKING FOR LEAKS

Before disassembling a component, check out the causes of leakage. This may
save a repaired item or machine from being returned for repair. The cause
may have been something other than the seal. Before cleaning the area around
354 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

WORN O-RING:
Lack of Lubrication TWISTED O-RING:
Installed Wrong

FLATTENED O-RING:
Use of Low-Grade Rings

CUT O-RING:
Shaft Damage or
Installed Wrong

DIRTY O-RING:
Poor Storage or
Contaminated System

SWOLLEN O-RING:
Improper Fluid

Figure 10.21 O-ring failures. (Courtesy of John Deere and Co., Waterloo, Iowa.)
Checking for Leaks 355

the seal, find the path of leakage. Sometimes the leakage could be from worn
gaskets, loose bolts, cracked housings, or loose line connections.
Inspect the outside sealing area of the seal to see if it is wet or dry. If
wet, see whether the oil is running out or merely a lubricating film. During
removal, continue to check for causes of leakage. (See Fig. 10.22.)
Check both the inner and outer parts of the seal for wet oil, which indi¬
cates leakage. When removing the seal, inspect the sealing surfaces or lips
before washing. Look for unusual wear, warping, cuts and gouges, or parti¬
cles embedded in the seal. On spring-loaded lip seals, be sure that the spring
is seated around the lip, and that the lip was not damaged when first installed.
Do not disassemble the unit any more than necessary to replace the faulty
seals.
Check shafts for roughness at seal contact areas. Look for deep scratch¬
es or nicks that could have damaged the seal. Find out if a shaft spline,
keyway, or burred end could have caused a nick or cut in the seal lip during
installation. (See Fig. 10.23.)
Inspect the bore into which the seal is pressed. Look for nicks and
gouges that could create a path of oil leakage. A coarsely machined bore can
allow oil to seep out by a spiral path. Sharp corners at the bore edges can
score the metal case of the seal when it is pressed in. These scores can make
a path for oil leakage. (See Fig. 10.24.)

Figure 10.22 Common types of oil seal leaks.

356 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

Figure 10.23 Seal worn by rough shaft.

Some hydraulic oils are harmful to certain seals, especially rubber lips.
An incorrect oil can either harden or soften the synthetic rubber in seals and
so damage them. If the lip is “spongy,” this probably means that the seal and
the hydraulic fluid are not compatible. If the seal is factory approved, an im¬
proper fluid has been used in the system. Hardening of the seal lip can be
caused by either heat or chemical reaction with an improper fluid. Harden¬
ing of the seal lip on the area of the shaft contact is generally the result of
heat from either the shaft or the fluid. (See Fig. 10.25.)

Figure 10.24 Bore conditions that can damage seals and cause leaks.
Tips to Avoid Premature Seal Failure 357

Figure 10.25 Seal lips damaged by heat. (Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Mich¬
igan.)

10.5 TIPS TO AVOID PREMATURE SEAL FAILURE

Install only seals that are recommended by the manufacturer of the ma¬
chine or component.
Use only the proper fluids as stated in the machine operator’s manual.
Keep the seals and fluids clean and free of dirt.
Before installing seals, clean the shaft or bore area. Inspect these areas
for damage. File or stone away any burrs or bad nicks and polish with
a fine emery cloth for a ground finish; then clean the area to remove
metal particles. In dynamic applications, the sliding surface for the seal
should have a mirror finish for best operation. (See Fig. 10.26.)
Lubricate the seal, especially any lips, to ease installation. Use the hy¬
draulic fluid to lubricate the seal. Also, soak packings in the hydraulic
fluid before installing them.
With metal-cased seals, coat the seal’s outside diameter with a thin film
of gasket cement to prevent bore leakage.
Use a factory-recommended tool to install the seal properly. This is very
important with press-fit-type seals. If a seal-driving tool is not available,
use a circular ring such as an old bearing race that contacts the seal case
near the outer diameter, or use a square wooden block. Do not use sharp
tools.
Fit packings in snugly without using undue force. Make sure that the
packings are not too tight.
Use shim stock to protect seals when installing them over sharp edges
such as splines. Place rolled plastic shim stock over the sharp edge; then
pull it out when the seal is in place.
358 Seals for Fluid Power Equipment

AVOID
1 Lead & tool marks
2 Rough surfaces, nicks
scratches, etc.
3 No chamfer
4 No bottom

AVOID
1 Lead & tool marks
2 Rough surfaces, nicks,
scratches, etc.
3 Tool return grooves
4 Sharp edges
5 Keyways, splines, etc.

Figure 10.26 Tips for preventing seal damage. (Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy,
Michigan.)

Be sure that the seal is driven in evenly to prevent “cocking” of the seal.
A cocked seal allows oil to leak out and dirt to enter. Be careful not
to bend or “dish” the flat metal area of metal-cased seals. This causes
the lips to be distorted. (See Fig. 10.27.)
After assembly, always check the unit by hand for free operation; if
possible, before starting up the system.
Try to prevent dirt and grit from falling on piston rods and other parts
and being carried into the seal. This material can quickly damage the
seal or score metal surfaces.

When a new lip-type seal is installed on a clean shaft, a break-in period of

a few hours is required to seat the seal lip with the shaft surface. During this
period, the seal polishes a pattern on the shaft and the shaft in turn seats the
lip contact, wearing away the knife-edge lip contact to a narrow band. Dur¬
ing this period, slight seepage may occur. After seating, the seal should per¬
form without any measurable leakage.

10.6 EXCLUSION RINGS, WIPER RINGS, OR SCRAPER RINGS

Exclusion rings, also known as wiper rings or scraper rings, are devices de¬
signed to prevent contaminants from entering the hydraulic system and dam¬
aging cylinder walls and other components. These contaminants, including
dust, mud, ice, or metal particles, can be abrasive and corrosive. By excluding
Exclusion Rings, Wiper Rings, or Scraper Rings 359

them, the wiper protects and extends the life of the rod and piston seal of
the hydraulic cylinder.
Manufacturers offer exclusion rings in several configurations, cross sec¬
tions, and materials for a variety of service conditions and operating fluids,
Figure 10.28 represents a brief outline of the service conditions shown as light,
medium, and heavy duty together with some configurations suitable for each
type of service.
Light duty is generally defined as an indoor operation in a low-dust en¬
vironment, and includes use on machine tools, lift trucks, hydraulic jacks,
hydraulic shears, door openers, and so on. Light-duty classifications also
includes use in outdoor conditions where the cylinder is in a protected envi¬
ronment such as under a roof, out of the rain, and out of direct wind.
Medium duty is described as an indoor application in a mildly dusty
environment. Examples include iron foundries, wood finishing operations,
grain mills, concrete mixing, and so on. It also includes outdoor applications,
in low- or medium-dust conditions, under semiprotected areas where severe

LEAKAGE

Figure 10.27 Cocked seals allow dirt to enter and oil to leak out. (Courtesy of Sperry
Vickers, Troy, Michigan.)
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Exclusion ring configurations and service conditions. (Courtesy of Penton/IPC, Cleveland, Ohio.)
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Exclusion Rings, Wiper Rings, or Scraper Rings 361

weather and heavy rain are not normally a factor. Light rain or moisture is
not detrimental to the cylinder.
Heavy duty is defined as those locations where heavy dust and grit par¬
ticles are present. Service of this nature includes coal mines, brickyards, steel
mills, concrete mills, and so on. Heavy-duty rings are also recommended for
off-highway construction equipment used in severe weather conditions, in¬
cluding heavy rain, mud, snow, or ice.
Materials of construction include synthetic rubber, plastic, and metals,
depending on the service condition and the fluid used in the hydraulic system.
Ethylene propylene rubber is used primarily for fire-resistant fluid in appli¬
cations such as water glycols and phosphate esters. Fluorocarbon elastomers
are gaining increased use where it is desirable to stock one material for a wide
variety of applications. They can be used in hydraulic oils and some fire-re¬
sistant oils. The material is also applicable over a considerable temperature
range, making it ideal for fire-resistant fluids.
 11
Fluid Power Systems:
Operation, Maintenance,
and Troubleshooting

Years ago, the maintenance of hydraulic systems was often performed on a

hit-and-miss basis —a “fix-it-when-it-breaks-down” type of operation. With
today’s sophisticated machinery, high production schedules, and the prohibi¬
tive cost of downtime, few companies can afford to operate in this manner.
That many of them still do, however, is evidenced by the kind of problems
encountered by service personnel in answering customer complaints. Here are
several that occur most frequently (Fig. 11.1):

Insufficient oil in the reservoir

Clogged and dirty oil filters
Loose intake lines
Pump shaft turning in the wrong direction
Improper grades of oil (too heavy or too light)
Operating pressures set too high or too low

It is obvious that all of these problems could have been solved (or prevented)
with only a basic knowledge of hydraulics and attention to simple mainte¬
nance procedures. The expense incurred in carrying out a planned mainte¬
nance program is regained many times over in reduced operating costs and
savings in machine downtime. Such a program begins with the system design¬
er’s selection of good-quality components and adequately sized pipe, tubing,
or hydraulic hose.
Maintenance personnel and machine operators can easily be trained to
recognize the signs and symptoms of impending hydraulic troubles. The oper-

362
Fluid Power Systems 363

ator can hear any unusual noises, feel excessive operating temperature, and
see leaking lines, leaking fittings, or oil deposits on or around the machine.
In following up on such a complaint, a trained maintenance mechanic can,
at a glance, note the color of the fluid and its level in the reservoir sight glass.
Dirty or discolored oil would indicate the need for changing the filter car¬
tridge and possibly the fluid itself.
It has been estimated that as much as 70% of all hydraulic problems
may be traced directly to the fluid. Sampling and testing it periodically is a
major factor in obtaining reliable performance. Proper maintenance will keep
hydraulic troubles to a minimum. However, it is obvious that not all problems
will be eliminated. Troubleshooting will be a regular part of the maintenance
routine.
To benefit fully from maintenance experience, a system of good reports
and records is essential. Such records should include:

A description of the symptoms and the date detected

Description of the preliminary investigation and its results
Explanation of corrective action taken, replacement parts required, date
repairs were made, and length of downtime
A record of when fluid is added or changed, filter cartridges replaced,
or strainer elements cleaned

Figure 11.1 Primary maintenance problems.

364 Fluid Power Systems

These reports and records, if analyzed frequently, will indicate areas that re¬
quire special attention as well as recurring troubles that may be anticipated
and corrected before a breakdown occurs.
To provide some basic guidelines for the use and care of hydraulic sys¬
tems, the following section describes some general guidelines for operation,
maintenance, and troubleshooting. These must be coupled with a detailed un¬
derstanding of the specific system under consideration in order to arrive at
a maintenance and troubleshooting plan that will work. There is no substitute
for thoroughly understanding the contents of the operation and maintenance
manual for a hydraulic system. Thus it is imperative that it be studied by the
mechanic prior to working on a given system.

11.1 SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

There is, of course, little point in discussing the design of a system that has
been operating satisfactorily for a period of time. However, a seemingly un¬
complicated procedure, such as relocating a system or changing a compo¬
nent part, can cause problems. Because of this, the following points should
be considered:

Each component in the system must be compatible with and form an

integral part of the system. For example, an inadequate-size filter on
the inlet of a pump can cause cavitation and subsequent damage to the
pump.
All lines must be of proper size and free of restrictive bends. Undersize
or restricted line results in a pressure drop in the line itself.
Some components must be mounted in a specific position with respect
to other components or the lines. The housing of an in-line pump, for
example, must remain filled with fluid to provide lubrication.
The inclusion of adequate test points for pressure readings, although
not essential for operation, will expedite troubleshooting.

11.2 SYSTEM OPERATION

Periodically during the operation of any hydraulic equipment or system, it
is prudent to make a number of checks on a regular schedule. Routine checks
of the operating pressures will indicate whether or not the pump is maintaining
its efficiency. A drop in operating pressure could indicate either a drop-off
in pump performance or changes in pressure, that is, relief valve or compen¬
sator settings.
Because the reduction in efficiency is associated with a loss of energy,
Knowing the System 365

a check of the operating or system temperatures will indicate the presence of

such a loss. Normally, the reservoir of a standard design will have a ther¬
mometer for checking temperatures. Another way to check temperatures is
the use of the touch method, where the normal tolerance level of a human
being is approximately 130°F. If one can touch a hot component and hold
his or her hand there, it would be expected that the temperature would range
somewhere between 100 and 125°F. If the material were beyond the upper
ranges of the comfortable, it may be concluded that the system needs atten¬
tion.
A check of the apparent noise level of the equipment is also another
sign to be cognizant of as wear tends to make components noisier. A stetho¬
scope with a metallic pickup can often be used to detect the location of faulty
component bearings.
Finally, during the operation of the equipment it is wise to keep a con¬
stant eye on the oil level of the equipment. In any hydraulic system the oil
not only is a medium of energy transfer but is also the means by which the
equipment is lubricated. Lack of oil for lubrication will result in immediate
failure of the equipment. Particularly in the case of components featuring
hydrodynamic bearings, the maximum period of time that hydrodynamic
bearings could be expected to operate without catastrophic failure would be
about 30 sec.

11.3 KNOWING THE SYSTEM

Probably the greatest aid to troubleshooting is the confidence of knowing the
system. Every component has a purpose in the system. The construction and
operating characteristics of each should be understood. For example, know¬
ing that a solenoid-controlled directional valve can be manually actuated will
save considerable time in isolating a defective solenoid. Some additional prac¬
tices that will increase your ability and also the useful life of the system follow:

Know the capabilities of the system: Each component in the system

has a maximum rated speed, torque, or pressure. Loading the system
beyond the specifications simply increases the possibility of failure.
Know the correct operating pressures: Always set and check pressures
with a gauge. How else can you know if the operating pressure is above
the maximum rating of the components? A question may arise as to
what the correct operating pressure is. If it is not correctly specified on
the hydraulic schematic, the following rule should be applied:
The correct operating pressure is the lowest pressure that will allow
adequate performance of the system function and still remain below
366 Fluid Power Systems

the maximum rating of the components and machine. Once the cor¬
rect pressures have been established, note them on the hydraulic sche¬
matic for future reference.
Know the proper signal levels, feedback levels, and dither and gain set¬
ting in servo control systems: If they are not specified, check them
when the system is functioning correctly and mark them on the sche¬
matic for future reference.
Analyze the system and develop a logical sequence for setting valves, mechan¬
ical stops, interlocks, and electrical controls. Tracing of flow paths can often
be accomplished by listening for flow in the lines or feeling them for warmth.
Develop a cause-and-effect troubleshooting guide similar to the charts ap¬
pearing in Sec. 11.7. The initial time spent on such a project could save hours
of system downtime.
The ability to recognize trouble indications in a specific system is usually
acquired with experience. However, a few general trouble indications can be
discussed.

Excessive heat means trouble: A misaligned coupling places an ex¬

cessive load on bearings and can be readily identified by the heat
generated. A warmer-than-normal tank return line on a relief valve indi¬
cates operation at relief valve setting. Hydraulic fluids that have a low
viscosity will increase the internal leakage of components, resulting in
a heat rise. Cavitation and slippage in a pump will also generate heat.
Excessive noise means wear, misalignment, cavitation, or air in the
fluid: Contaminated fluid can cause a relief valve to stick and chat¬
ter. These noises may be the result of dirty filters or fluid, high fluid
viscosity, excessive drive speed, low reservoir level, loose intake lines,
or worn couplings.

11.4 STARTUP AND MAINTENANCE

OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
To ensure efficient operation of system components, it is essential, if repairs
become necessary, to adhere to the operating instructions supplied with the
component or the engineering specifications given. Whether assembling or
disassembling, it is important that the internal parts of the components be
kept clean. The operating fluid should be of a type indicated by the manu¬
facturer, and must be maintained at a suitable degree of cleanliness. Main¬
tenance frequency and operational guidelines are dependent on the conditions
under which the equipment is working.
Startup and Maintenance of Hydraulic Systems 367

11.4.1 Startup
Before filling with hydraulic fluid, the tank and pipes should be thoroughly
checked to make sure that they are clean. It is important that the check be
made immediately prior to the filling and, if necessary, the whole system
should be drained.
If reservoirs are painted internally, a careful check should be made that
the hydraulic fluid to be used is compatible with the paint. When using highly
flammable fluids it is essential, before filling with oil, to check that all hy¬
draulic components used in the system are fitted with seals that are compati¬
ble with such fluids, including pipe connections and flanges.
A careful inspection of system piping and wiring should be made, by
reference to the appropriate circuit and associated cycle charts, before fill¬
ing and pressurization. The system should be carefully inspected to ensure
proper component alignment. Misalignment between electric motor and
pumps can lead to premature damage to the pump.
If not supplied already charged for use, hydraulic accumulators should
be charged with the specified volume of nitrogen before installation in the
system. Gas charging pressure should be clearly indicated on the accumulator
(by sticker) and also in the circuit, so that checks can later be made if re¬
quired.
A filter must always be used when filling oil into the system. While the
degree of filtration required varies, 40 /xm is sufficient for most components
with the exception of servo equipment. At startup, the setting of the pres¬
sure relief valves should be kept as low as possible. An exception to this is
in the case of the special fixed-setting pressure relief valves for use in accum¬
ulator systems, which do not allow any adjustment. It is recommended, in
view of existing safety regulations, that only those personnel directly con¬
cerned with startup procedures be present.
Electric motors should be cycled briefly (approximately 5 to 10 sec). The
direction of rotation should be verified. It should be determined whether
couplings or other connecting elements are loose before startup. Instructions
supplied by individual pump manufacturers must also be adhered to.
Before operating pressure setting can be gradually increased, ensure that
the pump is running quietly and continuously. Any leakage occurring at this
time should be rectified immediately. When running the system at low pres¬
sure, the system should be properly vented. Check fluid level in the reservoir
and refill if necessary with the same fluid. When operating pressure has been
reached and function is satisfactory, pressure switches, float switches, thermo¬
stats, and so on, should be set. All component settings should be recorded
on a written schedule after successful startup of the system.
368 Fluid Power Systems

11.4.2 Maintenance
Preplanning of maintenance, and in particular, preventative routine servicing,
should be considered during the design stage. Often the necessity of com¬
pletely emptying a reservoir during repairs can be avoided by the simple addi¬
tion of a shutoff valve in front of a pump or a manifold block. It is recom¬
mended that a maintenance manual be prepared during startup, and later be
passed on to maintenance personnel to indicate at what intervals certain parts
must be inspected.
The fluid level must be checked constantly during the startup period,
after startup, then daily, and weekly. During startup, the filters should be
checked approximately every 2 to 3 hr and cleaned if necessary. Thereafter,
a daily check should be made and after approximately 1 week cleaning may
take place as required. Particularly careful attention must be paid to suction
filters. After the “running-in” time they must be checked and/or cleaned at
least once per week.
Renewing of the system fluid is dependent on several operating factors
and is undertaken according to the degree of aging or contamination of the
oil. On systems where the ratio of pump flow to tank volume is 1:3 or greater,
the first fluid change should take place 50 to 100 hr after startup. On larger
systems a fluid change must be made, however, after 10,000 hr of operation
at the latest, and on smaller systems after approximately 5000 hr. To keep
a running check on the condition of the fluid, take a sample of the oil and
pass it through a filter paper or clean cloth. The coloring of the residue will
indicate the degree of aging. If the color is blue-black, an oil change is re¬
quired immediately. It must be cautioned that scheduling oil changes based
strictly on operating time is dangerous. The oil condition should be routine¬
ly and constantly (at least weekly) monitored. The fluid should be replaced
depending on the degree of aging/degradation and contamination as noted
by these inspections, irrespective of the operating time period.
Hydraulic accumulator charging pressure should be checked periodical¬
ly. It is essential that the oil side of the accumulator is not under pressure
at the time. The operating temperature should be measured not only in the
fluid tank, but also in the region of the pump bearings. An increase in tem¬
perature indicates wear. (Increasing friction and leakage while converting hy¬
draulic energy into heat.) The temperature of the fluid near the bearings will
increase when the pump is worn, because this wear will reflect itself as higher
internal leakage. This internal leakage will be seen in the case drain lines. The
bearings are also exposed to the case drain oil. Thus an increase in oil tem¬
perature in this area reflects pump wear.
The piping system should be inspected at regular intervals for leakage,
particularly for underfloor pipework. Main pressure and pilot pressure should
Maintenance Procedures and Hints 369

be checked at least weekly. Pressure adjustments should be noted in the main¬

tenance manual. Frequent readjustment of system pressure indicates possi¬
ble wear on the pressure relief components. Pressure drops should be inves¬
tigated to determine cause. Figure 11.2 summarizes the points of importance
in checking a hydraulic system completely before considering the maintenance
tasks completed and turning the system back to operation.

11.5 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES AND HINTS

Three simple maintenance procedures have the greatest effect on hydraulic
system performance, efficiency, and life. Yet the very simplicity of them may
be the reason they are so often overlooked. They are:

1. Maintaining a clean sufficient quantity of hydraulic fluid of the

proper type and viscosity.
2. Changing filters and cleaning strainers.
3. Keeping all connections tight, but not to the point of distortion,
so that air is excluded from the system.

Once the equipment has been placed in operation, it is rewarding to adopt

a timetable of regular maintenance. Regular maintenance will require a sys¬
tematic routine of going through the system on a regular basis to see that the
equipment is given the best of available care.
At this point it is good to reemphasize the use of an approved hydrau¬
lic fluid. An approved hydraulic fluid includes or covers not only an oil that
has good lubricity over the operating temperature range of the equipment but
the oil must also contain a certain number of additives to aid in the preven¬
tion of accelerated wear. The oil should contain an antifoaming agent, which
aids in the prevention of air entrapment in the oil. There are a number of
ways in which air becomes trapped in the oil, such as a leaky suction line or
oil splashing back into the reservoir and entrapping air. A good premium-
grade hydraulic fluid will also contain antiwear additives.
Depending on the application of the hydraulic equipment, it is a good
idea to change the oil in the system regularly. Oil may degrade in one of two
ways. First, oil may become contaminated and the contamination may act
to produce accelerated wear. Second, oil may change its chemical composi¬
tion by separation of acids and tars. Oil temperatures may cause this
breakdown. Separation of the acids from the oil will cause embrittlement of
the seals. The separation of tars and sludges from the oil will clog the filters
and introduce an increasing amount of “crud” into the system. The chemical
breakdown of the hydraulic oil will also mean a change in the lubricity, which
is again another contributing factor in the accelerated wear of hydraulic com-
 CYLINDERS -

370
Check for Leaks,
Improper Mounting,
Exposed Rods
During Storage

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Check for Foaming Oil, Milky Oil,
Low Oil Level

Figure 11.2 Check the whole system before operation.

Maintenance Procedures and Hints 371

ponents. Many companies, both hydraulic component manufacturers and oil

companies, offer the service of testing by analysis hydraulic oils in both the
amount of contamination in and the chemical composition of the oil.
The method of changing oil is as follows. Completely drain the system.
This is usually accomplished by removal of the drain plug at the lowest part
of the reservoir. Once the oil has been drained from the reservoir, the reser¬
voir cleanout cover is removed to swab and cleanout the bottom of the reser¬
voir. Be sure to use a lint-free rag (a lint type will do more harm than good).
At this time it is also appropriate to remove the suction filter and soak it in
kerosene, overnight if possible. Before reinstalling in the system, the suction
filter should be blown out with an air gun of some type to remove any sol¬
vent that is in the filter element and cover or housing.
Where a good amount of dirt is left in the remainder of the hydraulic
system, it may be removed by means of a “short fill.” If the old oil is still
in a good chemical state, it should be retained for cleaning of the system.
However, if this oil is chemically bad, it should not be used in the system for
any reason. Short fill means to introduce sufficient oil into the reservoir to
safely operate the system — slightly above the minimum fluid level. The
amount of oil needed for this flushing or cleaning procedure should be in¬
troduced into the reservoir with a filter cart, if possible. This will ensure that
reasonably clean oil is used for this operation.
The oil is then circulated throughout the system for 15 to 20 min to en¬
sure that the new cleaner oil is completely circulated throughout and the dirty
oil left in the system is returned to the reservoir. Be sure that the oil level does
not go below the recommended minimum. Once the oil has been completely
circulated for the 15 to 20 min, it again should be drained from the reservoir
and saved in a clean drum for future use. This oil is not contaminated but
could contain a relatively high degree of metallic and other particles that have
been broken loose from the system. Failing pumps, motors, and so on, create
a sea of contamination in the system.
Depending on the type of filter material, filter, or indicator used, it may
be wise at this time to change the filter element to prevent bypassing and a
partial filtration situation. Remember, however, that even partial filtration
is better than no filtration at all. Again, a regular schedule of filter change
is strongly recommended. If regular filter changes cannot be made, the alter¬
native method of the bypass indicator can be employed for best economy.
As soon as bypassing occurs, the filter should be changed, making the best
use of the filter element.
In the case of short-use failures, that is, when a pump or a component
has failed soon after installation, the reason for failure is not so obvious and
one frequently hears the remark: “Why shouldn’t the new pump last for years?
The old pump used this oil for years.” The answer is the fact that the old pump
grew old with increasing contamination and got progressively worse. The new
372 Fluid Power Systems

pump, however, with its tighter clearance is not going to be able to tolerate
this high level of contamination and is going to go into a state of rapid deteri¬
oration. Without a good flush and oil change, a new item may last up to 6
months with luck.
Water (probably condensation, but frequently a water-oil cooler leak)
may also become a problem in the system. A needle valve in a low point in the
system will provide a check point for the presence of water. Water in the oil
will also appear as a milky condition in the hydraulic oil, usually at the oil-
level gauge. Water in hydraulic fluids decreases viscosity and increases com¬
ponent wear. Air in the oil makes oil appear foamy or milky. The presence
of air may also be observed at the oil-level gauge on the reservoir.
Periodic visual and manual checks are recommended. A couple of areas
of interest are: shaft seals, coupling inserts (inserts may disintegrate due to
misalignment), and valve spool silting during long periods of nonshifting oper¬
ation.

11.6 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM MAINTENANCE ACCESSORIES

There are a number of accessories that will make the maintenance of equip¬
ment simpler and easier, thereby requiring minimum technical assistance. The
use of isolators and snubbers is highly recommended in applying hydraulic
gauges. Gauge isolators allow one to remove the system pressure from the
gauges when a visual check is not required. A snubber will perform much the
same function except that its operation will be manual as in the case of a globe
valve.
A solenoid trouble detector on valving is a wise investment if systems
are quite involved electrically and downtime during trouble detection should
be held to a minimum. A trouble detector is a device applied to a directional
control valve for the purpose of detecting and indicating the solenoid’s condi¬
tion. When a solenoid is energized, the trouble detector is provided with a
white light which indicates energization. Common reasons for coil burnouts
are sticking of the spool due to varnish or silting, under- or overvoltage for the
coil itself, or other lumps that may pass the valve, such as dirt or Teflon tape.
When manifolds are used in the hydraulic system it is advisable to in¬
clude in the manifold design as many test points as possible. These test points
will prove invaluable in later days when the equipment is in operation. Omis¬
sion of these manifold test points will generally make troubleshooting im¬
possible.
The use of a hydraulic filter in the pressure, suction, or return line should
be accompanied with appropriate sensors to make efficient use of the ele¬
ments. Electrical switches are available that will indicate when the filter be¬
gins bypassing. The electrical signal may be relayed to control stations or shut
Hydraulic System Maintenance Accessories 373

off electric motors. Visual indicators may also be employed. Where startup
temperatures produce oil viscosities much higher than that recommended for
hydraulic pumps, use immersible electric heaters.
Caution must be used when adding electric immersion heaters. Oil must
circulate by mechanical means by the heater. Oil is not a good heat conduc¬
tor and tends to stratify. If the heater cannot be installed directly in the fluid
flow, a propellor-type device should be considered to ensure fluid movement.
Where environmental contamination is likely, as in the case of some
mobile systems, the use of a pressurized reservoir is a solution. By pressuriz¬
ing the reservoir one guarantees that contaminated air will not be drawn in¬
to the system, provided that a suitable filter is employed in the reservoir pres¬
surizing air system.
An excellent alternative to a filter system employed in a pressurized res¬
ervoir is the bladder-type barrier mechanism illustrated in Fig. 2.43.
If system leakage is possible and regular checks of the oil level may be
neglected, it is strongly recommended that float-level switches be employed
to indicate when the oil level is low. Pump damage is very likely in a short
time should the pump run without oil.
System (open-loop) temperatures are best monitored at the reservoir.
Therefore, most reservoirs are supplied with temperature gauges. There are
some exceptions to this rule, as in the case of closed-loop hydrostatic trans¬
mission equipment, where much of the hydraulic oil is usually captive to the
system. Without the use of a suitable hot oil shuttle and heat exchanger, it
would be prudent to locate a temperature indicator somewhere in this system.
When water-oil heat exchangers are used, a thermostatically controlled
water-regulating valve is a wise investment. The sensor is inserted in the res¬
ervoir. As the temperature of the oil rises, the water valve opens and modu¬
lates to regulate the water flow and control oil temperature.
As mentioned earlier, flexible couplings are available with inserts that
disintegrate, indicating misalignment, and thus prevent damage to both the
electric motor and the hydraulic pump. All reservoirs should have a magnetic
trap (filter). Ten-micrometer air breathers are available for sealing reservoirs.
They may be obtained with integral check (relief) valves for controlling under-
or overpressurization.
Where it is possible, subplate mounted components should be used; they
require the minimum of replacement time. In the case of breakdown these
items are extremely handy because all that is required is removal of a few
bolts. A four-port in-line-mounted, pipe-threaded valve will require a large
amount of time for replacement. By their nature, pipe-threaded fittings be¬
come damaged progressively by each separation and require replacement after
being used two, three, or four times. The use of SAE straight-threaded O-
ring fittings is becoming popular for a good many reasons. Foremost among
374 Fluid Power Systems

these reasons are that a new O ring will constitute a new seal, and contam¬
ination during disassembly is less likely to occur.
A portable fluid filtering and transfer unit is also a worthwhile invest¬
ment in that new oil, received in barrels that may not be clean, can be cleaned
up. Oil that is used for short fills can also be cleaned. Where it is desirable
to pump oil out of the system and back in again this unit is an invaluable piece
of equipment. Portable fluid filtering and transfer units may also be connected
to systems periodically, and overnight if practical and necessary (see Fig.
11.3).

Figure 11.3 Hydraulic oil filtration cart. (Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Mich¬
igan.)
Troubleshooting Guides 375

11.7 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDES

The troubleshooting charts that follow apply to a general system but should
provide an intuitive feeling for a specific system. The charts are arranged
in five main categories. The heading of each is an effect which indicates a
malfunction in the system. For example, if a pump is exceptionally noisy, refer
to Chart I, “Excessive Noise.” The noisy pump appears in column A under
the main heading. In column A there are four probable causes for a noisy
pump. The causes are sequenced according to the likelihood of happening
or the ease of checking it. The first cause is cavitation and the remedy is “a.”
If the first cause does not exist, check for cause 2, and so on.
Chart I

Remedies:

a. Any or all of the following: Replace dirty filters. Wash strainers in sol¬
vent compatible with system fluid. Clean clogged inlet line. Clean reser¬
voir breather vent. Change system fluid. Change to proper pump drive
motor speed. Overhaul or replace supercharge pump. Fluid may be too cold.
b. Any or all of the following: Tighten leaky inlet connections. Fill reservoir
to proper level (with rare exception all return lines should be below fluid
level in reservoir). Bleed air from system. Replace pump shaft seal (and shaft
if worn at seal journal).
' \

c. Align unit and check condition of seals, bearings, and coupling.

d. Install pressure gauge and adjust to correct pressure.
e. Overhaul or replace.

Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Michigan.

 376 Fluid Power Systems

Chart II

l.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Remedies:

a. Any or all of the following: Replace dirty filters. Clean clogged inlet line.
Clean reservoir breather vent. Change system fluid. Change to proper pump
drive motor speed. Overhaul or replace supercharge pump.
b. Any or all of the following: Tighten leaky inlet connections. Fill reservoir
to proper level (with rare exception all return lines should be below fluid
level in reservoir). Bleed air from system. Replace pump shaft seal (and shaft
if worn at seal journal).
c. Align unit and check condition of seals and bearings. Locate and correct
mechanical binding. Check for work load in excess of circuit design.
d. Install pressure gauge and adjust to correct pressure (keep at least 125 psi
difference between valve settings).
e. Overhaul or replace.
f. Change filters and also system fluid if of improper viscosity. Fill reservoir
to proper level.
g. Clean cooler and/or cooler strainer. Replace cooler control valve. Repair
or replace cooler.

Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Michigan.

 Troubleshooting Guides 377

Chart III

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Remedies:

a. Any or all of the following: Replace dirty filters. Clean clogged inlet line.
Clean reservoir breather vent. Fill reservoir to proper level. Overhaul or
replace supercharge pump.
b. Tighten leaky connections. Bleed air from system.
c. Check for damaged pump or pump drive. Replace and align coupling.
d. Adjust.
e. Overhaul or replace.
f. Check position of manually operated controls. Check electrical circuit on
solenoid operated controls. Repair or replace pilot pressure pump.
g. Reverse rotation.
h. Replace with correct unit.

Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Michigan.

378 Fluid Power Systems

Chart IV

Remedies:

a. Replace dirty filters and system fluid.

b. Tighten leaky connections (fill reservoir to proper level and bleed air from
system).
c. Check gas valve for leakage. Charge to correct pressure. Overhaul if de¬
fective.
d. Adjust.
e. Overhaul or replace.

Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Michigan.

 Troubleshooting Guides 379

Chart V

l.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Remedies:

a. Fluid may be too cold or should be changed to clean fluid of correct vis¬
cosity.
b. Locate bind and repair.
c. Adjust, repair, or replace.
d. Clean and adjust or replace. Check condition of system fluid and filters.
e. Overhaul or replace.
f. Repair command console or interconnecting wires.
g. Lubricate.
h. Adjust, repair, or replace counterbalance valve.

Courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Michigan.

380 Fluid Power Systems

Faulty operation (Chart V) can be broken down further as follows.

System Inoperative

1. No oil in system: Fill to full mark. Check system for leaks.

2. Oil low in reservoir. Check level and fill to full mark. Check system
for leaks.
3. Oil of wrong viscosity: Refer to specifications for proper viscosity.
4. Filter dirty or plugged: Drain oil and replace filters. Try to find
source of contamination.
5. Restriction in system: Oil lines could be dirty or have inner walls
that are collapsing to cut off oil supply. Clean or replace lines.
Clean orifices.
6. Air leaks in pump suction line: Repair or replace lines.
7. Dirt in pump: Clean and repair pump. If necessary, drain and flush
hydraulic system. Try to find the source of contamination.
8. Badly worn pump: Repair or replace pump. Check for problems
causing pump wear, such as misalignment or contaminated oil.
9. Badly worn components: Examine and test valves, motors, cylin¬
ders, and so on, for external and internal leaks. If wear is abnor¬
mal, try to locate the cause.
10. Oil leak in pressure lines: Tighten fittings or replace defective lines.
Examine mating surfaces on couplers for irregularities.

System Operates Erratically

1. Air in system: Examine suction side of system for leaks. Make sure
that the oil level is correct. (Oil leak on the pressure side of the
system could account for loss of oil.)
2. Cold oil: Viscosity of oil may be too high at start of warm-up
period. Allow oil to warm up to operating temperature before us¬
ing hydraulic functions.
3. Components sticking or binding: Check for dirt or gummy de¬
posits. If dirt is caused by system internal contamination, try to
find the source. Check for worn or bent parts.
4. Pump damaged: Check for broken or worn parts. Determine the
\

cause of pump damage.

5. Dirt in relief valves: Clean relief valves.
Troubleshooting Guides 381

6. Restriction in filter or suction line: Suction line could be dirty or

have inner walls that are collapsing to cut off oil supply. Clean or
replace suction line. Also, check filter line for restrictions.
System Operates Slowly

1. Cold oil: Allow oil to warm up before operating machine.

2. Oil viscosity too heavy: Use oil recommended by the equipment
manufacturer.
3. Insufficient engine speed: Refer to operator’s manual for recom¬
mended speed. If machine has a governor, it may need adjustment.
4. Low oil supply: Check reservoir and add oil if necessary. Check
system for leaks that could cause loss of oil.
5. Adjustable orifice restricted too much: Back out orifice and ad¬
just it. Check machine specifications for proper setting.
6. Air in system: Check suction side of the system for leaks.
7. Badly worn pump: Repair or replace pump. Check for problems
causing pump wear, such as misalignment or contaminated oil.
8. Restriction in suction line or filter: Suction line could be dirty or
have inner walls that are collapsing to cut off oil supply. Clean or
replace suction line. Examine filter for plugging.
9. Relief valves not properly set or leaking: Test relief valves to make
sure that they are opening at their rated pressure. Examine valves
for damaged seats that could leak.
10. Badly worn components: Examine and test valves, motors, cylin¬
ders, and so on, for external and internal leaks. If wear is abnor¬
mal, try to locate the cause.
11. Valve or regulators plugged: Clean dirt from components. Clean
orifices. Check source of dirt and correct.
12. Oil leak in pressure lines: Tighten fittings or replace defective lines.
Examine mating surfaces on couplers for irregularities.
13. Components not properly adjusted: Refer to machine technical
manual for proper adjustment of components.
 12
Fluid Power System Malfunction
Detection and Diagnosis

12.1 MALFUNCTION DETECTION

If you deal with hydraulically powered equipment for any length of time, you
are eventually going to experience some problems with the system. When that
time comes, one of your greatest assets will be the ability to diagnose the prob¬
lem without calling in a hydraulic expert. Often, you will find that the mys¬
terious problem will be a common malfunction that can be spotted and cor¬
rected without assistance. All that is required is someone who is aware of
obvious clues given off by a malfunctioning hydraulic system. Some of these
clues are very subtle and require the use of sophisticated instruments to de¬
tect them; most problems make their presence known by sending out warn¬
ings that are loud and clear. All you need to troubleshoot a hydraulic system
are four tools provided by nature, your “common senses”: sight, hearing,
touch, and smell.
One good way to forestall problems with a system is to look over your
equipment periodically. Watch for any signs of leakage —wet machine parts
or hoses, oil stains, low levels in the reservoir, which should be checked regu¬
larly, not to check the level but actually to examine the fluid. If the oil has
a milky appearance, it is probably saturated with air or water. In either case,
your system is in trouble.
Take a look periodically at the conductors in the system. Watch for hose
lines that are abrading or for lines that are too short when under pressure.
Also, look for kinked or flattened lines, because a kink will restrict flow or,
in the case of a pump supply line, you could ruin a pump via cavitation. Look
at the system pressure gauges to see whether or not they are within the speci-

382
Malfunction Detection 383

fied values. Most important, make sure that there is sufficient oil in the
hydraulic reservoir after the complete system is charged.
A good troubleshooter will listen for unusual sounds coming from a
hydraulic system. The loud, shotlike sound you hear when a valve is closed
quickly is called water hammer and is caused by the sudden stoppage of the
moving fluid. A pressure surge may go as high as four times the normal work¬
ing pressure. A shock wave travels at the speed of sound in a hydraulic fluid,
and normal gauges will not record these fast pressure surges.
The main function of a hydraulic pump is to move fluids against re¬
sistance. The movement of fluid in a hydraulic circuit is incidental to the basic
function of power transmission. Our interest is in the transmission of power
in the desired plane with certain motion patterns. We seek to control torque
and associated rotary force and motion and/or linear force and motion with
a piston and cylinder assembly.
The function of the pump is to accept liquid at the intake and move
it through the pumping mechanism. As the fluid passes through the pump¬
ing mechanism, it can be pressurized at the output chamber to a value appro¬
priate to the resistance to flow at the terminus.
Several factors are important to service personnel as malfunction of the
machine is analyzed.

1. Most hydraulic power pumps used in general industries are posi¬

tive displacement devices. At each revolution of the shaft of a rotary
pump a specific quantity of fluid must enter the pump and be dis¬
charged from the pump.
Those pumps which do not provide a specific quantity of fluid
at each revolution of the shaft or reciprocation of a piston are
termed hydrodynamic devices as compared to the hydrostatic
devices used in usual fluid power systems.
Centrifugal and propellor pumps are typical hydrodynamic
pumps. They are generally used for fluid movement, and power
transmission may be a consideration in rare instances. These are
the pumps used in water supply systems and the processing indus¬
tries.
2. As a known predictable flow emanates from the hydraulic pump,
it must be dealt with by the circuit components. Thus relief valves,
pump volume controls, proper directional valves, and so on, must
recognize and provide passage for the known quantity of flow.
3. System pressure level at the pump outlet will be a predictable value
created by the resistance to flow within the hydraulic circuit.
384 Fluid Power System Malfunction

4. Intake to the pump is directly related to the ability of the pump to

move and pressurize the liquid.
Restriction of the intake fluid flow to the pump inlet can result
in the creation of a vacuum, which can result in a breakdown of
the liquid at this intake area with adverse effects on the pumping
mechanism. Vanes will not be held in the correct working relation¬
ship, pistons will be incorrectly positioned, and severe chatter, ham¬
mer, and oscillations can occur with resulting noise and damage.
Lubrication can be severely impaired with resulting mechanical
abrasion.
Thus the development of unusual pump noise can be traced
to restricted intake flow under certain conditions.
To remove this restriction to flow it may be necessary to clean
suction filters, replace damaged or restricted suction lines, make
certain fluid is at the correct temperature to provide adequate flow,
and/or increase pressure level in a sealed reservoir to ensure ade¬
quate flow to the pump intake.
Gravity flow or sufficient atmospheric pressure on the fluid
in the reservoir should in most instances provide the needed flow.
At high elevations (Pikes Peak, aircraft installations, etc.) it
may be necessary to mechanically assist the flow to the suction of
the major power pump.
5. A leak in the suction line may allow entry of air which may pass
through the pump and create an undesired resiliency in the output
flow. Air passing through the pump can create a different operating
sound pattern, which can alert maintenance personnel to this ad¬
verse condition, and repair activities can be instituted to correct the
air leak in the intake line.
Low fluid level in the reservoir could result in entry of air into
the pump intake line. A float switch installed in the tank may be
desirable to monitor fluid level and alert appropriate personnel to
low fluid level conditions.
6. A vacuum gauge at the pump inlet may be useful to inform the
maintenance personnel of a change in pump intake characteristics
and vulnerability to rapid pump wear.

Any significant change in the sound level of a hydraulic pump should

be investigated and corrective measures instituted when the cause of the mal¬
function is determined.
If you should put your hand on a hydraulic pump and wish later that
Malfunction Detection 385

you had not done so, the pump is trying to tell you something. When the max¬
imum temperature of a hydraulic system exceeds 150°F, oil oxidizes. The rate
of oxidation approximately doubles with every 18°F increase in temperature
according to the characteristics of the fluid. Some fluid power research indi¬
cates that the working life of most oil is decreased by 50% for every 15°F
rise in temperature above 140°F. Oxidation causes sludge to form, reduces
clearance, creates more heat, and causes corrosion. A good troubleshooter
will feel the fluid conductors at various sections in the system for hot spots.
If any section of a hydraulic system is unusually hot, there is a problem. Re¬
member, high heat can be very damaging to a fluid power system. High heat
can be interpreted as operating temperatures above that recommended by the
designer and manufacturer of the fluid power system.
Several general observations can be made.

1. Hydraulic systems for machine tools usually work in a temperature

range from 100 to 140°F.
2. Construction and agricultural machinery usually operate in a tem¬
perature range from 40 to 180°F.
3. Special-purpose power transmission equipment may operate at
temperatures other than these values with appropriate considera¬
tion of the modification to the system and components to be com¬
patible with the specific range within which the device must operate.

Another problem signal in a system is high-frequency vibration. These

vibrations can be felt with your hand. This condition has been known to break
welds and other components. If you do not want to use your hands to feel
these vibrations, try a small amount of water on the tubing or hose, and watch
the results; if the water pops off the surface, you have a serious problem.
Vibration can be the result of sticky pressure control valves caused by
contaminated fluid. The cause of the vibration may be a restricted suction
line which allows the piston assembly of an axial piston pump to pull away
from the ramp surface and pound as the piston reciprocates, with obvious
potential for major component damage.
When hydraulic oil is saturated with air, or when a hydraulic pump is
cavitating, the air bubbles in the system go to a high-pressure condition which
generates a great deal of localized heat. This localized heat may reach as high
as 2000 to 4000°F. The heat is caused by the compression of the gases in the
oil. Pump cavitation occurs when suction lifts are excessive and local system
pressure is below the vapor pressure of the fluid. This condition can be caused
by inadequately charged or poorly designed inlet piping, as well as by mis¬
matching the pump to the system, or by dirty inlet filters or restricted inlet
386 Fluid Power System Malfunction

lines. Bubbles that form in the low-pressure region and travel through the
pump are compressed and collapsed under high pressure. This results in local
high fluid velocities and explosive (or implosive) forces which cause erosion
of pump parts.
This can be hot enough to scorch the oil. The good troubleshooter can
and will smell this burned oil in the reservoir and make necessary corrections.
Nothing should be overlooked. Use any and all factors known to you
and check them all out. You should first obtain a drawing of the system to¬
gether with the current specifications so that you can really know and under¬
stand the system. You may have to use pressure, flow, or vacuum gauges or
even an oscilloscope from time to time. However, the most important tools
you have are your “common sense” and your brains. So use them. Coloring
the working lines on a circuit drawing with appropriate colors to indicate
pressure and tank lines and suction conductors often helps to quickly iden¬
tify the energy flow through the circuit.

12.1.1 Using a Hydraulic Tester to Troubleshoot

Troubleshooting involves seven basic steps:

1. Know the system. In short, be familiar with related technical infor¬

mation, bulletins, and the basic machine circuit. Know what each
component does and how it functions. Be able to trace the flow of
fluid, in all operating modes, from the reservoir through the cir¬
cuit and back. Review system operation before looking at the
machine, and record vital specifications such as operating speeds,
pressures, flow rates, and cycle times.
2. Before going to the machine, ask the operator how the machine is
malfunctioning. Because the operator works with the machine on
a daily basis, he or she knows when service was performed, who
works on the machine, its peculiarities, and other functional char¬
acteristics. The operator can describe the basic symptoms, such as:
pump will not start, system overheats, cylinder will not move load.
3. Operate the machine. Warm up the fluid by cycling the machine
and verify the symptoms given by the operator. Be sure to observe
gauge readings and operating speeds, listen for noise, inspect the
fluid, and note any erratic operation of actuators.
4. Inspect the machine carefully, being sure to observe all safety pre¬
cautions. Do not operate mobile equipment from the ground;
always sit in the operator’s seat and have everyone else stand clear.
When inspecting the machine, systematically trace the flow of fluid
Malfunction Detection 387

from the reservoir completely through the circuit, recording ob¬

servations periodically. Although there is a natural tendency to
skip through parts of the circuit and move directly to the area
where trouble is suspected, a careful and systematic inspection may
identify other problems that can contribute to the malfunction.
Thus it is very important to do the inspection in a systematic man¬
ner.
Look at the oil and line connections. Check temperatures and
look for dirt that could enter the system to restrict cooling. Feel
intake and pressure lines for brittleness, softness, leaks, and col¬
lapsing, and inspect connections at each valve and component. Brit¬
tleness in the hoses is caused by high fluid temperatures; collapse
of the suction lines is caused by restrictions in the line due to kinks,
dirty suction filter, thickened oil, or lines plugged with rags and
other debris. Check for loose housing and mounting bolts. Finally,
check shafts and cylinder rods. At every stage of inspection, note
any signs of abuse from improper operation or maintenance of the
machine.
5. From the information gathered, list in order the probable causes
for failure. Keep in mind that more than one symptom may con¬
tribute to a failure. Slow actuator speed, for example, may be
caused by both worn pump parts and bypass leakage in the cylinder.
High oil temperatures can be caused by low oil level and dirt block¬
ing oil cooling surfaces, as well as by high relief valve pressures.
6. Reach a conclusion. From the list of probable causes, select those
that, if verified and repaired, would return the machine to normal
operation. Keep in mind that some are easier to verify than others.
These might be checked first for convenience even though they do
not seem to be the primary reason for failure. From the list of items
to be checked, decide how to proceed from one to the next to verify
the cause of trouble in the shortest time.
7. Test conclusions on the machine. Check pressures and flow rates
with appropriate testers, remove housing covers to inspect pump
and motor parts, and closely inspect other components and parts
of the system. Use these tests as the basis for decisions to replace
' s

or repair components.

After the problem has been narrowed to one part of the circuit or one compo¬
nent, quantitative tests should be conducted to determine just what the prob¬
lem is. Think about where symptoms and probable causes are leading, and
388 Fluid Power System Malfunction

perform additional tests to pinpoint the source of the problem. Some tools
that might be needed include:

Pressure gauge
Temperature gauge
Flowmeter that operates under system pressure
Hand-held or electric tachometer
Stopwatch
Load valve

Figures 12.1 and 12.2 depict hydraulic circuit analyzers that are avail¬
able for use in diagnosing system malfunctions. Figure 12.3 shows the place¬
ment of a hydraulic analyzer that has a built-in pressure gauge, flowmeter,
temperature gauge, and load valve in a circuit. The bypass test is sometimes
called a series test. The manner in which the bypass test can be used for testing
various system component performance is shown on Fig. 12.4.
When testing the hydraulic circuit with the hydraulic tester, first deter¬
mine how much fluid is flowing in the circuit. Then, by controlling pressure
with the load valve, determine the amount of fluid actually flowing through
each component. If the test indicates insufficient flow at system pressure, the
cause can be pinpointed to such areas as:

Figure 12.1 Hydraulic circuit analyzer. (Courtesy of Schroeder Bros., Inc., McKees
Rocks, Pennsylvania.)
Malfunction Detection 389

Figure 12.2 Hydraulic analyzer. (Courtesy of Flo-Tech, Inc., Libertyville, Illinois.)

Pump slip
Flow over a faulty relief valve
Leakage past control-valve spools to the reservoir
Leakage past pump or motor parts directly to the return line

Be sure to operate the system long enough to bring the temperature of the
fluid within the operating range. If the system is driven by an internal com¬
bustion engine, tests should be conducted at constant speed.

12.1.2 Application of a Tester

To provide a more thorough understanding of the application of a hydrau¬

lic tester, a more detailed discussion is presented here. As indicated previously,
the tester can be installed in the circuit in series with the valves, in parallel,
or in a bypass arrangement.
 (a)

/SsN
I2J
HYD. MOTOR

CONTROL OUT
VALVE Ct> O
O-

IN
0 J

FLO-CHECK

PUMP

(c)

Figure 12.3 Test arrangements with a hydraulic tester. (Courtesy of Flo-Tech, Inc.,
Libertyville, Illinois.)
Malfunction Detection 391

Disconnect
Here
Directional
Valve
O
O
I

Cylinder

Hydraulic Tester

Relief
Directional
Valve

Cylinder

Hydraulic Tester

Figure 12.4 Application of a hydraulic system tester. (Courtesy of Owatonna Tool

Co., Owatonna, Minnesota.)
392 Fluid Power System Malfunction

In-line test: An in-line tester can be installed between a directional con¬

trol valve and a cylinder to determine if leakage is in the valve or in the
cylinder. If the test valve is closed and the cylinder pressure drop stops,
this indicates that the trouble is in the valve. If the cylinder continues
to drop, this indicates that the trouble is in the cylinder.
Bypass test: A bypass test connects the tester inlet after the compo¬
nents tested and the outlet is connected to the reservoir.
Tee test: In a tee test the tester is connected into the system by a tee
«•

connection.

For example, with the tee test, we may be checking the complete system
at one time or selectively as we choose. The tee in Fig. 12.3a is plugged at
one side. Pump flow must pass through the tester and the value of pressure
and capabilities can be confirmed. If the quantity of flow has degenerated
to an unacceptable level, the pump must be repaired or replaced.
The connection of Fig. 12.3b permits a check of the relief valve con¬
tained in the directional control valve assembly and the devices operated by
the directional control segments. By shifting one spool and moving a piston
to the bottomed position, it is possible to determine the setting of the inte¬
gral relief valve and see if it is correct for the system. Then it is possible to
operate each cylinder and see if pressure can be maintained at the needed level.
Movement of the actuator can be monitored. The tester of Fig. 12.3 can pro¬
vide a safety relief function.
The connections of Fig. 12.3c permit a specific check of a component
for actual leakage and pressure level in that branch of the circuit. Flow and
resistance to motion can be monitored and rate of flow and pressure level
can be identified. If it is adequate, it can be recorded for future use.
Should a monitored flow as registered on the tester of Fig. 12.3c not
provide proper speed, this could be interpreted to mean that the hydraulic
motor has excessive internal leakage if it is not providing the rotative speed
corresponding to the motor displacement. Torque will be uniform if excessive
internal friction is not encountered.
Generally, if the flow rate drop is too high (more than 25%) and is ap¬
proximately the same for all positions of the control lever, the trouble may
be in the pump. If the flow rate drop is too high but only in one or two posi¬
tions, the trouble is probably in either the control valve or the cylinders. To
tell whether the trouble is in either the control valve or the cylinders, the
cylinders can be blocked out between the cylinders and the control valves;
then the leakage can be determined for either the cylinder or the control
valves.
Malfunction Detection 393

Testing the Pump

If your system is not working properly and you cannot determine any visual
cause, test the pump (Figs. 12.3a or 12.4). Symptoms of trouble in the pump
are as follows:
System does not operate. No noise from pump.
System operates too slowly, or is erratic.
System operates too fast.
Pump is too noisy.

General procedures are given here for testing the pump. Service manual proce¬
dures for the particular equipment should be followed. To test the pump, pro¬
ceed as follows:

1. Check the procedures and specifications.

2. Prepare the equipment. Some equipment, such as cranes and
loaders, must be tied down when testing the system.
3. Connect an appropriate tester. If the tee test is used, a blocking
plate must be installed in the system line so that all the flow will
go through the meter (Fig. 12.3a).
4. Slowly open the load control valve of the tester.
5. Turn the pulsation dampener knob connector clockwise several
turns.
6. Start the motor and operate the pump at rated speed. Check the
operator’s manual for proper speed.
7. Warm up to operating temperature. Check the temperature gauge
on the instrument.
8. Check gauges. If action is erratic, this indicates low fluid level,
clogged filter, or leaking suction line to pump.
9. Increase the pressure by gradually turning the pressure control
handle clockwise.
10. Reduce the pressure and record the flow rate at low pressure.
11. Increase the pressure and record the flow rate at different pres¬
sures.
12. Open the load control valve. To test other parts of the system in
addition to the pump, repeat steps 8, 9 and 11 for different posi¬
tions of the equipment control valve.
394 Fluid Power System Malfunction

13. Shut off the motor.

14. Check the results against the manufacturer’s ratings. Low flow and
pressure indicate trouble. Generally, a 15% reduction in flow rate
for the pump is acceptable. If the flow rate is within limits, record
further tests made at reduced pump speed. If flow rate compari¬
son at different pressures is still within the limits of the lower
speed, this indicates that the pump is good. Continuing noise may
indicate that the trouble is probably some restriction of fluid to
the pump or an air leak in the suction line.
Testing the Valve
Troubles with valves depend on the function of the valve. For example, if
the system is operating too slowly, one problem could be the pressure relief
valve. If it is barely operating, the relief spring may be broken or improperly
adjusted. If the function of the valve is understood, the testing is a simple
matter. The biggest job sometimes is to connect the test equipment. Connect
the test equipment according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
It is obvious that pressure control or regulating valves can be checked
with a pressure gauge. Directional control and flow control valves and orifices
must be checked with a combination pressure gauge and flow meter. Symp¬
toms that indicate trouble in the pressure regulating valve are as follows:

System unable to lift load.

System operates erratically.
System fails to operate.

Procedures for testing are as follows:

1. Connect the tester. Follow the directions given by the manufac¬

turer.
2. Open the pressure control valve on the tester.
3. Turn the pulsating dampener knob counterclockwise several turns.
4. Start the motor and warm up the system.
5. Move the control valve on the tester to different positions of high
and low pressure and volume and record readings.
Note: Some valves require that a cylinder be moved to a completely extended
position before pressure can be controlled by the relief valve.
6. Note the pressure when the flow drops to zero. The pressure at
which the flow drops to zero is the relief valve setting. If the pres-
Malfunction Detection 395

sure is below the recommended maximum system pressure, the

relief valve should be adjusted.
7. Note the flow rate up to maximum pressure. Assuming that the
pump is good, the flow rate should be equal to pump capacity up
to 75 to 90% of the maximum pressure. If not, this indicates that
the relief valve is leaking. If the pressure regulator valve checks
out to be acceptable and the trouble still exists, check the direc¬
tional control valves.

Internal leaks in the directional control valve may also cause the system
to fail to operate or cause the system to operate too slowly. A sticking valve
will cause troubles. The procedures for testing the directional control valve
are as follows:

1. Connect the tester. Follow the procedures given by the manufac¬

turer.
2. Open the pressure control valve.
3. Turn the pulsating dampener control counterclockwise several
turns.
4. Start the motor and warm up the system at rated pump speed.
5. Shift the directional control valve on the system to direct fluid to
the tester.
6. Move the tester control handle to the various pressures and flow
rates and record. If the volume and pressure obtained in the pre¬
vious test cannot be obtained, the directional control valve has an
internal leak. If the volume obtained in the previous test is ob¬
tained, this indicates that the directional control valve is good and
the trouble may be in the cylinder.

Testing the Cylinder

If the cylinder is not holding under load, the problem may be an internal leak
in either the control valve or the cylinder. Procedures are given here for a
bypass hookup and a tee test.
If the bypass test is being used (Fig. 12.3c), proceed as follows:

1. Check the equipment manual for flow rate and pressure.

2. Install a safety valve if needed. This may be incorporated in the
tester. Some manufacturers recommend the use of an auxiliary
safety valve to prevent damage to the system.
3. Connect the tester.
396 Fluid Power System Malfunction

4. Open the load control valve on the tester.

5. Turn the pulsation dampener knob counterclockwise several turns,
if installed.
6. Start the motor and operate the pump at rated speed.
7. Warm up to operating temperature. Check the temperature gauge
on the instrument if installed. The temperature should not be more
than 200° F.
8. Close the hand control valve to get the desired flow and pressure.
Open the equipment control valve to extend the cylinder.
9. Read the instruments and record the pressure and rate of flow at
various settings of the load control valve on the tester.
10. Compare the flow rate to specifications. If full rated flow at re¬
quired pressure is obtained, this indicates that the trouble is in
the cylinder. Note: Cylinder test flow rate should be within 99%
of specifications. For double-acting cylinders, you should test in
both directions. The seal may leak in one direction but not in the
other.

If you use a tee test (Fig. 12.3b), proceed as follows:

1. Check the flow rate and pressure for the system.

2. Connect the tester.
3. Install the blocking plate in line to the cylinders being checked.
More than one cylinder can be checked at one time if they are fed
by the same line. When trouble is detected, a single-cylinder test
can be used to determine which cylinder is leaking.
4. Install a safety valve if recommended by the manufacturer of the
machine, equipment manufacturer, or manufacturer of the test
devices.
5. Open the load control valve on the tester.
6. Start the motor and warm up.
7. Open the equipment control valve to extend the cylinder.
8. Read the instruments and record the readings.
9. Compare with specifications. The results should be the same as
with the bypass test. The cylinder can also be checked for a pack¬
ing leak by disconnecting a loaded cylinder and looking for by¬
passed fluid resulting from a leak.
Diagnostic Instrumentation 397

12.2 DIAGNOSTIC INSTRUMENTATION

A substantial amount of automatic test equipment for determining the opera¬
tional condition of hydraulic and pneumatic systems has been developed re¬
cently. The results obtained have led industry to adopt the developed techniques
and expend further effort to refine them and reduce them to practice. Included
in this variety of instruments that are available for hydraulic and pneumatic
system troubleshooting are:

Ultrasonic leak detector

Eddy-current probes
Infrared scanners
Spectrometric oil analysis
Ferrographic oil analysis
Photometric particle counters
Acoustic emission detectors
Thermal flowmeters
Vibratory pressure pickup

The operation of the ultrasonic leak detector is described together with its
application.

12.2.1 Ultrasonic Leak Detector

The worker hours required for inch-by-inch inspection of pneumatic and
hydraulic lines on machine tools, mobile equipment, or industrial machin¬
ery have been effectively reduced by more than 80% according to various
sources, which have employed a method of checking their systems by ultra¬
sonics. It is now their standard inspection technique at each 200-hr opera¬
tional check.
Using the ultrasonic system, which consists of a battery-powered, light¬
weight instrument requiring no setup or auxiliary equipment, a single mechan¬
ic can check a complete complex system in 30 min. The portable detector is
a passive device; it does not require an acoustic noise source or generator.
It responds to ultrasonic energy created by external forces. Air or oil molecules
escaping from a leak anywhere in the system, with pressures from 3000 to
100 psi, create ultrasonic energy as the higher-velocity molecules collide with
those in the atmosphere (Fig. 12.5).
The detector’s hand-held probe microphone responds to ultrasonic
energy from 36,000 to 44,000 Hz (cycles per second). Electronics within the
398 Fluid Power System Malfunction

(A)

Figure 12.5 Ultrasonic leak detector. (Courtesy of Owatonna Tool Co., Owaton-
na, Minnesota.)
Diagnostic Instrumentation 399

instrument translates this energy to the range of human hearing and amplifies
it through its loudspeaker or earphones.
The characteristic sounds of the leak are preserved. For example, an
almost microscopic air leak creates 40,000-Hz energy, which, when translated
and amplified, sounds exactly like the hissing of a punctured inner tube.
To inspect a pneumatic system, the mechanic aims the probe along tub¬
ing from a distance of about 6 in., paying particular attention to known trou¬
ble spots such as swivels, fittings, and other connections. When the detec¬
tor’s speaker emits a hissing sound, he finds the precise location and either
adjusts the fitting at the time or marks the part for replacement.
This type of unit can also be used as a vibration sensor or stethoscope,
as shown on Fig. 12.6. In this case, the unit is sensitive to lower-frequency
signals and these are picked up by the transducer, which must contact the com¬
ponent being diagnosed. The signals are conditioned by the unit to provide
a sound or audible-type indication to the person conducting the test. Such
items as bad bearings, scratches, cracks, or nicks in the rotating members are
readily detected.

12.2.2 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

The Bourdon gauge works on the principle that pressure in a curved tube will
tend to straighten it. Thus pressure acts equally on every square inch of area
in the tube, but since the surface area on the outside of the curve is greater
than the surface area on the shorter radius, the force acting on the outer sur¬
face will be greater than the force acting on the inner surface. When pressure
is applied, the tube will straighten out until the difference in force is balanced
by the elastic resistance of the material composing the tube. If a pointer is
attached to the tube and a scale laid out, the main elements of a Bourdon
gauge are obtained, as shown in Fig. 12.7.
The working parts of a Bourdon gauge consist of a tube that is bent
into a circular arc and is oval in cross section so that it will tend to straighten
more easily when under pressure. The open end of the tube passes through
a socket which is threaded so that the gauge can be screwed into an opening
in the hydraulic system. The closed end of the tube is linked to a pivoted seg¬
ment gear in mesh with a small rotating gear to which a pointer is attached.
Beneath the pointer is a scale reading in pounds per square inch. The gauge
is calibrated against known pressures to ensure accurate readings. The work¬
ing parts are enclosed within a protective case of metal, plastic, or similar
material with the dial visible through a clear glass or plastic face. Under pres¬
sure the tube tends to straighten and the segment moves about its pivot, ro¬
tating the meshing gear and pointer. The pointer assembly is usually pressed
400 Fluid Power System Malfunction

Figure 12.6 Microsonic stethoscope. (Courtesy of Owatonna Tool Co., Owaton

na, Minnesota.)
Diagnostic Instrumentation 401

on the shaft in such a manner that it is removable for resetting when the gauge
is calibrated against a master unit. The construction details of a typical Bour¬
don tube pressure gauge are depicted in Fig. 12.8. Possible troubleshooting
solutions are given in the following chart.

Problem Cause Solution

Incorrect indication 1. Gauge defective Check zero pressure and

remedy or replace broken
tube, broken movement,
tube spring, broken
needle, pegged needle, or
gauge pinion gear
2. Check authenticity of Check gauge against
the gauge reading good gauge
Poor gauge life 1. Gauge subject to Isolate shock by switching
mechanical shock to glycerin-filled gauge
2. Bourdon tube fatigue Use gauge isolator to re¬
move continuous pressure
on tube
3. Pegged needles Add pressure flow snubber
to restrict needle move¬
ment in addition to glycer¬
in (or fluid-filled gauge)

12.2.3 Viscosity Measurement

The instrument most often used by American engineers and technicians to

measure the viscosity of liquids is the Saybolt Universal viscometer or vis¬
cosimeter. This instrument measures the number of seconds it takes for a fixed
quantity of liquid (60 cm3) to flow through a small orifice of standard length
and diameter at a specified temperature. The viscosity is stated as so many
seconds Saybolt Universal (units SSU) at such and such a temperature. For
example, a certain oil might have a viscosity of 80 SSU at 130°F.
The Saybolt Universal viscometer consists of a reservoir for the oil sur¬
rounded by a bath heated by heating coils to bring the oil to the temperature
at which the viscosity is to be measured. The bottom of the reservoir issues
into the standard viscometer orifice. Passage through the orifice is blocked
by a cork. The reservoir is filled to a marked level, and a container marked
at the 60-cm3 level is placed under the opening. When the oil to be tested is
at the desired test temperature, the cork is removed and the number of seconds
402 Fluid Power System Malfunction

Hairspring
Column Backplate

Sector

Bushing

Pinion m
Bushing

Center Bushing

Arbor

Mounting Plate

Adjustment Plate
Recalibrator Screw

Figure 12.7 Bourdon tube gauge mechanism. (Courtesy of Marsh Instrument Co.,
Bensenville, Illinois.)

Figure 12.8 Typical gauge construction. (Courtesy of Marsh Instrument Co., Ben¬
senville, Illinois.)
Diagnostic Instrumentation 403

it takes for the liquid to reach the 60-cm3 level gives the SSU reading. The de¬
vice is shown in detail in Fig. 12.9.
For quick on-the-job tests it is possible to use comparison devices. Such
a device consists of one tube with a known viscosity fluid and a second tube
in a parallel plane which is filled with the fluid to be tested. By comparing
the fluid under test with the known one, an evaluation is made. Generally,
the known fluid is the one recommended for the hydraulic system used.

12.2.4 Liquid-Level and Temperature Indicators

The level and temperature of fluid in the reservoir provide important infor¬
mation on the status of the hydraulic system. Both characteristics can be mon¬
itored inexpensively and even controlled automatically at relatively low cost.
The simplest level-monitoring devices are dip sticks and sight gauges. Dip
sticks are most common on mobile systems; sight gauges, on industrial sys¬
tems. Together, these two devices take care of the level-monitoring needs of
most fluid power systems. Where fluid level is critical, or where the level is
unlikely to be observed periodically by the operator, low-level alarms actu¬
ated by float switches should be used, sometimes in conjunction with remote¬
reading gauges. If potential damage from loss of fluid could be costly, the
alarm circuit can be wired to shut down the system.
Temperature monitoring is often omitted from mobile systems, although
some newer systems have remote-reading thermometers with a readout on the
operator’s control panel. Industrial systems typically have a thermometer in¬
stalled as part of the sight-level gauge or as a probe in the suction or return
line. High- and low-temperature alarms operated by thermostats are often
used and may automatically shut down the system. An immersion-type tem¬
perature gauge often used to indicate fluid temperature in a reservoir is shown
on Fig. 12.10.
A word of warning: A thermometer installed in a sight-level gauge does
not indicate maximum system temperature. It indicates only the temperature
of the fluid adjacent to that wall of the reservoir. Maximum system
temperature can easily be as much as 130°F higher than that measured in the
reservoir. The advantage of measuring reservoir temperature is that it indi¬
cates whether or not the system is operating normally, a substantial benefit
considering that the thermometer typically costs less than a dollar.
' s

12.2.5 Flowmeters

Flowmeters vary in construction and operation. Generally, there are three

broad categories of meters: variable-area types, turbine types, and noninter¬
ference types. Following is a review of each type.
Rotameters are the most common variable-area meters, consisting of
a tapered tube in which a float is supported by the fluid flowing up through
404 Fluid Power System Malfunction

the tube. As the fluid flow increases, the float is lifted higher in the tapered
tube, as greater orifice area is required around the float to transmit the flowing
fluid. The reading is taken directly from the float position. Rotameters are
typically used for low-pressure flow readings; they are most suitable when
used for a single fluid.
Interference meters consist of a turbine vane, or propeller, centered in
the flow path, which rotates proportionately to flow velocity. The turbine or vane
may be geared directly to a meter; in more sophisticated devices, turbine speed
may be sensed by a magnetic element outside of the flow tube. A turbine-type
flow meter that can be used for low- or high-pressure lines is shown in Fig. 12.11.
Interference meters are the type most commonly used when a flowmeter
is required for commercial hydraulic or pneumatic service. They are capable

Figure 12.9 Saybolt viscosity testing device.

 Diagnostic Instrumentation
405

Figure 12.10 Temperature gauges. (Courtesy of Marsh Instrument Co., Bensenville,

Illinois.)

Figure 12.11 Turbine flowmeter. (Courtesy of Flo-Tech, Inc. Libertyville, Illinois.)

406 Fluid Power System Malfunction

of delivering acceptable accuracies at the high pressures normally found in

industrial hydraulics and pneumatics.
Positive-displacement meters offer the ultimate in volumetric accuracy
but require maximum interference with the flow stream. Basically, they func¬
tion like a hydraulic or pneumatic motor, with the “output shaft” of the
motorlike device driving the gauge readout. Because these meters are very
similar to the hydraulic and pneumatic motors used in fluid power applica¬
tions, they are suitable typically for extremely high pressures and deliver very
high accuracies.
Vortex meters use obstructing bodies in the flow path to create vortices,
which may be sensed by a variety of devices downstream of the obstruction.
In one model, heated thermistors placed in the vortex path are cooled at a
faster rate when they encounter the swirling fluid. Another model replaces
thermistors with a transverse ultrasonic beam. Vortices interrupt the beam
and produce an oscillatory voltage at the receiver. A third model uses vor¬
tices to vibrate a pair of metal diaphragms, which act as the plates of a capaci¬
tor. Vortex meters can be extremely accurate, typically within 1% of full scale,
and are well suited to automatic monitoring and control systems.
 13
Fluid Power System
Noise Control

“Will the user accept the noise level?” that has been the deciding factor up
to now. Designers of fluid-power equipment may soon be faced with stand¬
ards that set limits on noise. Both equipment designers and users must be con¬
cerned. If a plant does federal contract work under the Walsh-Healy Act, and
if it has an operation that produces substantial noise levels of 90 dB or more,
the noise standards for federal contractors that took effect on May 20, 1969,
apply:

The maximum acceptable noise level for an 8-hr exposure is 90 dB meas¬

ured on the A scale of a standard sound-level meter at slow response.
Exposure to impulsive or impact noise should not exceed 140 dBA peak
sound pressure level.
Where possible, engineering controls should be adopted to reduce sound
levels at their source.
You may reduce a worker’s cumulative exposures to noise by means of
administrative controls. That is, you may schedule a worker so that he
or she will not be exposed to excessive noise for an entire 8-hr day.
If engineering controls afe not feasible, you must institute a hearing con¬
servation program.

If these regulations are not met, the government can cancel the contract, buy
the goods elsewhere, and charge for the difference. The reduction of noise
and compliance with the standards necessitates an understanding of the

407
408 Fluid Power System Noise Control

sources of noise in a hydraulic system and the control methods that are avail¬
able.

13.1 PUMP NOISE

Fast changes in velocity and pressure, and the collapse of bubbles, are the
principal sources of hydraulic noise. Pumps and motors are the most com¬
mon contributors of these factors in hydraulic equipment. All positive-dis¬
placement hydraulic power units, including piston, gear, screw, and vane
pumps and motors, generate noise in a similar way. The way an in-line piston
pump generates noise is typical of most pump types as shown in the vane
pump of Fig. 13.1.
Alternating internal loads can deflect the casing of the pump. The mo¬
tion may be only a few microinches, but it makes noise. Several forces and
moments combine to generate the noise of any given unit. The axial forces
represents these factors in certain piston pumps. In a nine-cylinder pump, this
force varies with the number of pressurized piston cycles, between four and
five. The amplitude of the variable portion of this loading is equal to the prod¬
uct of piston area and discharge pressure. The rapid rising and falling between
the fixed limits of the load is capable of producing a loud noise.
In each piston in an in-line pump, the flow moves with sinusoidal mo¬
tion. A half-sine wave describes the discharge of each piston. The basic de¬

Housing expansion
compression zone
and contraction
(zero to line
noises and vibrations
pressure)
C. Noises and vibrations
from recombining
fluids of different
pressures

&//////////.
I
DISCHARGE

(pressure side)

ZZZZZZZZZZ2.
Decompres¬
D. Pressure ripple noises
sion zone (line
and vibrations
pressure to zero)

Figure 13.1 Causes of noise in a hydraulic pump. (Courtesy of Parker Hannifin

Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)
Reducing Noise at Its Source 409

liveries of a multipiston pump combine to produce a flow having a small rip¬

ple. The way in which the individual fluid elements are compressed determines
how much additional flow disturbance is added to the basic pump ripple. If
no provision is made for this compression, the fluid will still be at inlet pres¬
sure (50 psi or less) when it reaches the discharge port. At the discharge port,
the fluid is compressed by a backflow which is at system pressure. This com¬
pression interrupts the discharge outflow and can produce a lot of noise if
the pump’s valving mechanism is not carefully designed. In addition, fluid
pressure noise is caused by rough pumping chamber transitions, thereby in¬
creasing airborne noise as well.
The internal loading producing sound also produces pump vibration.
These loading noises deflect the pump structure, so that component masses
are displaced. To balance the relative displacement of its internal masses, the
pump housing must shift. The vibrations caused by this shifting transmits to
adjacent structures. Figure 13.2a details the noise levels expected from the
various pump structures in the early 1970s. Figure 13.2b reflects the signifi¬
cant improvements in the last 10 years resulting from research and develop¬
ment by several major producers of industrial hydraulic pumps.

13.2 REDUCING NOISE AT ITS SOURCE

Good hydraulic circuit design is essential to noise control. This is obvious to

anyone familiar with noise of a pump cavitating because of insufficient inlet
pressure. Avoiding cavitation and flow noises requires the use of adequate
line sizes, suction strainer, input speed, and reservoirs; proper reservoir baf¬
fling; and good oil temperature control. In addition, flexible hydraulic lines
used in making connections to isolated units can reduce sound levels and
dampen vibration.
Fluid pressure pulsation can also produce audible noise; thus it is some¬
times desirable to isolate pumps and motors hydraulically. This can be done
with acoustic filters which are custom designed for a given application and
are tuned for one pump or motor speed. Where speed is variable, gas-charged
accumulators may be used. Desurgers, flow-through types, are preferred. A
desurger can be a pipe with multiple holes radially located in the wall leading
to a metal jacket, with an elastomeric material surrounding the inner pipe
and an inert gas under pressure between the outer shell and the elastomeric
liner. The gas charge must be constantly monitored to ensure maximum
shock-absorbing efficiency.
One equipment user covered enclosed panels with sound-absorbing ma¬
terial and used brick and concrete for mounting machinery too heavy for rub¬
ber mounting. These precautions greatly reduced the noise that would have
been produced if a metal framework had been used (Fig. 13.3).
410 Fluid Power System Noise Control

a. Noise levels-early 1970s.

Pump type Decibels0

Screw type6 72-78

Vane (industrial) 75-82
Axial piston 76-85
Gear (powdered metal) 78-88
Vane (mobile) 84-92
Gear (machined stock) 96-104

“The lower range figure is at 500 psi: the higher is at 1000 psi.
*1700 gpm, 3500 rpm. (All others 10 gpm at 1200 rpm.)

b. Noise levels-early 1980s.

1200 rpm

Pump type 1000 psi 2000 psi

Vane 58 62
Axial piston 64 67
Internal gear 55 —

External gear 65 70

Figure 13.2 (a) Typical noise levels of hydraulic pumps in the early 1970s (courtesy
of Parker Hannifin Corp., Cleveland, Ohio), (b) Typical noise levels of hydraulic
pumps in the early 1980s (courtesy of Sperry Vickers, Troy, Michigan).

13.2.1 Vibration Mounts

The transmission of machinery vibration through building components gen¬
erating sound waves in plant areas has been effectively reduced by placing
equipment on vibration mounts. This has not only dampened out vibrations,
but has also reduced the vibration noise levels. Types of vibration isolators
include springs, rubber, or neoprene, or combinations. Vibration isolation
has been further improved by mounting equipment on concrete inertia blocks.

13.3 NOISE MEASUREMENT

Noise measurements are usually based on frequency. The decibel is the most
common unit used for the measurement of loudness. Zero decibel is the softest
sound that the human ear can hear in a very quiet area. Twenty micronew¬
tons per square meter is usually considered as the starting point of the decibel
Noise Measurement 411

scale. A soft whisper at 5 ft produces 30 dB, while a pneumatic hammer pro¬

duces 130 dB. The decibel is 20 times the logarithm of the ratio of the meas¬
ured sound pressure to a selected reference pressure, usually 20 N/in.2.
Some companies have begun to use the sone as a method for measur¬
ing sound in place of the decibel. The sone is a subjective unit of loudness.
One sone is defined as a reference tone of 1000 Hz at 40 dB. the main ad¬
vantage of the sone is that it varies linearly to the human ear with varied
broad-band noises. A hydraulic pump that emits 120 sones of sound noise
sounds twice as loud as a pump emitting 60 sones of noise. Overall noise levels,
in decibels, of some noise sources are presented in Fig. 13.4.
The basic noise-measuring system is electrical and consists of a micro¬
phone, an amplifier, and a meter calibrated to give sound levels over a stand¬
ard frequency range. This meter usually has the A, B, and the C scales. The
A scale is used most often. Fortunately, the number of decibels shown on
a sound-level meter makes it easy to determine the source of the noise. Octave-
wave band analyzers measure sound pressure levels in bands one octave wide.

Figure 13.3 Noise control. The machine panels have been lined with sound-damp¬
ening materials to substantially reduce noise levels. (Courtesy of Farrei Machine Corp.,
Rochester, New York.)
412 Fluid Power System Noise Control

Decibels Noise source

*

140 Hydraulic press at 3 ft

130 Pneumatic riveter at 4 ft
120 Large chipping hammer
110 Loud power motor
100
90 Shouting
80
70 Normal talking
60
50 Light traffic at 100 ft
40
30 Soft whisper

Figure 13.4 Overall sound levels of some noise sources.

After the sound pressure levels are plotted on a chart, the noise rating can
be read directly. Figures 13.5 to 13.7 depict some typical sound- and vibra¬
tion-measuring equipment.

13.4 RESEARCH TO REDUCE NOISE

Manufacturers of fluid power equipment are investing considerable amounts
of money and the time of some of their best engineers and scientists in an
effort to find a solution to noise. The solution is not an easy one. It involves
the specifics of individual pump design, of system performance requirements,
and of the design of the machine itself.
Facilities have and are being devoted to noise control research and devel¬
opment. One manufacturer has a test lab consisting of two separate rooms
within a separate building. Each room has its own foundation, roof, and
floor. The test room is the heart of the lab. An electric drive motor and other
service equipment that might generate interfering noise are in the other room.
A control and instrumentation center and a laboratory for auxiliary testing
are located in the space outside the two rooms.
This test room has hard-surfaced walls to diffuse sound so that the total
acoustic power can be evaluated from a single microphone position. The larger
vanes in this room oscillate to assist in this process. Tests are conducted on
a heavy, spring-mounted table that permits measuring vibrations generated
Research to Reduce Noise 413

by a test unit, using accelerometers attached to the table. A 350-hp variable-

speed electric motor provides mechanical power to the test room through 11
ft of dynamically balanced shafting. This motor can also drive pumps that
supply oil for hydraulic motor tests. There is an oil-conditioning system in
the same room as the drive. This system both cools the test oil and maintains
its dissolved air at a constant level.
Research to reduce noise includes detailed measurements of internal
pressure cycles, basic studies of intrinsic pumping mechanisms, and evalua¬
tions of the effects of design variations. The results of much of this work have
been used in programming computers that help design quiet fluid power
equipment by evaluating harmonic values and providing the most efficient
timing for the pumping cycle.

Figure 13.5 Precision sound-level meter. (Courtesy of Bruel & Kjaer Instruments,
Inc., Marlborough, Massachusetts.)
414 Fluid Power System Noise Control

Figure 13.6 Precision sound-level meter and octave analyzer. (Courtesy of Bruel
& Kjaer Instruments, Inc., Marlborough, Massachusetts.)
Research to Reduce Noise 415

Figure 13.7 Integrating vibration meter. (Courtesy of Bruel & Kjaer Instruments,
Inc., Marlborough, Massachusetts.)
 14
Electrohydraulic Servo Systems,
Proportional Valve Systems,
and Load-Sensing Systems

14.1 DESCRIPTION
Electrohydraulic fluid power systems, combined with electronic controls, pro¬
vide fluid power systems designers with a greater level of machine accuracy,
efficiency, versatility, and reliability than ever before available (Fig. 14.1).
For example, a new, servo-actuated rug-weaving machine can change the
woven pattern produced in a tufted rug simply by changing the appropriate
electronic circuit card in the controlling computer. Previously, the cam-oper¬
ated machine required new cams to alter the rug pattern. This change required
almost a complete machine rebuild. As a second example, an automated con¬
tinuous coal miner can be operated entirely by remote control. This permits
the machine operator to remain in a safe location where roof supports en¬
sure the operator’s safety. The solution is to use a multichannel digitally coded
remote radio control that provides complete isolation with no loss of con¬
trol. Previously, the operator had to be in the hazardous environment to
operate the machine.
On-off electric control of fluid power is as old as modern fluid power
technology. Solenoids and relays have been used as fluid power control com¬
ponents for years. Addition of a spring to the solenoid armature provided
proportionality a long time ago.
Proportional valving provides control at a level between the capabilities
of jet pipe or flapper-type servo valves and systems and conventional alternat¬
ing current solenoids and/or hydraulic pilot flow control systems.
Direct-current solenoids biased by a spring can actuate a spool-type

416
Description 417

directional valve in a repetitive pattern to provide power transmission func¬

tions in a production machine circuit with acceptable accuracy. This is par¬
ticularly true when they are biased by an appropriate spring mechanism. Low
cost, good performance, and dependability have resulted in expanding use
and customer acceptance.
This expanded use of proportional control systems has offered some
useful control options to the designer and user of hydraulic power transmis¬
sion systems. Most of these areas are related to accelerating, deceleration,
and blending of the control functions with the machine harmonics.
Load-sensing systems as currently used in compensated flow control
valves can be expanded by using the proportional valve as both the directional
control and flow orifice mechanism.
The directional control valve can be associated with a normally open
pressure level control valve with a downstream load-sensing pilot control as
used in a conventional reducing valve. Thus pressure drop across the orifice
created by the directional valve can be compensated by an input-reducing-
type valve structure or by a variable restrictive-type compensator mechanism
on the outflow area.
Some manufacturers manifold the two-valve assemblies together with
conventional fasteners or assemble cartridge valve structures in the subbase
or interconnecting piping manifold structure.
There is somewhat of a parallel function to that of the jet pipe or flap¬
per-type servo-valve system with a recognition of associated limitations of
the proportional mechanism.
Electrohydraulic servocontrol is a child of the military research of the
middle and late 1940s. Much of the early development work dealt with the
design of a proper feedback control system. The actuators were hydraulic be¬
cause they alone could deliver required power levels.

Type of Accuracy Frequency Comparative

system (in.) response (Hz) efficiency0

Valve-motor 0.00001-0.002 50-150 B

Valve-cylinder 0.0005-0.005 30-50 B

Servo pump
(packaged) 0.005-0.020 10 A

Servo pump (split) 0.010-0.020 10 A

“Rating A is higher.

Figure 14.1 Servo-system comparison.

418 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

The control system was first electric and later electronic, to interface
with early computers used for rocket guidance or gun fire control. These sys¬
tems accurately and quickly provided necessary control. The relatively small
weight and size of electrohydraulic components was an added requirement.
The first industrial applications of these systems were on numerically con¬
trolled (NC) machine tools in the late 1950s. (Incidentally, many of these ma¬
chine tool applications are now electronically controlled, dc electric motor
driven.)
Early electrohydraulic systems had many problems: (1) they offered
poor reliability, were large in size, and were based on vacuum-tube systems;
(2) they were sensitive to oil contamination; and (3) they were very costly.
Servo-valve technology is now widely accepted in industry, and users
and manufacturers have gained considerable experience adapting from aero¬
space to industrial applications. Improvements include:

1. Increased reliability and reduced cost of present electronic control

components —solid-state, active devices such as transistors, inte¬
grated circuits, and microprocessors.
2. Advances in the state of the art of oil filtration coupled with higher
contaminant immunity of hydraulic components.
3. Improved design of electric and hydraulic segments of the servo
valve, such as dry force motors, reduction of armature friction,
nonspring-centered spools, and mechanical feedback resulting in
much higher spool-driving forces. The servo valve itself has become
a small servo system.
4. Cost. Although some servo valves still cost as much as they used
to, others are quite inexpensive. Increased use in industry in general
can be expected to further reduce component costs.

14.1.1 Control System Types

Broadly speaking, three types of electronic control systems are presently avail¬
able: open loop, simple closed loop, and sophisticated closed loop.
Open-Loop Systems
In an open-loop control system, the operator provides the intelligence to close
the control loop: as the operator sees the load approach its desired position,
he or she feathers the actuator to place the load smoothly. An electronic link
now often replaces the mechanical link, resulting in many advantages. For
example, the operator can control the machine remotely for reasons of safe¬
ty, environmental conditions, and improved visibility.
In addition, electronic inputs may come from several sources simultan-
Description 419

eously. For instance, operator command may be the primary control until
the load demands start to slow the engine, at which time antistall circuitry
will override the operator. In this same manner, other parameters, such as
horsepower limiting, overspeed, overtorque, overtilt, and emergency shut¬
down, can easily be included in the control design.
On occasion, it becomes advantageous to eliminate all mechanical link¬
age and even electric cables between operator and machine. A radio link can
control the hydraulic actuators, so there is no danger of current arc or neces¬
sity of dragging a tether cord.
In one system, a radio transmitter produces a low-power, line-of-sight,
digitally coded and multiplexed signal to implement electronic control of the
hydraulic system. The signal includes address codes making each transmit¬
ter and receiver a unique pair, thus eliminating potential interference from
nearby transmitters. This system provides multiaccess, on-off, and propor¬
tional control.
Simple Closed-Loop System
A closed-loop control system is more accurate because the difference between
the actual and desired results is minimized by measuring and feeding back
the actual results. The feedback signal may be a measure of speed, torque,
force, position, pressure, gravity vector, and so on. Use of feedback can im¬
prove accuracy and repeatability, reduce response times, and remove human
beings from the system.
Hardware required for simple closed-loop control usually includes off-
the-shelf servo valves, proportional valves, linear and rotary servo actuators,
and electronic amplifiers and transducers. Some measurement transducers
used with this type of system are potentiometers, tachometers, linear variable
differential transformers, and pressure and pulse pickoffs. The electronics
are proportional; they use integrated circuits and are reliable and economical.
Often the electronics are assembled on an easily replaceable plug-in card
module which can be quickly replaced and assembled to a test module to verify
proper operating conditions.

Sophisticated Closed-Loop Systems

Closed-loop control has arbitrarily been divided into simple and sophisticated
to distinguish between analog (i.e., directly proportional) and digital electronic
control systems. Another meaning of sophisticated here is the need for ex¬
tremely high accuracy, at least higher than can be obtained with the analog
systems described. Once information has been digitized, the numbers can be
processed as desired.
Some systems operate the digital control using feedback-position en¬
coders or pulse pickoffs with digital error comparison. These systems can be
420 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

programmed manually, using matrix boards or manual-dial-in thumbwheels

to control position, feeds, speeds, thicknesses, and so on.
Automatically programmable systems are the next level of complexity.
Typically, they use magnetic or paper tape input and can include program¬
mable read-only memory (PROM) for complex sequencing and control. The
rug machine is an example of this type of control.
Finally, self-programmable systems have decision-making capability us¬
ing digital computers. These systems may have adaptive control capability,
that is, the selectivity to vary the system configuration depending on perform¬
ance. If a trend toward unacceptable manufacturing tolerance is noted, for
example, the mini- or microcomputers can revise the command so that the
output will return to the center of the tolerance band.
Such machines use the most advanced types of electronic hardware, in¬
cluding microprocessors and electronic memories. The electrohydraulic hard¬
ware is conventional except that it provides high performance to achieve the
higher accuracies and higher response times necessary.

14.1.2 Electrohydraulic Equipment

Servo-controlled hydraulic components include several types of directional
control valves, cylinders, fluid motors, and hydrostatic drive-stroke control¬
lers. Electrohydraulic stepping motors also use open-loop control, but their
use is limited.
Electrohydraulic proportional control valves used in mobile and indus¬
trial applications are available with open- or closed-center configurations.
They can provide pressure beyond capability, and some can operate comfort¬
ably with filtration to 25 /xm. Their response times are about 0.05 to 0.3 sec,
depending on size and application. In response to industrial demand, some
valves are now surprisingly economical.
Hydrostatic swashplate positioners for axial piston pumps and cylinder
barrel positioners for bent-axis assemblies were originally simple levers which
moved a yoke to cant the drive angle. Now, bolt-on servo controllers use
mechanical or electric feedback control to provide desired pump and/or motor
stroke to establish a predetermined power transmission pattern. Two-wire
electrical connection may be used to eliminate all mechanical linkages. On
some models, dual-coil torque motors permit control from one or more sta¬
tions or, with a slight wiring change, provide steering control.
On the following pages we review the design and operation of the var¬
ious components that make up a typical electrohydraulic servo system. This
includes hydraulic amplifiers, servo valves, proportional valves, and feedback
elements.
Properties of Feedback Control Systems 421

14.2 PROPERTIES OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS

14.2.1 Objectives
The purpose of a feedback control system is to monitor an output (controlled
variable) in a manner dictated by an input (reference variable) in the presence
of spurious disturbances (such as random load changes). The system meas¬
ures the output, compares the measurement with the desired value of the out¬
put as prescribed by the input, and uses the error (difference between actual
output and desired output) to change the actual output and bring it into closer
correspondence with the desired value of the output (Fig. 14.2). To achieve
a more sensitive control means, the error is usually amplified; in general, the
higher the gain, the more accurate the system. Thus a feedback control system
is characterized by measurement, comparison, and amplification. In brief,
a feedback control system is an error-correcting power-amplifying system that
produces a high-accuracy output in accordance with the dictates of a pre¬
scribed input.
Since arbitrary disturbances (such as amplifier drift, random torques,
etc.) can occur at various points in the system, a feedback control system must
be able to perform its task with the required accuracy in the presence of these
disturbances. Since random noise (unwanted fluctuations) often is present at
the input of the system, a feedback control system must be able to reject, or
filter out, the noise while producing as faithful a representation of the de¬
sired output as is feasible.

14.2.2 Open-Loop Versus Closed-Loop System Characteristics

Because a measure of the output is fed back and compared with the input,
any representation of a feedback system contains a closed loop and the system

DISTURBANCE

Figure 14.2 Elements of a feedback control system.

422 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

is thus called a closed-loop system. Many control systems do not exhibit this
closed-loop feature and may be termed open-loop systems (Fig. 14.3). In an
open-loop system, the error is reduced by careful calibration.
If open-loop and closed-loop systems are compared, it can be seen that
several advantages accrue to the closed-loop system. In a closed-loop system,
the percentage change in the response of one of its elements is approximately
inversely proportional to the overall amplification of the loop. However, in
an open-loop system, the percentage change in the response of the system is
approximately proportional to the percentage change in the response of one
of its elements. Thus a feedback control system is insensitive to changes in
the parameters of its components and can usually be constructed from less
accurate and cheaper components than those used in an open-loop system.
One exception to the foregoing statement results from an inherent
limitation —the closed-loop system can be no more accurate and reliable than
its measuring element. The same limitation holds true for an open-loop sys¬
tem.
The error produced in an open-loop system by a given disturbance is
much larger than the error produced by the same disturbance in an equivalent
closed-loop system, the ratio of errors being approximately proportional to
the overall amplification of the loop of the closed-loop system. Thus a feed¬
back control system is relatively insensitive to extraneous disturbances and
can be used in situations where severe upsets are expected. One can conclude
that the overall amplification (or gain) that can be achieved inside the loop
of a feedback control system directly affects the accuracy of the system, the
constancy of its characteristics, and the “stiffness” of the system in the face
of external upsets or disturbances. In general, it is found that the higher the
gain of the system, the better the system. The highest gain that can be used,
however, is limited in every case by considerations of stability.

14.2.3 Stability and Dynamic Response

For the advantages of accurcy and constancy of characteristics, the feedback
control system must pay a price in the form of a greater tendency toward in¬
stability. A linear system is said to be stable if the response of the system to
any discontinuous input does not exhibit sustained or growing oscillations.

DISTURBANCE

INPUT + NOISE
1
OUTPUT
CONTROLLED
ELEMENT

Figure 14.3 Elements of an open-loop control system.

Electrohydraulic Servo Valves 423

Essentially, this means that the system response will ultimately settle down
to some steady value. An unstable system that exhibits steady or runaway os¬
cillations is unacceptable. Unstable behavior must be guarded against in the
design, construction, and testing of feedback systems. Because of the possibil¬
ity of instability, a major portion of control system design is devoted to the
task of ensuring that a safe margin of stability exists and can be maintained
throughout the operating range of the system.
It can be shown that the cause of instability in a given closed-loop system
is due to the fact that no physical device can respond instantaneously to a
sudden change at its input. If a sudden change occurs in the error of a feed¬
back system, the output will not correct for the error instantaneously. If the
corrective force is great enough (due to a high amplification), the output will
accelerate rapidly and cause a reversal of the error. If a high output velocity
is attained, the inertia of the output will carry the output past the point where
the error is zero. Instability occurs if the maximum magnitude of the error
after reversal is equal to, or greater than, the magnitude of the original dis¬
turbance in the error. The tendency for a system to become unstable is ac¬
centuated as the amplification is increased, since the stored energy in the
inertia of the output will be correspondingly increased without any compen¬
sating increase in the rate of dissipation of energy in the system. This situa¬
tion corresponds to an excessive delay in the response of the output. Thus
an attempt to increase accuracy by increasing gain or amplification is usually
accompanied by an increased tendency toward instability. As a result, design
becomes a compromise between accuracy and stability.

14.3 ELECTROHYDRAULIC PROPORTIONAL AND SERVO VALVES

Servo systems use a technique of feeding back to the input all errors that oc¬
cur within the system during normal operation. The system responds to its
feedback and makes proper correction for its error. Of all servo systems, the
most responsive and precise is the electrohydraulic system. The heart of the
electrohydraulic system is the proportional and/or servo valve.

14.3.1 Valve Construction

Servo valves are either single-stage, two-stage, or in rare instances, three-stage.
In a single-stage spool type, the main valve spool is actuated directly by an
electric torque motor (Fig. 14.4a). Fluid is ported in a standard four-way con¬
figuration. Flows in single-stage valves are limited to about 3 gpm, and their
dynamic performance is not as good as two-stage servo valves.
Single-stage proportional valves typically use dc solenoids of conven¬
tional design as shown in the double solenoid unit of Fig. 14.4b. This valve
also provides a positional transducer to monitor the spool movement.
424 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

TORQUE MOTOR

SPOOL

TORQUE MOTOR
ARMATURE

Figure 14.4a Single-stage, spool-type, torque-motor-operated servo valve.

Figure 14.4b Four-way proportional valve with positional transducer. (Courtesy of

the Rexroth Corporation, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.)
Electrohydraulic Servo Valves 425

In the two-stage valve, the pilot or first stage receives an electrome¬

chanical input, amplifies it, and controls the movement of the second (main)
stage. In a typical two-stage spool-type valve, the torque motor actuates the
pilot spool, which in turn ports fluid to shift the second-stage (main) spool.
Most servo valves are two-stage (Fig. 14.5a).
A typical two-stage proportional valve, (Fig. 14.5b) uses a pilot valve
which employs two dc solenoids and a spool assembly which provides a feed¬
back function. The solenoid, when energized with a specific input electrical
signal within its operating range, will move the pilot spool a proportional
amount which directs pressurized pilot fluid to one end of the piloted spring-
centered spool. As the piloted spool moves, the centering spring is com¬
pressed. This increases the pressure level in the pilot line. The increased pres¬
sure level is sensed at piston 10 or 11. One of these piston assemblies will op¬
pose the dc solenoid and force it back to a point where the pilot spool centers
and locks fluid in the appropriate end cavity of the piloted spool to hold it
in a predetermined shifted position to create the desired direction of move¬
ment and the desired rate of flow. The piloted spool will stay at that posi¬
tion until the signal value to the dc solenoid controlling the pilot spool is
changed.

Pilot Stages
Four major types of pilot or first stages are used in multistage servo valves:
spool, single flapper, double flapper, and jet pipe (Fig. 14.6). All use the prin¬
ciple of varying control pressure as an input electrical signal varies.
In the spool arrangement, both orifices change simultaneously. One in-

Figure 14.5a Two-stage, spool-type, torque-motor-operated servo valve.

426 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

V V A V A V
T APB X Y

Figure 14.5b Four-way proportional valve. (Courtesy of the Rexroth Corporation,

Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.)

creases as the other decreases to create a hydraulic signal. The signal is passed
on to the second-stage spool or, in a single-stage valve, directly to the actuator.
In the single-flapper type, for each signal line there is one fixed orifice
and one variable orifice that is varied by the flapper. A double flapper is
similar in principle to a four-way spool or an electrical bridge circuit. It has
higher pressure gain than a single flapper and is self-compensated against en¬
vironmental changes.
In servo valves with jet pipe stages, the size of the jet nozzle does not
change with position as it does in a flapper stage. The relatively large nozzle
opening makes it less sensitive to clogging by contaminants.
Feedback
Two-stage servo or proportional valves generally include feedback between
the stages. This makes the valve into a small servo system, with all the ad¬
vantages of closed-loop control. Through the feedback, the position of the
main stage is compared to the command of the pilot stage so that any error
can be corrected.
Electrohydraulic Servo Valves 427

Commonly used feedback techniques are the following:

Mechanical-positional feedback maintains a positive positional relation¬

ship between the pilot sleeve and the main spool. A spring load is ap¬
plied to the sleeve to overcome backlash.
Mechanical-force balance designs have a spring that permits adjusting
the ratio of motion between the stages.
Electrical feedback using a linear variable differential transformer is a
very effective method. However, it requires additional electronic equip¬
ment to complete the loop.
Hydraulic-follower feedback permits the simplest valve construction,
but the movement ratio between the pilot and second stage cannot be
adjusted.

HYDRAULIC
SIGNAL TO
SECOND STAGE
SPOOL

HYDRAULIC
SINGLE-FLAPPER SIGNAL TO
SECOND STAGE
JET PIPE

Figure 14.6 Four major types of servo-valve first stages.

428 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

Hydraulic-load pressure feedback is the most complex in operation. Bas¬

ically, main spool movement depends on the pilot differential and the
rate of the springs at both ends of the spool. In addition, internal pas¬
sages connect the spool ends to cylinder port pressures, creating forces
that close the valve. The result is a lower flow rate than with springs
alone. As load pressure increases, flow decreases in a reasonably straight
line relationship.
Proportional-position arrangement does not necessarily have feedback,
but does provide for main spool porting.
In most feedback mechanisms the ratio of movement of the main stage to
that of the pilot stage can be adjusted. In mechanical-positioning feedback,
the fulcrum of the lever can be changed to provide stepless adjustment. In
mechanical force balance, the feedback can be changed by use of different
rate springs. Electrical feedback ratio can be changed by adjusting the gain
of the amplifier used to compare the input signal to the signal produced by
spool displacement. The feedback ratio of hydraulic-follower valves is fixed
at 1:1

14.3.2 Main-Stage Porting

Two standard porting arrangement are used in the main stage: three-way and
four-way. The four-way version includes a pressure port and two cylinder
ports. The three-way configuration has only one cylinder port.
With a three-way valve, the cylinder usually has a piston area ratio of
2:1. The small area end is connected to constant hydraulic pressure. The pres¬
sure of the large area end of the cylinder is controlled by the servo valve. At
the point of hydraulic balance, the valve maintains the pressure on the large
area at one-half that of the small area.
A four-way valve controls pressure on both sides of the actuator. The
valve is said to have a bridge-type balance when used on equal-area actua¬
tors such as balanced pistons and rotary motors. When the valve is balanced,
equal intermediate pressures are supplied to both sides of the actuator.
Port-area configuration is of prime importance to valve performance.
The most common porting shapes are square, round, and full annulus. Flow
from a valve with square ports is almost directly proportional to the spool
displacement.
The flow curve of a valve with the full annulus port shows more gain.
This gives more rapid acceleration and deceleration of the actuator.

14.3.3 Spool Lap Condition

Lap is the physical relationship between spool metering lands and port open¬
ings. An open-center servo valve refers to an underlap condition in which the
Electrohydraulic Servo Valves 429

lands are slightly narrower than the porting area of the body or sleeve. When
the valve is centered, this arrangement permits a constant flow of oil from
the pressure side of the pump across the ports to tank. The pressure drop
across these restrictions produces an intermediate pressure at the cylinder ports
that is normally 40 to 60% of supply pressure.
A closed-center valve has an overlapped arrangement in which the lands
are slightly larger than the porting area. This construction is not common in
servo valves because it creates a dead zone and makes the valve unrespon¬
sive to small signals. Sometimes a slight overlap is used with dither (high-fre¬
quency vibration of the spool) to ensure a dynamic line-to-line condition.
A third and most desirable construction is the line-to-line servo valve
in which the spool metering lands just coincide with the port openings. With
this configuration leakage will provide enough flow to establish the interme¬
diate cylinder port pressures, and the valve is ready to respond to very small
movements of the spool.
Pressure gain and flow gain are directly affected by lap conditions. Full
system pressure to the cylinder cannot be obtained until the metering land
that opens the cylinder port has completely blocked the escape of flow to tank.
In an overlapped valve, once the overlap is passed, pressure gain is
higher than with an underlapped valve. Only a slight displacement creates full
system pressure in one cylinder line and opens the other line to tank. Line-
to-line valves have as good pressure gains as overlapped valves without lost
motion of the spool.

14.3.4 Valve Characteristics

Ideally, a servo valve produces zero output flow at zero current. In practice,
this ideal condition is seldom attained. The null shift may be due to changes in
temperature, supply pressure, or load pressure. It is expressed in terms of null
bias or current changes required to restore zero output flow.
In open-loop systems the null shift of the servo valve is so great that
the load drifts and wanders from its assigned position. Because of null shift,
a servo valve is seldom used to position a load without a closed loop.
Load-flow curves show the effects of load pressure on valve flow (Fig.
14.7). The flow change can be determined for a given load pressure change
for any input current. The flow curve is obtained by cycling the valve through
its rated input current range and recording the continuous plot of output flow
for one cycle of input current. The flow curve measures valve flow gain, hys¬
teresis, linearity, and dead zone.
Flow gain is the change in output flow per unit change in input cur¬
rent. This is taken at zero load pressure unless otherwise specified. Pressure
gain is the pressure increase per unit of current increase, psi/A.
Valve dynamics can be expressed either in terms of transient response
430 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

T
Figure 14.7 Typical servo-valve flow plot. (Courtesy of Moog, Inc., East Aurora,
New York.)

or frequency response. A transient response test measures the time required

to achieve desired output, the degree of overshoot, and settling time (Fig.
14.8). Frequency-response tests are a measure of the no-load sinusoidal fre¬
quency response characteristics.

14.3.4 Flow Control Servo Valves

Servo valves are the most sophisticated and expensive method of controlling
actuator speed, but the expense is probably worth the investment if exacting
speed control is needed and if the load continually varies (Fig. 14.9a). The
valve has a torque motor, which is an armature that is free to rotate within
the gap between two permanent magnets. The armature is supported by a thin-
walled flexure tube inside of which is a feedback wire and a flapper.
Supply pressure is continuously fed through inlet orifices in the hydrau¬
lic amplifier and through nozzles to each side of the flapper. With no move¬
ment of the flapper, this control fluid flows through the drain orifice to tank.
Electrohydraulic Servo Valves 431

When the armature is electrically energized, it rocks in one direction, clos¬

ing the flow from one of the nozzles of the hydraulic amplifier.
This blockage 6f the right nozzle causes pressure to build at the right
end of the power, or second-stage spool, while left supply fluid continues to
flow past the flapper to the tank. Because there is a differential pressure across
the spool, it shifts left to permit pressurized fluid to flow to the actuator and
the return fluid to flow to tank.
As the spool moves, the ball end of the feedback wire also moves left,
trying to move the flapper away from the right nozzle to restore equilibrium.
When this feedback torque becomes equal to the magnetic torque of the arma¬
ture, the armature and flapper move back toward the centered position.
But the spool will stop short of its center position if there is still cur¬
rent to the armature. When these opposing torques are equal, spool position
will be proportional to input current. With constant supply pressure, flow
to load is proportional to spool position. Thus varying input current controls
flow volume and actuator speed.

0 15 30 45 60
TIME-MSEC

Figure 14.8 Typical servo-valve transient response. (Courtesy of Moog, Inc., East
Aurora, New York.)
 ARMATURE

FLEXURE TUBE
FIRST
STAGE < HYDRAULIC AMPLIFIER
SUPPLY SUPPLY

SECOND
STAGE

TO ACTUATOR FROM
ACTUATOR

Figure 14.9a Flow control servo valve.

Figure 14.9b Electronic proportional pressure compensated flow control valve.

(Courtesy of the Rexroth Corporation, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.)

432
Electrohydraulic Servo Valves 433

Figure 14.9b illustrates an electrohydraulic proportional flow control

valve. Pressure-compensated spool 5 and check valve 7 provide conventional
reducing valve compensation and return free flow through the valve. Pro¬
portional movement of orifice assembly 4 and 8 is provided by dc solenoid
1. Position of orifice device is monitored by LVDT 2. Flow through the valve
is varied by signal energy applied at solenoid 1.

14.3.5 Pressure Control Servo Valves

A pressure control servo valve has a polarized electrical torque motor, a dou¬
ble-nozzle hydraulic amplifier, and an output-stage sliding-spool valve (Fig.
14.10a). A stub and sleeve arrangement provide the spool with two drive areas
at each end. The differential pressure across one pair of spool end areas is
controlled by the flapper and nozzle hydraulic amplifier. The differential pres¬
sure across the other pair of spool end areas provides load pressure feedback.
The hydraulic amplifier has two fixed inlet orifices and two variable ori¬
fices formed by the circumferential openings between the nozzle tips and the
flapper. The flapper connects directly to the armature of the torque motor.
Flexing a thin-walled tubular pivot moves the armature and flapper. The
tubular pivot also provides a fluid seal between the electromagnetic and hy¬
draulic parts of the servo valve.

COIL

UPPER POLEPIECE

ARMATURE-—

LOWER POLEPIECE'

FLEXURE TUBE

FLAPPER

INLET ORIFICE

NOZZLE

SPOOL

CONTROL NO. 1 CONTROL NO. 2

Figure 14.10a Pressure control servo valve.

434 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

When electric current is applied to the servo valve, a torque is devel¬

oped on the armature-flapper. This torque causes the flapper to pivot on the
flexure tube support and move between the nozzle tips: one nozzle orifice
opens as the other closes, resulting in a differential pressure between the nozzle
chambers. The pressure differential creates a force on the second-stage spool
that moves the spool. Spool displacement allows flow to the load to develop
an output pressure from the reservoir. The load pressure is fed back to the
spool end areas so that the spool will move until a balance is achieved be¬
tween the force due to the hydraulic amplifier and that due to load pressure.
One spool end area may connect directly to supply or return if the pressure
in a single load line is to be controlled with respect to the supply or return
pressure.
A proportional relationship exists between the servo valve output pres¬
sure and the electrical input signal due to the force balance at the spool and
the proportional action of the torque motor and hydraulic amplifier. Under
load flow conditions, output pressure will exhibit some droop due to flow
reaction forces acting on the valve spool.
The proportional relief valve of Fig. 14.10b uses conventional piloted
relief valve components and adds a proportional function in parallel to the
manual pilot adjustment 3. The plunger of solenoid 2 urges the poppet against
seat 12. Pilot fluid can be diverted to the tank at minimum pressure when
solenoid 2 is not energized. As an increasing electrical signal is applied at sole¬
noid 2, an increasing pressure will be provided up to the point at which con¬
trol fluid can pass to tank at the value established by parallel manually ad¬
justed pilot control assembly 3. The relief valve of Fig. 14.10b is a normally
closed device. The reducing valve of Fig. 14.10c is a normally open device.
It responds to the proportional electric signal in a pattern similar to that of
the relief valve of Fig. 14.10b.
The proportional pilot valve of Fig. 14. lOd can be used to control vir¬
tually any pilot controlled pressure device.

14.4 INSTALLATION, OPERATION, MAINTENANCE,

AND TROUBLESHOOTING OF SERVO VALVES

14.4.1 Installation and Startup

The servo valve can be mounted in any position. Best performance will be
achieved with the servo valve located as close as possible to the load actuator.
By minimizing the column of liquid between the control valve and the actu¬
ator it is possible to increase accuracy of movement of the controlled device.
Possible sponginess resulting from small quantities of entrained gas in the
liquid is minimized and deflection of the conductors creating an accumula¬
tor action is limited.
 Installation, Operation, Maintenance of Servo Valves 435

Pilot valve External pilot drain

XA AA Vfi
Plugged for internal pilot supply

Figure 14.10b Electronic proportional relief valve. (Courtesy of the Rexroth Cor¬
poration, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.)

Figure 14.10c Electronic proportional pressure reducing valve. (Courtesy of the Rex¬
roth Corporation, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.)
436 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

Figure 14.10d Proportional pressure relief valve. (Courtesy of the Rexroth Corpora¬
tion, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.)

Prior to initial installation of a servo valve, the hydraulic system must be

flushed clean by running the pump to circulate fluid through the system fil¬
ters. During this flushing process, the load actuator should be manually exer¬
cised several times to circulate otherwise trapped oil.
To prolong servo-valve life and to reduce hydraulic system maintenance,
it is recommended that a 5- or 10-/un large-capacity filter be installed upstream
of each servo valve. Some proportional valve systems can tolerate 25-/xm filter
systems. Standard practice has been to operate a new hydraulic system for
4 hr with a flushing block at the servo-valve location before the servo valve
is installed. However, the period of flushing prior to servo-valve installation
varies considerably with the complexity and condition of the system. The
flushing is done under conditions of temperature, flow rates, and so on, which
reasonably simulate operating conditions. New system filter elements are in¬
stalled during the flushing process whenever the pressure drop across the fil¬
ter indicates that the element(s) need changing. When a filter will operate for
a period of 2 hr with no perceptible increase in pressure drop, most of the
harmful system contamination has been removed. To maintain a clean system,
filters must be replaced whenever the pressure drop indicates a need for chang¬
ing. It is also recommended that an oversize-capacity 5- or 10-jiim filter be
installed in the return line or in a line that provides constant full-flow capac¬
ity. This increases the filter element replacement interval and greatly reduces
the system contamination level.
It is often desirable to adjust the flow null of a servo valve independ-
Installation, Operation, Maintenance of Servo Valves 437

ent of other system parameters. The mechanical null adjustment on the ser¬
vo valves allow a ±20% adjustment of flow null (Fig. 14.11). The mechani¬
cal null adjustor for one manufacturers valve is an eccentric bushing retainer
pin, located above the “return” port designation on the valve body which,
when rotated, provides control of the bushing position. Mechanical feedback
elements position the spool relative to the valve body for a given input signal.
Therefore, a movement of the bushing relative to the body changes the flow
null.
Minor differences for adjusting valves will be encountered with differ¬
ent suppliers. Request appropriate service instructions prior to making any
adjustment and note recommendations associated with the service and ad¬
justment procedures. Some adjustments require laboratory-type instrumenta¬
tion, which may be modified for the desired “tuning” of the servo devices.
If the valve is off null, the load will start to move in one direction or
the other. The null adjustment for one typical servo valve is accessible by first
removing a cap screw located in the valve cover just above the electrical con¬
nector. Valve null is adjusted with an Allen wrench. This adjustment should
be turned slowly one way or the other to stop load motion. If the load has

Figure 14.11 Mechanical null adjustment on a typical two-stage servo valve. (Cour¬
tesy of Moog, Inc., East Aurora, New York.)
438 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

moved against a stop, it may be desirable to reconnect the electrical cable mo¬
mentarily to bring the load back near its starting point.
After stopping the load, continue to turn the null adjustment until re¬
verse motion occurs. Repeat the sequence of stopping and restarting the load
in opposite directions, then leave the null adjustment midway between. The
difference in adjustment positions is caused by valve threshold, load friction,
and other effects.
Less than ± 1 turn of this null adjustment should be sufficient to null
the servo valve. If ±2 turns of adjustment fail to achieve null, further turn¬
ing will not correct the problem.
A review of manufacturers’ recommendations may be advisable to deter¬
mine if other factors are affecting the null adjustment procedures.

14.4.2 Operation

One type of electrohydraulic servo valve consists of an electrical torque motor,

a nozzle-flapper pilot stage, and a sliding spool main stage. The torque motor
includes coils, pole pieces, magnets, and an armature (Fig. 14.12). The ar¬
mature is supported for limited movement by a flexure tube. The flexure tube
also provides a fluid seal between the hydraulic and electromagnetic portions
of the valve.
The flapper attaches to the center of the armature and extends down,
inside the flexure tube. A nozzle is located on each side of the flapper so that
flapper motion varies the nozzle openings. Pressurized hydraulic fluid is sup¬
plied to each nozzle through a filter and inlet orifice. Differential pressures
caused by flapper movement between the nozzles are applied to the ends of
the valve spool.
The four-way valve spool controls flow from the supply to either con¬
trol port. The bushing contains flow control ports that are uncovered by spool
motion. A feedback wire is deflected by spool movement so that feedback
torque is applied to the armature-flapper.
Electrical current in the torque motor coils causes either clockwise or
counterclockwise torque on the armature. The torque displaces the flapper
between the two nozzles. The differential nozzle pressure moves the spool to
either the right or left. The spool continues to move until the feedback torque
counteracts the electromagnetic torque. At this point the armature-flapper
is returned to center, so the spool stops and remains displaced until the elec¬
trical input changes to a new level. The actual flow from the valve to the load
will depend on the load pressure. Figure 14.13 depicts a two-stage electrohy¬
draulic servo valve.
Valves utilizing other pilot-stage amplifiers, such as jet pipe types,
operate in similar fashion to the nozzle-flapper one described. Motion of the
jet pipe causes a force imbalance in the valve and? in turn, spool motion.
Installation, Operation, Maintenance of Servo Valves 439

UPPER POLEPIECE

ARMATURE

PERMANENT
MAGNET
LOWER POLEPIECE
COIL

SPOOL AT NULL
FEEDBACK SPRING SPOOL
BUSHING
/
YZ777771 VZZZZZZA V7723Zm E ZZZZl

C2 Cl

Figure 14.12 Servo-valve torque motor and amplifier. (Courtesy of Moog, Inc., East
Aurora, New York.)

Electrical dither is often helpful for improving system resolution. A

small-amplitude, relatively high frequency dither signal will continuously cycle
the valve spool. This prevents silting of contaminant at the valve spool con¬
trol lands. Silting can lead to erratic system behavior and poor low-speed con¬
trol.
Additional dither signal amplitude, or a lower dither frequency, is some¬
times used to create continuous load motion. This may help overcome prob¬
lems of actuator or load breakout friction.
Excessive dither signal can produce needless wear and fatigue. The max¬
imum recommended dither level for standard servo valves is 10 mA peak-to-
peak dither (series coils) at a frequency between 50 and 200 Hz. Do not use
440 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

NULL ADJUST

TORQUE
MOTOR COIL

UPPER POLEPIECE

ARMATURE

FLEXURE TUBE

NOZZLE

FLAPPER

FEEDBACK WIRE

SPOOL

INLET ORIFICE
FILTER SCREEN

P Ct R C2

Figure 14.13 Two-stage electrohydraulic servo valve. (Courtesy of Moog, Inc., East
Aurora, New York.)
Installation, Operation, Maintenance of Servo Valves 441

a higher dither frequency as internal valve resonances may be excited that can
cause valve failure.
Most servo valves are closed-center types and operate with constant
supply pressure. The constant pressure can be provided by a fixed-displace¬
ment pump and relief valve, or by an unloading arrangement, or by a variable-
displacement pump. In each system, the reservoir should be large enough to
avoid fluid foaming at maximum flow. Also, a separate heat exchanger may
be required to avoid overheating.
Some valves will operate with supply pressures from 200 to 3000 psi.
Performance is considerably better if the supply pressure is above 700 psi.
If the supply pressure varies, some valve null shift may occur.
Good fluid filtration will extend the life and improve the performance
of servo valves, as well as other system components. The servo valve con¬
tains internal filter screens, but these are intended only to protect the pilot
stage against inadvertent system contamination. The fluid normally supplied
to the servo valve must be filtered to 25 ^m absolute or better.
The recommended filtration arrangement is a full-flow, pressure line
filter immediately upstream of the servo valve. This filter should not contain
an automatic bypass valve, as bypass operation can allow quantities of con¬
taminant into the system.
System life can be significantly extended with use of a low-micrometer,
full-flow return line filter. Ninety-five percent of the particles in most hydrau¬
lic systems are below 10 nm in size. Thus proper silt control such as provided
by the return line filter will increase pump, actuator, and valve life by a great
many operating hours.
New system filter elements are installed during the flushing process per¬
formed during system startup whenever the pressure drop across the filter indi¬
cates that the element needs changing. When a filter will operate for a period
of 2 hr with no noticeable increase in pressure drop, most of the harmful
system contamination has been removed. To maintain a clean system, filters
must be replaced whenever the pressure drop indicates a need for changing.
Pressure drop can be observed or monitored by installing hydraulic pressure
gauges or with mechanical and electrical “dirt alarms.” The filter elements
should be changed a minimum of once every year according to some users
and experienced maintenance personnel.

14.4.3 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Servo valves are delicate, precision-built devices and require the utmost in
care, cleanliness, and familiarity with operation for the performance of main¬
tenance tasks. The need for cleanliness was stressed when filtration require¬
ments were reviewed. Servo-valve disassembly and reassembly should be per-
442 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

formed in as clean an environment as possible. When performing servicing

tasks:
1. Remove electrical leads to the servo valve.
2. Relieve the hydraulic system of any pressure.
3. Then remove the servo valve.

Electrical Checkout
Using an ohmmeter, measure the resistance across the electrical connector
pins. Resistance must be within catalog or specification tolerances. If an open
circuit (infinite ohms) exists, remove the connector and check for proper
solder connections. If a defective connection exists, resolder the coil lead wire
to the connector terminal and measure the resistance. If a short circuit still
exists, the hydraulic amplifier assembly must be replaced.

Repair or Replacement

1. Replace all O rings, regardless of age or condition.

2. Replace the inlet orifice assemblies if damaged or if foreign mat¬
ter is present. Always replace the inlet orifice assemblies with ones
that have the same rating. The rating, is usually marked on each
assembly. Follow manufacturers recommendations when refitting.
3. Replace the filter if the steel mesh is damaged or broken.
4. Clean all parts in a clean, compatible commercial solvent. Permit
parts to air dry or dry using an air hose with clean, dry air.
5. Lubricate all O rings with clean, filtered hydraulic fluid as used in
the hydraulic system prior to installing them on parts, and when
installing parts containing O rings.
6. It may be advantageous to return certain defective components,
such as the hydraulic amplifier assembly, to the manufacturer for
repair.

When making such repairs, note the following:

1. When procuring O rings for replacement, obtain O rings com¬

pounded to be compatible with system hydraulic fluid being used,
or deterioration may result.
2. Exercise care to avoid cutting or nicking O rings when installing
them on parts, and when installing parts containing O rings to pre¬
vent subsequent leakage.
3. Most solvents react with O-ring compounds. Remove all O rings
from parts before cleaning.
Installation, Operation, Maintenance of Servo Valves 443

4. Clean all parts in a clean, compatible commercial solvent. Permit

parts to air-dry or dry using an air hose with clean, dry air.
5. Lubricate all O rings with clean filtered hydraulic fluid prior to in¬
stalling them on parts, and when installing parts containing O rings.
6. It may be advantageous to return certain defective components,
such as the hydraulic amplifier assembly to the manufacturer for
repair.

7. When returning components, package them so that “rough” han¬

dling will not cause further damage.

Troubleshooting Chart
The following troubleshooting chart lists potential problems encountered,
probable causes, and solutions.

Problem Cause Solution

Servo valve does not Controller does not Replace controller

respond to command function
signal Open controller cable Replace controller cable
Open coil or open coil Replace hydraulic ampli¬
lead fier assembly
Contamination wedged Clean air gaps
in air gap
Jammed spool Clean valve bushing and
spool
Output flow obtained Controller not function¬ Replace controller
from one control port ing properly
only (actuator is at Filters silted with con¬ Replace inlet orifice
limit of stroke or hy¬ tamination assembly
draulic motor is rapid¬
Plugged inlet orifices Replace inlet orifice
ly rotating); limited or
assembly
no response to com¬
mand signal Plugged hydraulic am¬ Replace hydraulic am¬
plifier assembly plifier assembly
Contamination wedged Clean air gaps
in air gap
Jammed spool Clean valve bushing and
spool
Null adjustor erroneously Readjust null adjustor
adjusted hardware (continued)
444 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

Problem Cause Solution

High null bias (actuator Incorrect null adjustment Readjust null

drifts or hydraulic motor Filters silted with con¬ Replace inlet orifice
slowly rotates when con¬ tamination assembly
troller returns to
Partially plugged inlet Replace inlet orifice
neutral)
orifice assembly
Partially plugged hy¬ Replace hydraulic ampli¬
draulic amplifier assem¬ fier assembly
bly
Contamination wedged Clean air gaps
in air gaps
Poor response (valve de¬ Filters silted with con¬ Replace inlet orifice
lays in returning to neu¬ tamination assembly
tral after controller is
returned to neutral)

Nonrepeatability (valve Controller not function¬ Replace controller

fails to return to neutral ing properly
each time the controller “Sticky” spool Clean valve bushing and
is returned to neutral) spool
Partially plugged hy¬ Replace hydraulic ampli¬
draulic amplifier assem¬ fier assembly
bly
Servo valve does not fol¬ Open coil assembly or Replace hydraulic ampli¬
low input command sig¬ open coil leads fier assembly
nal (actuator or compo¬
nents are stationary or
creeping slowly)
Low flow gain (failure Shorted coil assembly Replace hydraulic ampli¬
to meet high rate or fier assembly
rapid traverse speeds)
High threshold (jerky, “Sticky” spool Clean bushing and spool
possible oscillatory or assembly
“hunting” motion in
closed-loop system)

14.5 SERVO-SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY

Coil impedance: the complex ratio of coil voltage to coil current.

Control flow: the flow through the valve control ports to the load ex¬
pressed in [Link], or gal/min (gpm), or liters/min (1pm).
Servo-System Terminology 445

Dither: an ac signal sometimes superimpossed on the servo-valve input

to improve system resolution.
Flow gain: the nominal relationship of control flow to input current,
expressed as gpm/mA or lpm/mA.
Frequency response: the relationship of no-load control flow to input
current when the current is made to vary sinusoidally at constant ampli¬
tude over a range of frequencies.
Hysteresis: the difference in valve input currents required to produce
the same valve output as the valve is slowly cycled between plus and
minus rated current. Expressed as percent of rated current.
Input current: the electrical current to the valve that commands flow,
expressed in milliamperes (mA).
Internal leakage: the total internal valve flow from pressure to return
with zero control flow (usually measured with control ports blocked).
Lap: in a sliding spool valve, the relative axial position relationship be¬
tween the fixed and movable flow-metering edges with the spool at null.
Lap is measured as the total separation at zero flow of straight line ex¬
tensions of the nearly straight portions of the flow curve, drawn sepa¬
rately for each polarity. Expressed as percent of rated current.
Linearity: the maximum deviation of control flow from the best straight
line of flow gain. Expressed as percent of rated current.
Load pressure drop: the differential pressure between the control ports
(i.e., across the load actuator), expressed in lb/in.2 (psi) or bar.
No-load flow: the control flow with zero load pressure drop.
Null: the condition where the valve supplies zero control flow at zero
load pressure drop.
Null bias: the input current required to bring the valve to null, excluding
the effects of valve hysteresis. Expressed as percent of rated current.
Null shift: the change in null bias resulting from changes in operating
conditions or environment. Expressed as percent of rated current.
Pressure gain: the change of load pressure drop with input current and
zero control flow (control ports blocked). Expressed as the nominal
psi/mA or bar/mA throughout the range of load pressure between
±40% supply pressure.
Quiescent current: a dc current that is present in each valve coil when
using a differential coil connection.
Rated current', the specified input current of either polarity to produce
rated flow, expressed in milliamperes (mA).
446 Electrohydraulic Servo Systems

Rated flow: the specified control flow corresponding to rated current

and given supply and load pressure conditions. Rated flow is normally
specified as the no-load flow.
Symmetry: the degree of equality between the flow gain of one polarity
and that of reversed polarity, measured as the difference in flow gain
for each polarity and expressed as percent of the greater.
Threshold: the increment of input current required to produce a change
in valve output.
Valve pressure drop: the sum of the differential pressures across the con¬
trol orifices of the servo-valve spool, expressed in psi or bar.
 Appendix
Fluid Power Symbols
and Glossary

A.l FLUID POWER SYMBOLS

Learning the language of fluid power symbols is important for anyone work¬
ing with systems. The symbols have proven to be an effective means of commu¬
nication among engineers, manufacturers, salespeople, and service personnel.
Complex components and entire systems can be presented in simple,
easy-to-read symbols. Solving problems is simplified for the troubleshooters
because they have a complete representation of a system they can use to think
through a problem before beginning the actual service work. Let us take a look
at the most commonly used symbols, beginning with those for tanks and filters.
The symbol for a vented tank with an externally mounted filter and the
symbol for a pressurized tank with an internally mounted filter are shown in
Fig. A. 1. Usually, the first item after the tank is the pump. For an oil pump,
the triangle in the circle is solid (see Fig. A.2). Notice that the triangle points
outward from the center of the circle. The symbol for an air pump or com¬
pressor is just the same, except that the triangle is left open. A pump that
can pump in either direction is indicated by a circle with two triangles. By
adding an arrow, a fixed-displacement pump is changed to a variable-displace¬
ment pump.
A directional control valve is symbolized with a series of squares. The
number of squares indicates the number of positions a valve has. A two-po¬
sition valve could have a raise and lower position. A three-position valve could
have a neutral, raise, and lower position; a fourth position could be float.
The symbol for an open-center directional control valve has the pump flow
passing through the valve and back to the tank, as shown in Fig. A.3a. In a

447
448 Fluid Power Symbols and Glossary

Figure A.l Vented and pressurized tank symbols.

closed-center valve, pump flow is blocked at the valve (Fig. A.3b). In a closed
port valve, the oil contained in the actuator cannot leave the actuator when the
valve is in its center position, as can be seen in Fig. A.3c. In the open port
valve, the oil can leave the actuator when the valve is centered (Fig. A.3d).
Both open- and closed-center valves come in open and closed port versions.
When valves are illustrated in fluid power symbols, they are always
shown in the rest position. The arrows in the adjacent squares indicate flow
in positions other than center. These arrows never move —you have to imag¬
ine that they do.
By adding small symbols to the main symbol, we can show how the valve
is actuated. There are many ways a valve can be actuated: for example, sole¬
noids, hand lever, foot pedal, pushbutton, hydraulic pilot, pneumatic pilot,
and so on. Further, they can have a combination of actuators, such as a sole¬
noid and pilot, solenoid or pilot, and so on.
Motors are easy to illustrate. They are just the opposite of pumps (see
Fig. A.2). For a motor the triangle points inward. A way to keep it straight
is to remember that a pump sends fluid out from itself and so the triangle
points outward. The motor receives fluid, so the triangle points inward. Both
pumps and motors can be unidirectional or bidirectional (reversible).
The symbol for a cylinder looks just like a cylinder. There are single-
acting and double acting cylinders. Also, there are two types of double-acting
cylinders; those with equal piston areas and those with unequal piston areas.

motors pumps

unidirectional

bidirectional

Figure A.2 Hydraulic pump and motor symbols.

Fluid Power Symbols 449

cylinder

Figure A.3 Three-position directional valve symbols.

The symbol shows each of the configurations, as can be seen in Fig. A.4.
An essential part of the system is the relief valve. It offers an alternative
route for the fluid from the pump to either the tank or to atmosphere. Thus
it limits the pressure in a system. Imagine that the arrow in the box of the
symbol shown in Fig. A.5 is movable. Spring pressure pushes it down to block
flow to the tank and hydraulic oil pressure in the pilot line pushes it up to
allow pump flow back to the tank. In a pneumatic system, the pilot line is
actuated by air pressure and the valve allows air to vent to the atmosphere
when the relief valve is actuated. A dashed line is always a representation of

single acting
I_I

double acting double acting

unequal equal

Figure A.4 Single- and double-acting cylinder symbols.

450 Fluid Power Symbols and Glossary

Normal Actuated (Relieving)

Figure A.5 Pressure relief valve symbols.

a pilot line and a solid line represents a main or working line. As pressure
in the main pressure line increases, it also increases in the pilot line. When
pilot line pressure overcomes spring pressure, the valve opens.
There are many ways to build a hydraulic system. It could be made up
of a series of individual components or more than one component could be
contained in the same housing. A dashed line square is placed around those
items which are contained in the same housing.
The graphic symbol for an accumulator closely resembles the real ob¬
ject, as can be seen in Fig. A.6. Accumulators may be spring loaded, gas pres¬
surized, or weighted.
There are symbols for hoses, tubes, and pipes. Those that connect with
one another have a dot at the connection. Those that do not connect have
no dot (see Fig. A.7).
Check valves permit flow in one direction and block it in the opposite
direction. They are single-direction valves similar to diodes in electrical sys¬
tems. Various check valve symbols are shown in Fig. A.8.
Orifices, or restrictors, are often used to control flow in various sys¬
tems. Some cannot be adjusted and others can. The adjustable one has an
arrow drawn through the restrictor symbol to indicate that the size of the ori¬
fice can be varied (see Fig. A.9).
Besides the components and their symbols described in the previous
paragraphs, there are many others. A complete list of symbols and fluid power
terminology is presented in Sec. A.2. You should continually refer to that
section if any difficulties are encountered in interpreting any symbols on a
fluid power circuit diagram. It is important, however, to become thoroughly
spring
loaded

Figure A.6 Accumulator symbols.

 Lines crossing (The intersection is not necessarily
Solid Line
at a 90° angle)
(Main line conductor, outline, and shaft)
- - - - - Dash Line
(Pilot line for control)

- Dotted Line
(Drain line)

—---—Center Line
(Enclosure outline)

(a)

Figure A.7 (a) Lines and (b) intersections on a diagram.

Check

rn Simplified Symbol

Flow to the right is blocked.

Flow to the left is permitted.
(Composite Symbol)

Check, Pilot-Operated to Open

Check, Pilot-Operated to Close

Figure A.8 Check valve symbols.

Figure A.9 Symbols for fixed and variable restrictors.

451
 452 Fluid Power Symbols and Glossary

acquainted with the basic rules on which the symbols are based. Remember,
the symbols actually bear a close resemblance to the real component.

A.2 FLUID POWER GRAPHIC SYMBOLS

American National Standard / ANS Y 32.10

1. INTRODUCTION [Link] The means of operating fluid power com¬

ponents are shown as part of the symbol (where applic¬
able) .
1.1 General Fluid power systems are those that trans¬
mit and control power through use of a pressurized fluid [Link]. This standard shows the basic symbols, de¬
(liquid or gas) within an enclosed circuit. scribes the principles on which the symbols are based, and
Types of symbols commonly used in drawing circuit dia¬ illustrates some representative composite symbols. Com¬
grams for fluid power systems are Pictorial, Cutaway, posite symbols can be devised for any fluid power com¬
and Graphic. These symbols are fully explained in the ponent by combining basic symbols.
American Standards Association Drafting Manual (Ref. Simplified symbols which are composites of basic symbols
2). are shown for commonly used components.

[Link]. This standard provides basic symbols which

1.1.1. Pictorial symbols are very useful for showing
differentiate between hydraulic and pneumatic fluid power
the interconnection of components. They are difficult to
media.
standardize from a functional basis.
1.2.2. Purpose
1.1.2. Cutaway symbols emphasize construction. These
symbols are complex to draw and the functions are not [Link] The purpose of this standard is to provide a
readily apparent. system of fluid power graphic symbols for industrial and
educational purposes.

1.1.3. Graphic symbols emphasize the function and [Link] The purpose of this standard is to simplify de¬
methods of operation of components. These symbols are sign, fabrication, analysis, and service of fluid power
simple to draw. Component functions and methods of circuits.
operation are obvious. Graphic symbols are capable of
crossing language barriers, and can promote a universal [Link] The purpose of this standard is to provide fluid
understanding of fluid power systems. power graphic symbols which are internationally rec¬
Graphic symbols for fluid power systems should be used ognized.
in conjunction with the graphic symbols for other systems
published by the American Standards Association. (Ref. [Link] The purpose of this standard is to promote uni¬
3-7 inclusive). versal understanding of fluid power systems.

1.3 Terms and Definitions Terms and correspond¬

[Link] Complete graphic symbols are those which give ing definitions found in this standard are listed starting
symbolic representation of the component and all of its on page A/62.
features pertinent to the circuit diagram.

[Link] Simplified graphic symbols are stylized ver¬ 2. SYMBOL RULES

sions of the complete symbols.
(See Section 10)

[Link] Composite graphic symbols are an organization 2.1 Symbols show connections, flow paths, and func¬
of simplified or complete symbols. Composite symbols tions of components represented. They can indicate con¬
usually represent a complex component. ditions occurring during transition from one flow path
arrangement to another. Symbols do not indicate con¬
1.2 Scope and Purpose struction, nor do they indicate values, such as pressure,
flow rate, and other component settings.
1.2.1 Scope This standard presents a system of 2.2 Symbols do not indicate locations of ports, direc¬
graphic symbols for fluid power diagrams.
tion of shifting of spools, or positions of actuators on
actual component.
[Link]. Elementary forms of symbols are:
Circles Triangles Lines 2.3 Symbols may be rotated or reversed without alter¬
Squares Arcs Dots ing their meaning except in the cases of: a.) Lines to
Rectangles Arrows Crosses Reservoir, 4.1.1; b.) Vented Manifold. [Link]; c.) Accumu¬
lator, 4.2.
[Link] Symbols using words or their abbreviations are
2.4 Line technique (see Ref. 1)
avoided. Symbols capable of crossing language barriers
Keep line widths approximately equal. Line width does
are presented herein.
not alter meaning of symbols.

[Link] Component function rather than construction is 2.4.1 1 Solid Line

emphasized by the symbol. (Main line conductor, outline, and shaft)
2.4.2 Dash Line 2.9 An arrow through a symbol at approxi¬
(Pilot line for control) mately 45° indicates that the component can be
adjusted or varied.

2.4.3
(Drain line)
- Dotted Line

X
2.4.4 ---— -Center Line
(Enclosure outline) 2.10 An arrow parallel to the short side of a symbol,
within the symbol, indicates that the component is pres¬
sure compensated.

2.4.5 Lines crossing (The intersection is not neces¬

sarily at a 90° angle.)

2.1 1 A line terminating in a dot to represent I

a thermometer is the symbol for temperature I
cause or effect.
See Temperature Controls 7.9, Temperature Indicators
and Recorders 9.1.2, and Temperature Compensation
10.16.3 and .4.

2.12 External ports are located where flow lines con¬

nect to basic symbol, except where component enclosure
symbol is used.
External ports are located at intersections of flow lines
and component enclosure symbol when enclosure is used,
see SECTION 11.

2.5 Basic symbols may be shown any suitable size. Size 2.13 Rotating shafts are symbolized by an arrow which
may be varied for emphasis or clarity. Relative sizes indicates direction of rotation (assume arrow on near
should be maintained. (As in the following example.)
side of shaft).

2.5.1 Circle and Semi-Circle

CH CK
O ° o o 3. CONDUCTOR, FLUID
[Link] Large and small circles may be used to signify
that one component is the “main” and the other
3.1 - Line, Working (main)
the auxiliary.

Ooo 3.2 - - - - Line, Pilot (for control)

3.3 -Line, Liquid Drain

2.5.2 Triangle 3.4 Line, sensing, etc. such as gauge lines shall be
drawn the same as the line to which it connects.
2.5.3 Arrow -
3.5 Flow, Direction of
2.5.4 Square Rectangle
3.5.1 Pneumatic

- 0— —<—>-
3.5.2 Hydraulic

2.6 Letter combinations used as parts of graphic sym¬

3.6 Line, Pneumatic Outlet to Atmosphere
bols are not necessarily abbreviations.
3.6.1 Plain orifice, unconnectable
2.7 In multiple envelope symbols, the flow condition
shown nearest an actuator symbol takes place when that
control is caused or permitted to actuate.

2.8 Each symbol is drawn to show normal, at-rest, or

- 3 >
3.6.2 Connectable orifice (e.g. Thread)

neutral condition of component unless multiple diagrams

are furnished showing various phases of circuit operation.
Show an actuator symbol for each flow path condition
possessed by the component.
453
3.7 Line with Fixed Restriction Note: Reservoirs are conventionally drawn in the hori¬
zontal plane. All lines enter and leave from above.
Examples:

4.1.1 Reservoir with Connecting Lines

Above Fluid Level

3.9 Station, Testing, measurement, or power take¬

off Below Fluid Level

3.9.1 Plugged port

w Show line entering or leaving below reservoir only

when such bottom connection is essential to circuit
function.

3.10 Quick Disconnect 4.1.2 Simplified symbol. The symbols are

used as part of a complete circuit. They are L_I_J
3.10.1 Without Checks analogous to the ground symbol of electrical
diagrams. ■■ ||i IEC Several such symbols I 1 I may
Connected be used in one diagram to represent the same reservoir.

[Link] Below Fluid Level

Disconnected

3.10.2 With Two Checks uL lL

[Link] Above Fluid Level
Connected —o> i <o— (The return line is drawn to terminate at the upright
legs of the tank symbol.)

Disconnected —Cm m0—

3.10.3 With One Check [Link] Vented Manifold

Connected

Disconnected -^-|
4.2 Accumulator

3.11 Rotating Coupling

V
4.2.1 Accumulator, Spring Loaded

4. ENERGY STORAGE AND

FLUID STORAGE 4.2.2 Accumulator, Gas Charged

4.1 Reservoir
Vented Pressurized

454
4.2.3 Accumulator, Weighted 5.1.2 Cooler

4.3
v
n

Receiver, for Air or other Gases

or

&
Inside triangles indicate heat dissipation.

“CD-
4.4 Energy Source (Pump, Compressor, Accumulator,
etc.) This symbol may be used to represent a fluid power
source which may be a pump, compressor, or another
(Corners may be filled in to represent triangles.)
associated system.
Hydraulic
5.1.3 Temperature Controller—(The temperature is
to be maintained between two predetermined limits.)
Pneumatic

Simplified Symbol
or
Example:

5.2 Filter - Strainer

5. FLUID CONDITIONERS
5.3 Separator
Devices which control the physical
characteristics of the fluid. 5.3.1 With Manual Drain

5.1 Heat Exchanger

5.3.2 With Automatic Drain
5.1.1 Heater
Inside triangles indicate the introduction of heat.

5.4 Filter - Separator

5.4.1 With Manual Drain

5.4.2 With Automatic Drain

Outside triangles show the heating medium is gaseous.

455
5.5 Dessicator (Chemical Dryer) [Link] Adjustable Cushion, Advance Only

vt
[Link] Use these symbols when diameter of rod com¬
pared to diameter of bore is significant to circuit function.

5.6 Lubricator

5.6.1 Less Drain

(Non-Cushion) (Cushion, Advance & Retract)

6.2 Pressure Intensifier

1.

J"

5.6.2 With Manual Drain 6.3 Servo Positioner (Simplified)

Hydraulic Pneumatic

6.4 Discrete Positioner

Combine two or more basic cylinder symbols.

6. LINEAR DEVICES
6.1 Cylinders, Hydraulic & Pneumatic

6.1.1 Single Acting

I 7. ACTUATORS & CONTROLS

7.1 Spring

6.1.2 Double Acting M N^_

[Link] Single End Rod

7.2 Manual
(Use as general symbol without indication of
-L i specific type: i.e., foot, hand, leg, arm)

[Link] Double End Rod

nt cr
7.2.1 Push Button
J

<tC
[Link] Fixed Cushion, Advance & Retract 7.2.2 Lever
7.2.3 Pedal or Treadle 7.7.4 Pilot Controlled, Spring Centered

A/ f\A
Simplified Symbol

<3 >-
v\
Complete Symbol

7.4 Detent
7.7.5 Pilot Differential
(Show a notch for each detent in the actual component
being symbolized. A short line indicates which detent is
in use.) Detent may, for convenience, be positioned on
either end of symbol.

|~V~V~ Simplified Symbol

7.5 Pressure Compensated

Complete Symbol

7.8 Solenoid Pilot

7.6 Electrical

7.6.1 Solenoid (Single Winding) 7.8.1 Solenoid or Pilot

External Pilot
Supply

7.6.2 Reversing Motor

Internal Pilot
Supply and Exhaust

7.8.2 Solenoid and Pilot

7.7 Pilot Pressure

7.7.1
Remote Supply

7.9 Thermal—A mechanical device responding to ther¬

mal change.
7.7.2
Internal Supply 7.9.1 Local Sensing --

nr
ET 7.9.2 With Bulb for Remote Sensing
7.7.3 Actuation By Released Pressure

Remote Exhaust Internal Return

457
7.10 Servo 8.2 Hydraulic Pump
(This symbol contains representation for energy input,
command input, and resultant output.) 8.2.1 Fixed Displacement

[Link] Unidirectional

l2^|_
7.11 Composite Actuators (and, or, and/or)

[Link] Bidirectional
Basic - - j^> One signal only causes the
device to operate.

And J J
One signal and a second
V

signal both cause the device

to operate.
8.2.2 Variable Displacement, Non-Compensated

Or One signal or the other [Link] Unidirectional

signal causes the device to
operate.

The solenoid and the pilot

Audi Or
or the manual override
alone causes the device to
operate.
Simplified Complete

The solenoid and the pilot .

8 2.2.2 Bidirectional
or the manual override and
the pilot.

The solenoid and the pilot

or
a manual override and the
pilot
or
a manual override alone.
Simplified Complete

8.2.3 Variable Displacement, Pressure Compensated

[Link] Unidirectional

8. ROTARY DEVICES
8.1 Basic Symbol

8.1.1 With Ports

Simplified Complete

.
8 2.3.2 Bidirectional

8.1.2 With Rotating Shaft, with

control, and with Drain

Simplified

458
8.3 Hydraulic Motor 8.4.3 Operating in both directions of flow either as a
pump or as a motor. (Variable displacement, pressure
8.3.1 Fixed Displacement compensated shown.)

[Link] Bidirectional

[Link] Simplified Symbol

8.3.2 Variable Displacement

[Link] Unidirectional
$
8.5 Pump, Pneumatic

8.5.1 Compressor, Fixed Displacement

[Link] Bidirectional

8.5.2 Vacuum Pump, Fixed Displacement

8.4 Pump-Motor, Hydraulic

8.4.1 Operating in one direction as a pump.

Operating in the other direction as a motor. 8.6 Motor, Pneumatic

8.6.1 Unidirectional
[Link] Complete Symbol

8.6.2 Bidirectional
[Link] Simplified Symbol

8.7 Oscillator
8.4.2 Operating one direction of flow as either a pump
or as a motor. 8.7.1 Hydraulic

[Link] Complete Symbol

4^
8.7.2 Pneumatic

[Link] Simplified Symbol 8.8 Motors, Engines

8.8.1 Electric Motor

459
8.8.2 Heat Engine 9.3.2 Muffler
(Internal Combustion Engine)

10. VALVES
A basic valve symbol is composed of one or more en¬
velopes with lines inside the envelope to represent flow
9. INSTRUMENTS & ACCESSORIES paths and flow conditions between ports. Three symbol
9.1 Indicating and Recording systems are used to represent valve types: single en¬
velope, both finite and infinite position; multiple envelope,
9.1.1 Pressure finite position; and multiple envelope, infinite position.

10.1 In infinite position single envelope valves, the en¬

© “© (f) velope is imagined to move to illustrate how pressure or
flow conditions are controlled as the valve is actuated.
9.1.2 Temperature
10.2 Multiple envelopes symbolize valves providing more
than one finite flow path option for the fluid. The multi¬

© <D ple envelope moves to represent how flow paths change

when the valving element within the component is shifted
to its finite positions.
9.1.3 Flow Meter
10.3 Multiple envelope valves capable of infinite posi¬
[Link] Flow Rate tioning between certain limits are symbolized as in 10.2
above with the addition of horizontal bars which are
drawn parallel to the envelope. The horizontal bars are
the clues to the infinite positioning function possessed by
[Link] Totalizing the valve represented.

10.3 Envelopes

9.2 Sensing

9.2.1 Venturi

10.4 Ports

9.2.2 Orifice Plate

10.5 Ports, Internally Blocked

9.2.3 Pitot Tube

9.2.4 Nozzle
Hydraulic Pneumatic

10.6 Flow Paths, Internally Open (Symbol Systems

10.1 & 10.2)
9.3 Accessories Symbol System Symbol System
10.1 10.2
9.3.1 Pressure Switch

460
10.8 Flow Paths, internally Open (Symbol System [Link] Normally Open
10.3)
[Link] Infinite Position
Normally Closed Normally Open
i
Complete
■ I x

i t

l-L V
Hi Hi JI7
10.10

10.10.1
Three-Way Valves

Two-Position

[Link] Normally Open

10.9 Two-Way Valves (2 Ported Valves)

10.9.1 On-Off (Manual Shut-Off)

OFF

[Link] Normally Closed

ON
I
Simplified

[Link] Distributor (Pressure is distributed first

to one port, then the other)

10.9.2 Check

[Link] Two-Pressure

10.10.2 Double Check Valve. Double check valves

can be built with and without ‘cross bleed.’ Such valves
with two poppets do not usually allow pressure to
momentarily ‘cross bleed’ to return during transition.
Valves with one poppet may allow ‘cross bleed’ as these
symbols illustrate.

10.9.4 Check, Pilot-Operated to Close

[Link] Without Cross Bleed (One Way Flow)

10.9.5 Two-Way Valves

[Link] Two-Position
Normally Closed Normally Open [Link] With Cross Bleed (Reverse Flow Permitted)

1
f
461
10.11 Four-Way Valves 10.12 Infinite Positioning (Between Open & Closed)

10.11.1 Two Position 10.12.1 Normally Closed

10.12.2 Normally Open

10.11.2 Three Position

rHh
(a) Normal
TT 1 Tl
10.13

10.13.1
Pressure Control Valves

Pressure Relief

i
Simplified Symbol
(b) Actuated Left Denotes

T
tJ
(c) Actuated Right
I j

X
Normal Actuated (Relieving)

10.11.3 Typical Flow Paths for Center Condition of

10.13.2 Sequence
Three-Position Valves

t
J
t 1

Y
10.13.3 Pressure Reducing

V h Y
T v “I

j
L_J
!T^J
T

10.13.4 Pressure Reducing

and Relieving

10.11.4 Two-Position, Snap Action with Transition.

As the valve element shifts from one position to the other,
it passes through an intermediate position. If it is essen¬
tial to circuit function to symbolize this “in transit” con¬
dition, it can be shown in the center position, enclosed
by dashed lines.

i-r 10.13.5 Airline Pressure Regulator

i i Typical Transition Symbol (Adjustable, Relieving)
j_i

462
10.14 Infinite Positioning Three-Way Valves Enclosure indicates extremity of component or assembly.
External ports are assumed to be on enclosure line and
indicate connections to component.
Flow lines shall cross enclosure line without loops or dots.

11.2 Airline Accessories

10.15 Infinite Positioning Four-Way Valves (Filter, Regulator, and Lubricator)

l■iX L i
—1
><
1-

l !
.iX T 1
m,
i
1

10.16 Flow Control Valves (See 3.7) Simplified

10.16.1 Adjustable, Non-Compensated (Flow con¬

trol in each direction)
11.3 Pumps and Motors

11.3.1 Pumps

[Link] Double, Fixed Displacement,

10.16.2 Adjustable with Bypass One Inlet and Two Outlets
Flow is controlled to the right.
Flow to the left bypasses control.

[Link] Double, with Integral

Check Unloading
10.16.3 Adjustable and Pressure Compensated with and Two Outlets
Bypass

•V* A•

10.16.4 Adjustable, Temperature &

Pressure Compensated

[Link] Integral Variable Flow

Rate Control with
Overload Relief

11. REPRESENTATIVE COMPOSITE

SYMBOLS

11.1 Component Enclosure. Component enclosure

may surround a complete symbol or a group of symbols
to represent an assembly. It is used to convey more in¬
formation about component connections and functions.

463
 [Link] Variable Displacement with Integral Replen 1 1.4 Valves
ishing Pump and Control Valves.
11.4.1 Relief, Balanced 11.4.2 Remote Operated
Type Sequence with

11.4.3 Remote & 11.4.4 Pressure Reducing

Direct Operated with Integral
Sequence with Check
Differential
Areas and
Integral Check

11.4.5 Pilot Operated Check

[Link] Differential [Link] Differential Pilot

Pilot Opened Open and Closed

11.3.2 Pump Motor. Variable displacement with man¬

ual, electric, pilot, and servo control.

11.4.6 Two Position, Four Connection Solenoid

Controlled and Pilot Operated, with Manual
Pilot Override

£Z
XGEEj
Simplified Symbol

Composite Symbol

464
11.4.7 Two Position, Five Connection, Solenoid 1 1.4.10 Cycle Control Panel, Five Position
Control Pilot Operated with Detents and
Throttle Exhaust

Simplified
Symbol
-t>

11.4.11 Panel Mounted Separate Units Furnished

as a Package (Relief, Two Four-Way, Two
Check, and Flow Rate Valves)

11.4.8 Variable Pressure Compensated Flow Con¬

trol and Overload Relief

11.4.9 Multiple, Three Position, Manual Direction¬

al Control with Integral Check and Relief
Valves

11.4.12 Single Stage Compressor with Electric Mo¬

tor Drive, Pressure Switch Control of Re¬
ceiver Tank Pressure

465
 466 Fluid Power Symbols and Glossary

A.3 AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE SYMBOLS

The following pages provide a compilation of symbols commonly used in fluid

power troubleshooting:

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

Valves, directional control. Start, stop, and direct fluid flow. They extend and retract cylinders, rotate
fluid motors and actuators, and sequence other circuit operations.
Directional control valves are classified according to the number of ports or connecting lines,
the number of positions to which they can be actuated, the type of actuator, and the way in which
fluid flows through the valve.

PR

2-way normally closed. Starts or

stops flow from a circuit or cylinder.

Manual actuation (left) with spring

return (right).

CYL PR

3-way. Actuates and drains single-

acting cylinders.
Push button actuator (left) and
push-pull lever actuator (right).
Parallel color lines represent in¬
finite positioning

TANK
ANSI Symbols 467

CYL PR CYL

A B
4-way, 2-position, (basic). Extends
and retracts a cylinder. Rotates a
fluid motor in either direction.

Pedal or treadle actuator (left) and

P T mechanical (cam) actuator (right).

TANK

CYL PR CYL

4-way, 3-position, open-center. Will

do the same as basic 4-way plus:
Pump unloads to tank when valve
centers; cylinder or motor is free
to move.

Manually actuated detent (left).

Show one notch for each detent. A
short, vertical line shows which de¬
tent is in use. Solenoid actuator,
single winding (right).

4-way, 3-position blocked - center.

Will do the same as basic 4-way
A B plus: center position stops and
holds cylinder or fluid motor, blocks
pressure and tank ports.

Reversing motor actuator (left).

Servo actuator (right). This actu¬
P T ator symbol represents energy in¬
put, command input, and resultant
output.

CYL PR CYL
4-way, 3-position tandem center.
Will do the same as basic 4-way
A B plus: cylinder or fluid motor is
locked in position when valve cen¬
ters. Pump unloads to tank through
valves, center-position.

Pilot pressure, remote supply actu¬

ator (left) and pilot pressure, in¬
P T ternal supply actuator (right). Solid
triangle - hydraulic. Open triangle-
pneumatic.

CYL PR CYL

4-way, 3-position pump port blocked;

both cylinder ports connected to
tank. Prevents starving a fluid mo¬
tor during slow-down with valve
centered.

Actuated from released pressure,

remote exhaust, air, (left) and from
released pressure, internal return,
oil, (right).

TANK

CYL PR CYL

4-way, 3-position, tank port blocked,

cylinder ports connected to pump.
When controlling a single rod end
cylinder, valve forms a differential
circuit in center position to extend
cylinder quickly.

Air pilot actuated, remote supply;

spring centered.

CYL PR CYL

4-way, 3-position, one cylinder port

A B and pump port connected to tank
through restriction, other cylinder
port blocked.
Solenoid and air pilot actuators
(left). Solenoid or air pilot actua¬
P T tor (right).

TANK
 468 Fluid Power Symbols and Glossary

Check valve. Flow to the right is

blocked, free flow to left. Ball check
type shown.

PILOT PORT

Check, pilot-operated to open. Al-

I lows free flow in one direction and
blocks reverse flow until pressure
is applied to the pilot port. Pres¬
surizing the pilot port moves the
pilot piston which unseats the
check valve poppet.

FLOW CONTROL VALVES

Valves, flow control. Control flow by restricting fluid movement in one or both directions. The restric¬
tion may be fixed or variable. In some elementary flow control valves, flow varies with changes in fluid
line pressure. The more sophisticated ones compensate for fluid pressure and temperature fluctuations.

Needle or restrictor. Restricts pump

flow to or from cylinders or fluid
motors. Flow varies with pressure
drop across the valve. Used when
system and load pressures are con¬
stant. Restriction can be fixed or
variable. Arrow indicates variable
flow control.

CONTROL ORIFICE

Fixed flow, pressure-compensated.

Regulates flow to or from cylinders
or fluid motors. Flow rate is fixed
by orifice size. Valve compensates
for changes in system and load
pressure.

FIXED ORIFICE

Adjustable and pressure compen¬

sated with bypass. Regulates flow
to or from cylinders or fluid motors.
Installed between cylinder and di¬
- t - rectional control valve
The arrow on the restrictor indi¬
cates variable flow control, as
above. The arrow across the flow
path line, indicates a pressure com¬
pensated valve The check valve
symbol indicates free flow in the
reverse direction.

Variable, pressure-compensated,
with overload relief valve. Pump
flow not needed by cylinder or mo¬
tor is bypassed to tank. Integral
pilot relief valve prevents overpres¬
sure at outlet port. Used in meter
-in circuits.
 ANSI Symbols 469

r Deceleration. Meters flow from a

cylinder near the end of its stroke
)( vAA
=X> to decelerate the load. May have
integral check valve for free reverse
flow. Shaft of actuating cam deter¬
mines rate of deceleration.

L.

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

Valves, pressure control. Limit system pressure, reduce pressure in any part of a circuit, unload a pump
during part of a machine’s cycle, or determine the pressure at which oil enters part of a circuit.
Depending on their function in a circuit, they are called relief, pressure reducing, unloading, sequence,
or counterbalance.

SYSTEM

Relief. Limits pump output pres¬

sure. Regulates system pressure.
Bypasses a filter to prevent dam¬
W J age to element. Serves as a pilot
valve to vent main system relief
valve. Used as a safety valve to
relieve shock pressure.

Pressure reducing. Allows one

branch of a circuit to operate at a
lower pressure than main system.
Protects components with lower op¬
erating pressure ratings. Permits
accurate control of force exerted
by cylinder.

Sequence. Prevents fluid from en¬

tering one branch of a circuit until
a set pressure is reached in the
main circuit. Extends and retracts
cylinders in sequence. Used in.
clamping circuits to assure pres¬
sure to clamps before work cylin¬
der extends.

I-1

Counterbalance. Holds pressure in

part of a circuit to counterbalance
weight on external force. Used on
down-acting presses to hold up ram.

Unloading. Unloads pump output to

tank at low pressure when not re¬
quired. Used in accumulator cir¬
cuits so pump delivers fluid at
pressure only when charging ac¬
cumulator. In hi-lo circuits, it un¬
loads the high-volume pump while
? low-volume pump supplies system.

PILOT PUMP TANK

 LINEAR ACTUATORS

These convert fluid energy into linear mechanical force and motion. They usually consist of a movable
element such as a piston and piston rod operating within a close-fitting cylindrical bore.

AIR VENT

Single acting. Pressure fluid from a

pump or compressor moves a load
in one direction. The load or a
spring moves the cylinder in the
opposite direction. Pressure oil re¬
turns to tank; pressure air exhaust
to atmosphere.

Double acting are most common.

Pressure fluids extends or retracts
the cylinder depending on whether
the fluid is directed to the cap end
or rod end.

Double rod end. This cylinder allows

work to be performed at either or
both ends. May be desirable where
operating speed and/or force must
be equal in both directions.

Cushioned, double acting. Cushions

reduce piston speed as it approaches
the end of its stroke. A metering
exhaust valve sets the final travel
speed at the end of the cylinder
stroke.

Intensifier produces a secondary

pressure higher than the available
primary pressure. Most intensifiers
have large and small pistons ar¬
ranged in tandem as shown. Piston
area ratio provide degree of pres¬
sure intensification. The symbol
shows a single-shot unit; the cross-
section a double acting air cylinder
and a single acting oil cylinder.

PUMPS

Converts mechanical force and motion to hydraulic power.

OUTLET

Unidirectional, fixed displacement.

Output per revolution is considered
to be constant. Total output can be
changed by varying drive speed.
Pump turns in one direction only.
Gear pump shown.

470
ANSI Symbols 471

Bidirectional, fixed displacement.

Output per revolution is constant.
Pump can be rotated in either di¬
rection. Built-in check valves allow
accumulated leakage to drain back
into whichever port is connected to
inlet. Gear pump shown.

Bidirectional, variable displacement.

Output per revolution can be varied
by changing amount of fluid dis¬
placed per revolution, in the radial
piston pump shown, direction is
changed by moving a slide block
from left-of-center to right-of-center
or visa versa.

Unidirectional, variable displace¬

ment. In the axial-piston pump
shown, the angle, between the
driveshaft and the cylinder block
can be varied to change displace¬
ment per revolution.

Unidirectional, pressure-compen¬
sated variable-displacement. Gover.
nor spring loads the pump toward
the full displacement position. As
output pressure rises to supply the
force required to do work, pressure
tends to push the ring away from
the rotor. The ring strokes to center
deadhead position.

MOTORS

Converts fluid power into mechanical force and motion.

Unidirectional, fixed displacement

motor. Springs behind vanes of
vane motor shown keep vanes ex¬
tended. In the symbols, note that
the arrowheads point inward where¬
as in the pump symbols the arrow¬
heads point outward.

Bidirectional fixed displacement.

Rotation depends on which port the
fluid enters. Vanes are kept ex¬
tended by rocker arms.
 472 Fluid Power Symbols and Glossary

COMPRESSORS

A machine that converts mechanical energy to pneumatic energy. Takes air at atmospheric pressure
and compresses it to higher pressure.

PRESSURE SWITCH

Fluid pressure actuates an electric switch. Pressure switch can sense and react to flow, liquid level or
velocity.

QUICK DISCONNECT COUPLINGS

Make it possible to separate lines without losing fluid. This eliminates the need for draining a line
before disconnecting it. Provide immediate separation or connection with little effort.

Without checks. Sleeve valve holds

the locking ring locked while the
CONNECTED coupling is disconnected. When the
nipple is pushed into the socket, it
moves the valve sleeves back, open¬
ing the valves to permit flow through
the valve.
DISCONNECTED

WITH TWO CHECKS

With checks. Solid poppet valves

have captive elastomeric seals for
CONNECTED leakproof operation at low pressure.
At high pressures the seals com¬
press and the poppets seal on the
metal seat.
-0HH0-
DISCONNECTED
 ANSI Symbols 473

ROTARY ACTUATOR

Rotates an output shaft through a fixed arc to produce oscillating power. Convert* fluid-energy input to
mechanical output. Available in a variety of sizes and design types.

Double rack and pinion. Forces ro¬

tating the output shaft are bal¬
anced. Moving parts operate in a
sealed, oil-filled chamber. Angle of
rotation is limited. Usually operates
at relatively slow speeds.

ACCUMULATOR

A container in which fluid is stored under pressure as a source of pressure fluid. In a hydropneumatic
accumulator, compressed gas applies force to the stored fluid. Mechanical accumulators incorporate a
mechanical device which applies the force to the stored fluid.

AIR OR
GAS
Accumulator, Piston Type. Hydro¬
pneumatic accumulator in which
the liquid and gas are separated
by a floating piston.

Accumulator, Spring Loaded. In this

mechanical type accumulator, a
spring-loaded piston apphes force
to the stored fluid.

Accumulator, Gas Charged. In this

hydropneumatic type, the com¬
pressed gas is held in a elastic bag
or bladder.

Accumulator, Weighted. A mechan¬

ical accumulator in which the
gravitational force acting on the
weights applies force to the stored
fluid.
 474 Fluid Power Symbols and Glossary

FLUID CONDITIONERS
Devices which control the physical characteristics of the fluid. Individual components condition the fluid
to meet specific operating needs.

Heat exchanger, cooler. Cools oil in

A
a system. Shell and tube design has
tubes mounted in a housing be¬
tween headers. Cooling water
passes through the tubes, and oil
flows around them.

COOLING FINS

Heat exchanger, cooler. Often in¬

A stalled on the pump output tubing

and located in the air intake of the
electric motor to give maximum air
exchange over fins.

Heater. Pre-heats hydraulic fluid.

<§> Electric immersion heater shown.

Usually installed in the bottom of a
reservoir.

Temperature controller. Modulating

valve for controlling cooling water
flow is normally closed. Probe in
reservoir signals valve to open
when oil heats up to a preset
temperature.

Filter - strainer. Removes particles

from fluid system. T-type shown.
Element removed by unscrewing
bowl. Element material can be
paper, sintered metal, fine wire
mesh, felt, or other materials.
Safety valve by-passes fluid when
element builds up.

Separator, with manual drain. Im¬

poses a sudden change in velocity
on a airstream, causing water and
oii droplets to be flung out and col¬
lect in the bottom of the recep¬
tacle. Centrifugal oil separator
shown.
 ANSI Symbols 475

Filter-Separator, with automatic

drain. Removes particles and mois¬
ture from air stream. Deflector
plate provides a swirling action to
the air and throws larger foreign
particles and moisture against the
walls of the bowl. Smaller particles
removed by filter. Automatic drain
type shown.

Dessioator (Chemical Dryer). Re¬

moves moisture from air. Absor¬
bent-type shown uses desiccant
material that dissolves as it dries
air.

Lubricator, less drain. Adds con¬

trolled amounts of oil to air supply.
Oil reaches the air stream in the
form of extremely fine particles,
and is carried suspended in the
form of a mist in the air stream.

Lubricator, with manual drain. Adds

controlled amounts of oil to air
supply. Force feed type with sight
gauge is shown. Oil is atomized by
air in venturi tube. Can be filled
without shutting off the air
pressure.

F-R-L. Used In pneumatic systems

this combination filters particles
and separates moisture from in¬
coming air; regulates the supply
pressure; and lubricates the air by
adding oil in vapor form.

ROTATING COUPLING

Can turn in one, two, or three planes. Leakproof, and have low torque. Help relieve stresses, caused by
shock, misalignment, or vibration.

Swivel joints. Provide flexible,

sealed, movable connections for
piping systems which require rela¬
tive motion between parts.
 476 Fluid Power Symbols and Glossary

GAGES

MUFFLER

A device used in pneumatic systems to reduce air noise and blast. Reduce air velocity, change its direc¬
tion and reduce vibration. Noise is decreased by back pressure control of gas expansion.

A.4 GLOSSARY OF FLUID POWER TERMS'

#

The following is a compilation of terms that are useful in fluid power trou¬
bleshooting:

*From Fluid Power Handbook & Directory, 1980-81. Complete glossary available from Na¬
tional Fluid Power Association, 3333 North Mayfair Road, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Glossary of Fluid Power Terms 477

ACCUMULATOR: A container in which CIRCUIT, SERVO: A circuit which is

fluid is stored under pressure as a controlled by automatic feed back; i.e.,
source of fluid power. the output of the system is sensed or
ADDITIVE: A chemical compound or measured and is compared with the
compounds added to a fluid to change input signal. The difference (error)
its properties. between the actual output and the
AIR, COMPRESSED: Air at any pres¬ input controls the circuit. The controls
sure greater than atmospheric pressure. attempt to minimize the error. The
AIR, FREE: Air under the pressure due system output may be position, velo¬
to atmospheric conditions at any speci¬ city, force, pressure, level, flow rate, or
fic location. temperature.
AIR, STANDARD: Air at a temperature CIRCUIT, UNLOADING: A circuit in
of 68°F, a pressure of 14.70 pounds which pump volume is returned to
per square inch absolute, and a relative reservoir at near zero gage pressure
humidity of 36% (0.0750 pounds per whenever delivery to the system is not
cubic foot). In gas industries the tem¬ required.
perature of “standard air” is usually COMPRESSIBILITY: The change in
given at 60°F. volume of a unit volume of a fluid
AIR BREATHER: A device permitting when subjected to a unit change of
air movement between atmosphere and pressure.
the component in which it is installed. COMPRESSOR: A device which con¬
AIR RECEIVER: A container in which verts mechanical force and motion into
gas is stored under pressure as a source pneumatic fluid power.
of pneumatic fluid power. COMPRESSOR, MULTIPLE STAGE: A
ANILINE POINT: 7Tie lowest tempera¬ compressor having two or more com¬
ture at which a liquid is completely pressive steps in which the discharge
miscible with an equal volume of fresh¬ from each supplies the next in series.
ly distilled aniline (ASTM Designation CONTAMINANT: Detrimental matter in
D611-55T). a fluid.
ANTI-EXTRUSION RING: A ring which CONTROL, PRESSURE COMPENSA¬
bridges a clearance to minimize seal TED: A control in which a pressure
extrusion. signal operates a compensating device.
BERNOULLI'S LAW: If no work is COUPLING, QUICK DISCONNECT: A
done on or by a flowing frictionless coupling which can quickly join or
liquid, its energy due to pressure and separate lines.
velocity remains constant at all points CROSS: A connector with four ports
along the streamline. arranged in pairs, each pair on one axis,
BLEEDER: A device for removal of and the axes at right angles.
pressurized fluid. CUSHION, CYLINDER: A cushion built
BOYLE'S LAW: The absolute pressure into a cylinder to restrict flow at the
of a fixed mass of gas varies inversely outlet port thereby arresting the mo¬
as the volume, provided the tempera¬ tion of the piston rod.
ture remains constant. CYCLE: A single complete operation
BULK MODULUS: The measure of resis¬ consisting of progressive phases starting
tance to compressibility of a fluid. It is and ending at the neutral position.
the reciprocal of the compressibility. CYLINDER: A device which converts
CAP: A cylinder end closure which fluid power into linear mechanical
completely covers the bore area. force and motion. It usually consists of
a movable element such as a piston and
CAVITATION: A localized gaseous con¬ piston rod, plunger rod, plunger or
dition within a liquid stream which ram, operating within a cylindrical
occurs where the pressure is reduced to bore.
the vapor pressure. CYLINDER, DOUBLE ACTING: A
CHARLES' LAW: The volume of a fixed cylinder in which fluid force can be
mass of gas varies directly with abso¬ applied to the movable element in
lute temperature, provided the pressure either direction.
remains constant. CYLINDER, PISTON: A cylinder in
which the movable element has a
CIRCUIT, PILOT: A circuit used to
greater cross-sectional area than the
control a main circuit or component.
piston rod.
CIRCUIT, REGENERATIVE: A circuit CYLINDER, PLUNGER: A cylinder in
in which pressurized fluid discharged which the movable element has the
from a component is returned to the same cross-sectional area as the piston
system to reduce power input require¬ rod.
ments. On single rod end cylinders the CYLINDER, SINGLE ACTING: A cylin¬
discharge from the rod end is often der in which the fluid force can be
directed to the opposite end to in¬ applied to the movable element in only
crease rod extension speed. one direction.
478 Fluid Power Symbols and Glossary

CYLINDER, TANDEM: Two or more FLUIDICS: Engineering science pertain¬

cylinders with inter-connected piston' ing to the use of fluid dynamic phe-
assemblies. nomina to sense, control, process infor¬
CYLINDER, TELESCOPING: A cylin¬ mation, and/or actuate.
der with nested multiple tubular rod GAGE: An instrument or device for
segments which provide a long working measuring, indicating, or comparing a
stroke in a short retracted envelope. physical characteristic.
DUROMETER HARDNESS: A compar¬ GLAND: The cavity of a stuffing box.
ative indication of elastomer hardness HEAD: The cylinder end closure which
determined by a durometer. covers the differential area between the
ELBOW: A connector that makes an bore area and the piston rod area.
angle between mating lines. The angle HEAD: The height of a column or body
is always 90 degrees unless another of fluid above a given point expressed
angle is specified. in linear units. Head is often used to
FILTER: A device whose primary func¬ indicate gage pressure. Pressure is equal
tion is the retention by a porous media to the height times the density of the
of insoluble contaminants from a fluid. fluid.
FILTER ELEMENT: The porous device HEAD, STATIC: The height of a column
which performs the actual process of or bodv of fluid above a given point.
filtration. HEAD, VELOCITY: The equivalent
FILTER MEDIA, DEPTH: Porous head through which the liquid would
materials which primarily retain con¬ have to fall to attain a given velocity.
taminant within a tortuous path. Mathematically is is equal to the square
FILTER MEDIA, SURFACE: Porous of the velocity (in feet) divided by
materials which primarily retain con¬ 64.4 feet per second squared. h=v2/2g.
taminants on the influent face. HEAT EXCHANGER: A device which
FITTING, COMPRESSION: A fitting transfers heat through a conducting
which seals and grips by manual adjust¬ wall from one fluid to another.
able deformation. HYDRAULICS: Engineering science per¬
FITTING, FLANGE: A fitting which taining to liquid pressure and flow.
utilizes a radially extending collar for HYDRODYNAMICS: Engineering sci¬
sealing and connection. ence pertaining to the energy of liquid
FITTING, FLARED: A fitting which flow and pressure.
seals and grips by a preformed flare at HYDROKINETICS: Engineering science
the end of the tube. pertaining to the energy of liquids in
FITTING, FLARELESS: A fitting which motion.
seals and grips by means other than a
flare. HYDROPNEUMATICS: Pertaining to
FITTING, REUSABLE HOSE: A hose the combination of hydraulic and
fitting that can be removed from a pneumatic fluid power.
hose and reused. HYDROSTATICS: Engineering science
FLASH POINT: The temperature to pertaining to the energy of liquids at
which a liquid must be heated under rest.
specified conditions of the test method INHIBITOR: Any substance which slows
to give off sufficient vapor to form a or prevents such chemical reactions as
mixture with air that can be ignited corrosion or oxidation.
momentarily by a specified flame. INTENSIFIER: A device which converts
FLOW, LAMINAR: A flow situation in low pressure fluid power into higher
which fluid moves in aprallel lamina or pressure fluid power.
layers. JOINT, SWIVEL: A joint which permits
FLOW, TURBULENT: A flow situation variable operational positioning of
in which the fluid particles move in a lines.
random manner. LUBRICATOR: A device which adds
FLOW RATE: The volume, mass, or controlled or metered amounts of lu¬
weight of a fluid passing through any bricant into a fluid power system.
conductor per unit of time. MANIFOLD: A conductor which pro-
FLOWMETER: A device which indicates vices multiple connection ports.
either flow rate, total flow, or a combi¬ MANOMETER: A differential pressure
nation of both. gage in which pressure is indicated by
FLUID: A liq uid or a gas. the height of a liquid column of known
FLUID, FIRE RESISTANT: A fluid density. Pressure is equal to the differ¬
difficult to ignite which shows little ence in vertical height between two
tendency to propagate flame. connected columns multiplied by the
FLUID POWER: Energy transmitted and density of the manometer liquid. Some
controlled through use of a pressurized forms of manometers are “U” tube,
fluid. inclined tube, well, and bell types.
FLUID POWER SYSTEM: A system MICRON: A millionth of a meter or
that transmits and controls power about 0.00004 inch.
through use of a pressurized fluid MOTOR: A device which converts fluid
within an enclosed circuit. power into mechanical force and mo-
Glossary of Fluid Power Terms
479

tion. It usually provides rotary mech¬ specific location. (Sea level pressure is
anical motion. approximately 14.7 pounds per square
MOTOR, FIXED DISPLACEMENT: A inch absolute.)
motor in which the displacement per PRESSURE, BACK: The pressure en¬
unit of output motion cannot be countered on the return side of a
varied. system.
MOTOR, ROTARY, LIMITED: A rotary PRESSURE, CRACKING: The pressure
motor having limited motion. at which a pressure operated valve
MOTOR, VARIABLE DISPLACE¬ begins to pass fluid.
MENT: A motor in which the displace¬ PRESSURE, DIFFERENTIAL: The dif¬
ment per unit of output motion can be ference in pressure between any. two
varied. points of a system or a component.
MUFFLER: A device for reducing gas
PRESSURE, GAGE: Pressure differen¬
flow noise. Noise is decreased by back
tial above or below atmospheric
pressury control of gas expansion.
pressure.
NEUTRALIZATION NUMBER: A
measure of the total acidity or bascity PRESSURE, MAXIMUM INLET: The
of an oil; this includes organic or maximum rated gage pressure applied
to the inlet.
inorganic acids or bases or a combina¬
tion thereof (ASTM Designation PRESSURE, OPERATING: The pressure
D974-58T). at which a system is operated.
NEWT: The standard unit of kinematic PRESSURE, OVERRIDE: The differ¬
viscosity in the English system. It is ence between the cracking pressure of
expressed in square inches per second. a valve and the pressure reached when
NIPPLE: A short length of pipe or tube. the valve is passing full flow.
PACKING: A sealing device consisting of PRESSURE, PEAK: The maximum pres¬
bulk deformable material or one or sure encountered in the operation of a
more mating deformable elements, re¬ component.
shaped by manually adjustable com¬ PRESSURE, PROOF: The non destruc¬
pression to obtain and maintain effec¬ tive test pressure in excess of the
tiveness. It usually uses axial compres¬ maximum rated operating pressure.
sion to obtain radial sealing. PRESSURE, RATED: The qualified
PASCAL'S LAW: A pressure applied to a operating pressure which is recom¬
confined fluid at rest is transmitted mended for a component or a system
with equal intensity throughout the by the manufacturer.
fluid. PRESSURE, SHOCK: The pressure
PASSAGE: A machined or cored fluid¬ existing in a wave moving at supersonic
conducting path which lies within or velocity.
passes through a component. PRESSURE, SYSTEM: The pressure
PIPE: A line whose outside diameter is which overcomes the total resistances
in a system. It includes all losses as well
standardized for threading. Pipe is
as useful work.
available in Standard, Extra Strong,
PRESSURE-SWITCH: An electric switch
Double Extra Strong or Schedule wall
operated by fluid pressure.
thicknesses.
PRESSURE, WORKING: The pressure
PNEUMATICS: Engineering science per¬
which overcomes the resistance of the
taining to gaseous pressure and flow.
working device.
POISE: The standard unit of absolute
PUMP: A device which converts mechan¬
viscosity in the c.g.s. (centimeter-gram-
second) system. It is the ratio of the ical force and motion into hydraulic
shearing stress to the shear rate of a fluid power.
fluid and is expressed in dyne seconds PUMP, FIXED DISPLACEMENT: A
per square centimeter; 1 centipoise pump in which the displacement per
equals .01 poise. cycle cannot be varied.
PORT: An internal or external terminus PUMP, VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT:
of a passage in a component. A pump in which the displacement per
POUR POINT: The lowest temperature cycle can be varied.
at which a fluid will How under speci¬ REDUCER: A connector having a small¬
fied conditions (ASTM Designation er line size at one end than the other.
D97-57). RESERVOIR: A container for storage of
POWER UNIT: A combination of pump, liquid in a fluid power system.
pump drive, reservoir, controls and RESTRICTOR: A device which reduces
conditioning components which may the cross-sectional flow area.
be required for its application. RESTRICTOR, CHOKE: A restrictor,
PRESSURE: Force per unit area, usually the length of which is relatively large
expressed in pounds per square inch. with respect to its cross-sectional area.
PRESSURE, ABSOLUTE: The sum of RESTRICTOR, ORIFICE: A restrictor,
atmospheric and gage pressures. the length of which is relatively small
PRESSURE, ATMOSPHERIC: Pressure with respect to its cross-sectional area.
exerted by the atmosphere at any The orifice may be fixed or variable.
480 Fluid Power Symbols and Glossary

Variable types are non-compensated, VALVE, DIRECTIONAL CONTROL,

pressure compensated, or pressure and STRAIGHTWAY: A two port direc¬
temperature compensated. tional control valve which modulates
REYN: The standard unit of absolute flow or pressure as a function of its
viscosity in the English system. It is input signal.
expressed in pound-seconds per square
VALVE, DIRECTIONAL CONTROL,
inch.
^THREE WAY: A directional control
SEAL, LIP: A sealing device which has a
valve whose primary function is to
flexible sealing projection.
alternately pressurize and exhaust a
SEALING DEVICE: A device which
working port.
prevents or controls the escape of a
fluid or entry of a foreign material. VALVE, FLOW CONTROL: A valve
SILENCER: A device f or reducing gas whose primary function is to control
flow noise. Noise is decreased by tuned flow rate.
resonant control of gas expansion. VALVE, FLOW CONTROL, DECELER
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (LIQUID): The ATION: A flow control valve which
ratio of the weight of a given volume gradually reduces flow rate to provide
of liquid to the weight of an equal deceleration.
volume of water. VALVE, FLOW CONTROL, PRES¬
STOKE: The standard unit of kinematic
SURE COMPENSATED: A flow con¬
viscosity in the c.g.s. (centimeter-gram-
trol valve which controls the rate of
second) system. It is expressed in
flow independent of system pressure.
square centimeters per second; 1 centi-
stoke equals .01 stoke. VALVE, FLOW CONTROL, PRES¬
SURE-TEMPERATURE COMPEN¬
STRAINER: A coarse filter.
SATED: A pressure compensated flow
SURGE: A momentary rise of pressure
control valve which controls the rate of
in a circuit.
flow independent of fluid temperature.
TEE: A connector with three ports, a
pair on one axis with one side outlet at VALVE, FLOW DIVIDING: A valve
right angles to this axis. which divides the flow from a single
TIE ROD: An axial external cylinder source into two or more branches.
element which traverses the length of VALVE, FLOW DIVIDING, PRESSURE
the cylinder. It is pre-stressed at assem¬ COMPENSATED: A flow dividing
bly to hold the ends of the cylinder valve which divides the flow at con¬
against the tubing. Tie rod extensions stant ratio regardless of the difference
can be a mounting device. in the resistances of the branches.
TRUNNION: A mounting device consist¬ VALVE, FOUR POSITION: A direction¬
ing of a pair of opposite projecting al control valve having four positions
cylindrical pivots. The cylindrical pivot to give four selections of flow.
pins are at right angle or normal to the VALVE, PREFILL: A valve which per¬
piston rod centerline to permit the mits full flow from a tank to a "work¬
cylinder to swing in a plane. ing” cylinder during the advance por¬
TUBE: A line whose size is its outside tion of a cycle, permits the operating
diameter. Tube is available in varied pressure to be applied to the cylinder
wall thicknesses. during the working portion of the
UNION: A connector which permits cycle, and permits free flow from the
lines to be joined or separated without cylinder to the tank during the return
requiring the lines to be rotated. portion of the cycle.
VALVE: A device which controls fluid VALVE, PRESSURE CONTROL,
flow direction, pressure, or flow rate. COUNTERBALANCE: A pressure con¬
VALVE, DIRECTIONAL CONTROL: A trol valve which maintains back pres¬
valve whose primary function is to sure to prevent a load from falling.
direct or prevent flow through selected VALVE, PRESSURE CONTROL, DE¬
passages. COMPRESSION: A pressure control
VALVE, DIRECTIONAL CONTROL, valve that controls the rate at which
CHECK: A directional control valve the contained energy of the com¬
which permits How of fluid in only one pressed fluid is released.
direction. VALVE, PRESSURE CONTROL, PRES¬
VALVE, DIRECTIONAL CONTROL, SURE REDUCING: A pressure control
FOUR WAY: A directional control valve whose primary function is to
valve whose primary function is to limit outlet pressure.
alternately pressurize and exhaust two VALVE, PRESSURE CONTROL,
working ports. RELIEF: A pressure control valve
VALVE, DIRECTIONAL CONTROL, whose primary function is to limit
SERVO: A directional control valve system pressure.
which modulates flow or pressure as a VALVE, SEQUENCE: A valve whose
function of its input signal. primary function is to direct flow in a
Glossary of Fluid Power Terms 481

pre determined sequence. provides straight through top and bot¬

VALVE, SHUTTLE. A connective valve tom ports.
which selects one of two or more VALVE POSITION, DETENT: A pre¬
circuits because flow or pressure determined position maintained by a
changes between the circuits. holding device acting on the flow¬
VALVE, SHUTOFF: A valve which directing elements of a directional con¬
operates fully open or fully closed. trol valve.
VALVE, THREE POSITION: A direc¬ VALVE POSITION, NORMAL: The
tional control valve having three posi¬ valve position when signal or actuating
tions to give three selections of flow. force is not being applied.
VALVE, TWO POSITION: A directional VISCOSITY: A measure of the internal
control valve having two positions to friction or the resistance of a fluid to
give two selections of flow conditions. flow.
VALVE FLOW CONDITION, CLOSED: VISCOSITY, ABSOLUTE. The ratio of
All ports are closed the shearing stress to the shear rate of a
VALVE FLOW CONDITION, FLOAT: fluid. It is usually expressed in centi-
Working ports are connected to ex¬ poise.
haust or reservoir. VISCOSITY, KINEMATIC: The abso¬
VALVE FLOW CONDITION, HOLD: lute viscosity divided by the density of
Working ports are blocked to hold a the fluid. It is usually expressed in
powered device in a fixed position. centistokes.
VALVE FLOW CONDITION, OPEN: VISCOSITY, SUS: Saybolt Universal
All ports are open. Seconds (SUS), which is the time in
VALVE FLOW CONDITION, TAN¬ seconds for 60 milliliters of oil to flow
DEM: Working ports are blocked and through a standard orifice at a given
supply is connected to the reservoir temperature (ASTM Designation
port. D88-56).
VALVE MOUNTING, BASE: The valve VISCOSITY INDEX: A measure of the
is mounted to a plate which has top viscosity-temperature characteristics of
and side ports. a fluid as referred to that of two
VALVE MOUNTING, LINE: The valve arbitrary reference fluids (ASTM Desig¬
is mounted directly to system lines. nation D567-53).
VALVE MOUNTING, MANIFOLD: The WYE (Y): A connector with three ports,
valve is mounted to a plate which a pair on one axis with one side outlet
provides multiple connection ports for at any angle other than right angles to
two or more valves. this axis. The side outlet angle is
VALVE MOUNTING, SUB PLATE: The usually 45°, unless another angle is
valve is mounted to a plate which specified.
 •i

'

•-V

'
 Appendix
Hydraulic Facts
and Technical Data

B.l HYDRAULIC FACTS

Here are some key facts that will help you understand hydraulics:

1. Hydraulic power is nearly always generated from mechanical

power. Example: A hydraulic pump driven by an engine crank¬
shaft.
2. Hydraulic power output is nearly always achieved by converting
back to mechanical energy. Example: A cylinder that raises a
heavy plow.
3. There are three types of hydraulic energy:
a. Potential or pressure energy
b. Kinetic energy, the energy of moving liquids
c. Heat energy, the energy of resistance to flow, or friction
4. Hydraulic energy is neither created nor destroyed, only converted
to another form.
5. All energy put into a hydraulic system must come out either as
work (gain) or as heat (loss).
6. When a moving liquid is restricted, heat is created and there is a
loss of potential energy (pressure) for doing work. Example: A
tube or hose that is too small or is restricted. Orifices and relief
valves are also restrictions but they are purposely designed into
systems.
7. Flow through an orifice or restriction causes a pressure drop.

483
484 Hydraulic Facts and Technical Data

8. Oil must be confined to create pressure for work. A tightly sealed

system is a necessity in hydraulics.
9. Oil takes the course of least resistance.
10. Oil is normally pushed into a pump, not drawn into it. (Atmos¬
pheric pressure supplies this push. For this reason, an air vent is
needed in the top of the reservoir.)
11. A pump does not pump pressure; it creates flow. Pressure is caused
by resistance to flow.
12. Two hydraulic systems may produce the same power output: one
at high pressure and low flow, the other at low pressure and high
flow.
13. A basic hydraulic system must include four components: a reser¬
voir to store the oil, a pump to push the oil through the system,
valves to control oil pressure, flow, and direction and a cylinder
(or motor) to convert the fluid movement into work.
14. Compare the two major hydraulic systems:
a. In the open-center system, pressure is varied but flow is con¬
stant.
b. In the closed-center system, flow is varied but pressure is con¬
stant.
15. There are two basic types of hydraulics:
a. Hydrodynamics is the use of fluids at high speeds “on impact”
to supply power. Example: a torque converter.
b. Hydrostatics is the use of fluids at relatively low speeds but
at high pressures to supply power. Example: most hydraulic
systems.

B.2 MISCELLANEOUS TECHNICAL DATA

Flow Rate

1. The number of units of volume of a fluid passing through any

channel in one unit of time.
2. Normally expressed as gpm (gallons per minute) or cipm (cubic
inches per minute).
3. The flow rate determines speed of operation for hydraulic ac¬
tuators such as cylinders and fluid motors.

Flow

1. There must be a pressure drop (pressure difference) across an ori-

Miscellaneous Technical Data
485

fice or restriction to cause flow through it. Conversely, if there

is no flow, there will be no pressure drop.
2. In any fluid system or unit, whenever there is no flow, pressure
is the same at all points of the same elevation.
3. In any fluid system or unit, whenever there is a pressure differ¬
ence that is not absolutely blocked, flow results.
4. Pressure by gravity helps the atmosphere feed a pump when the
reservoir is above the pump. This is called a “flooded suction”
pumping system.

Specific Gravity

1. The ratio of the weight of a given volume of fluid to the weight

of any equal volume of water.
2. Hydraulic fluid, which is normally mineral oil, usually has a spe¬
cific gravity between 0.8 and 0.9, which means that it weighs be¬
tween 80 and 90% of water.
Energy

1. The ability or capacity to perform work.

2. Energy put into a system but not taken out in work at the end of
a cylinder or motor shaft is converted to heat.
Force

1. Force is an expression used to define the amount of load or re¬

sistance to movement that has to be overcome.
2. Force (lb) = area (in.2) x pressure (psi)
3. Force is not possible without resistance.
4. Force exerted by a cylinder is dependent on pressure applied and
piston area. (To find the area, square the diameter and multiply
by 0.7854.)

Work

Work = force x distance

Horsepower
Horsepower (a measure of the rate of work) involves three factors:
force, distance, and time. (In hydraulics: pressure, flow, and time.)
1 hp = 1 gpm at 1500 psi (approx.) (1 hp moves 33,000 lb 1 ft in 1 min.)
=gpm x pressure X 0.00058 (100% efficiency)
486 Hydraulic Facts and Technical Data

=gpm x pressure x 0.0007 (85% efficiency)

hpx 1725
gpm =-
pressure
1 hp =746 W
1 hp =42.4 Btu/min

Pressure
1. The force per unit area exerted by a fluid.
2. Normally expressed as psi (pounds per square inch).
3. The pressure determines the load that can be moved in conjunc¬
tion with the area to which it is exposed.
4. In hydraulics, pressure is caused by resistance to flow. A drop in
pressure is a signal that the resistance is gone.

Helpful Hints

1. To gain speed, increase flow.

2. An increase in pressure does not increase the speed of the piston.
Increased flow rate increases speed.
3. 2 in. Hg= 1 psi (approx.)
4. With increase in speed, pressure drops.
5. Speed of a cylinder is dependent on its size (piston area) and the
rate of oil flow into it.

Formulas

1. Flow velocity through a pipe varies inversely as the square of the

inside diameter. Doubling the inside diameter increases the area
four times.
2. To find the actual area of a pipe needed to handle a given flow,
use the formula

gpm x 0.3208
area (in.2) =
velocity

or

gpm
velocity (ft/sec) =
3.117 x area
3. In standard pipe, the actual inside diameter is larger than the nom¬
inal size quoted. A standard conversion chart should be consulted
when selecting pipe.
Miscellaneous Technical Data 487

4. Steel and copper tubing size indicates the outside diameter. To find
the actual inside diameter, subtract two times the wall thickness
from the tube size.
5. The relationship between torque and horsepower is

63,025 x hp
torque (lb-in.) =
rpm

or

torque (lb-in.) x rpm

63,025

6. To find the amount of oil required to move a piston through a

given distance, multiply the piston area (in inches) by the stroke
length (in inches). The product is the cylinder capacity in cubic
inches. Divide this product by 231 to determine the capacity in
gallons. Note: Volume displaced by rod must be deducted if the
piston is being retracted.
7. To find the pressure, volume, or weight of a gas in a confined vol¬
ume, the following formula, known as the Ideal Gas Law, can be
used.

MRT
PV =
144

where
P = absolute pressure, psia
V = volume, ft3
M = weight of air, lb
T = absolute temperature, °R
R = universal gas constant (air = 53.3 psf)
8. To find the density of water vapor in a cubic foot of compressed
gas, use the following formula:

_ (Pv)(144)(l)
dV (85.78)(T)
where dv = pounds of water vapor/ft3
Pv = water vapor pressure psi @ dew point temperature
85.78 = water vapor constant

(Pv)(144)( 1.004)
dv= (85.78)(T)
where 1.004 = correction factor for deviation from Ideal Gas Law
488 Hydraulic Facts and Technical Data

(Pv)(l .6854)
dv =
"W
Figure B.l details the weight of water in a cubic foot of air at various
temperatures, and relative humidity.

Rule of Thumb Estimates for Heat Generation

1. Hydrostatic systems: 20 to 40% of input horsepower goes to heat.

2. Torque converter systems: 25 to 30% of input horsepower goes
to heat (no retarder).
3. Pump and cylinder systems: 15 to 25% of input horsepower, plus
any heat restriction. Heat of restriction: gpm x psi (drop across re¬
striction) x .00058 = amount of horsepower going directly into heat.
4. Duty cycles: percent of the hour each hydraulic system operates,
and/or percent of the hour each component operates. Heat load =
(input hp x % input hp to heat x % duty cycle + any heat of re¬
striction) x 2545 = Btu/hr heat load to be removed.

Conversion Factors
1 ft3 of air weighs 0.07648 lb at sea level and 56°F.
Specific heat of oil = 0.5, oil weighs 7 lb/gal.
3.5 Btu/hr are required to raise 1 gal of oil 1°F, in 1 hr.

Useful Formulas for Hydraulic System Heating/Cooling

1. To find oil temperature drop through cooler for a given cooling

capacity at a given gpm, use:

Btu/hr removed „ M
—-= temperature drop of oil, °F
210x gpm K K

2. To find capacity of a cooler when oil temperature drop across

cooler and gpm are known:

gpm x temperature drop x 210 = Btu/hr capacity

3. To find air velocity through cooler core from known air flow rate:

Air flow rate, cfm

-7^— = air velocity through finned core (ft/min)
core area, tt
4. To find the air flow rate required to obtain the necessary air ve¬
locity:
Flow rate (ft3/min) x core area of fins (ft2) = required air
flow rate from fan, cfm
Miscellaneous Technical Data 489

Weights shown in grains. 7,000 grains = 1 lb.

Temp. Relative Humidity

°c. 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% °F.
-23 .028 .057 .086 .114 .142 .171 .200 .228 .256 .285 -10
-18 .048 .096 .144 .192 .240 .289 .337 .385 .433 .481 0
-12 .078 .155 .233 .310 .388 .466 .543 .621 .698 .776 10
- 6.7 .124 .247 .370 .494 .618 .741 .864 .988 1.11 1.24 20
0 .211 .422 .634 .845 1.06 1.27 1.48 1.69 1.90 2.11 32
1.6 .237 .473 .710 .946 1.18 1.42 1.66 1.89 2.13 2.37 35
4.4 .285 .570 .855 1.14 1.42 1.71 1.99 2.28 2.56 2.85 40
7.2 .341 .683 1.02 1.37 1.71 2.05 2.39 2.73 3.07 3.41 45
10 .408 .815 1.22 1.63 2.04 2.45 2.85 3.26 3.67 4.08 50
12.7 .485 .970 1.46 1.94 2.42 2.91 3.39 3.88 4.36 4.85 55
15.6 .574 1.15 1.72 2.30 2.87 3.45 4.02 4.60 5.17 5.75 60
18.4 .678 1.36 2.03 2.71 3.39 4.07 4.75 5.42 6.10 6.78 65
21 .798 1.60 2.39 3.19 3.99 4.79 5.59 6.38 7.18 7.98 70
24.9 .936 1.87 2.81 3.74 4.68 5.62 6.55 7.49 8.42 9.36 75
26.7 1.09 2.19 3.28 4.37 5.47 6.56 7.65 8.75 9.84 10.93 80
29.5 1.27 2.54 3.81 5.08 6.35 7.62 8.89 10.16 11.43 12.73 85
32.2 1.48 2.96 4.44 5.92 7.40 8.87 10.35 11.83 13.31 14.78 90
35 1.72 3.44 5.16 6.88 8.60 10.32 12.04 13.76 15.48 17.15 95
37.8 1.98 3.95 5.93 7.91 9.88 11.86 13.84 15.81 17.79 19.77 100
43.3 2.63 5.26 7.89 10.52 13.15 15.78 18.41 21.04 23.67 26.33 110
48.9 3.45 6.90 10.35 13.80 17.25 20.70 24.15 27.60 31.05 34.48 120
54.4 4.44 8.88 13.32 17.76 22.20 26.64 31.08 35.52 39.96 44.42 130

Figure B.l Weight of water vapor per cubic foot of air.

To find air temperature rise through cooler:

Btu/hr removed by cooler

-, r- m / -"T = air tempera-
1.05 X (air flow rate across cooler fins, ft /min) ture op

Procedure to find inlet oil temperature with a standard rated cool¬

er that is not quite big enough to remove the heat load. Use the
following formula:

Heat load, Btu/hr x IQOJ^ _ sjze 0f standard cooler re¬

in oil temp, °F-in air temp, °F QUjrecj
490 Hydraulic Facts and Technical Data

Example: Given conditions: 266,500 Btu/hr heat load and 54 gpm

oil flow, 150°F maximum inlet oil temperature, 90°F maximum
inlet air temperature

266,500 Btu/hr X100°F „

- — -=444,166 Btu/hr standard cooler
150 r-90 r required

Thus you need a 444,166 Btu/hr rated cooler to remove 266,500

BtU/hr when you only have a 60°F temperature difference be¬
tween the inlet air and the inlet oil.

B.3 HELPFUL TABLES FOR FLUID POWER SYSTEMS

To provide some detailed information on the flow capabilities, pressure rat¬

ing, and pressure loss due to fluid friction, Figs. B.2 to B.8 are presented.
The pressure ratings contained in the figures were calculated using the Amer¬
ican National Standards Association (ASA) Code ASA B31.1-1955, Section
3, for pressure piping; Code ASA B93.4-1966 for steel tubing; and Society
of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standards for hose pressure ratings. Figure
B.9 details the compatibility between a variety of commonly used seal com¬
pounds and various fluids. The compatibility between the seal material and
the fluid is given as a relative rating ranging from “Recommended” to “Un¬
satisfactory.” Since many fluids are referred to by their trade name, a code
number is included to help identify the manufacturer.
 Helpful Tables for Fluid Power Systems 491

PIPE PRESSURE — PSI WATER PIPE PRESSURE-PSI WATER

HAMMER HAMMER
NOM. SIZE SCH. NOM. SIZE SCH.
WORKING BURST FACTOR WORKING BURST FACTOR
INCHES NO. INCHES NO.

1/8 40 3500 20,200 2/2 160 4200 15,700 5,43

1/8 80 4800 28,000 2/2 XXS 6900 23,000 7.82
1/4 40 2100 19,500 3 40 1600 7,400 2.60
1/4 80 4350 26,400 3 80 2600 10,300 2.92
3/8 40 1700 16,200 3 160 4100 15,000 3.56
3/8 80 3800 22,500 3 XXS 6100 20,500 4.64
1/2 40 2300 15,600 63.4 3/2 40 1500 6,800 1.94
1 /2 80 4100 21,000 3/2 80 2400 9,500 2.17
1/2 160 7300 26,700 4 40 1400 6,300 1.51
1/2 XXS 12300 42,100 4 80 2300 9,000 1.67
3/4 40 2000 12,900 36.1 4 160 4000 14,200 2.08
3/4 80 3500 17,600 44.5 4 XXS 5300 18,000 2.47
3/4 160 8500 25,000 5 40 1300 5,500 .960
3/4 XXS 10000 35,000 5 80 2090 8,100 1.06
1 40 2100 12,100 22.3 5 160 3850 13,500 1.32
1 80 3500 15,900 26.8 5 XXS 4780 16,200 1.49
1 160 5700 22,300 36.9 6 40 1210 5,100 .666
1 XXS 9500 32,700 68.3 6 80 2070 7,800 .738
40 1800 10,100 12.9 6 160 3760 13,000 .912
114
80 3000 13,900 15.0 6 XXS 4660 15,000 1.02
114
160 4400 18,100 18.2 8 40 1100 4,500 .385
114
XXS 7900 27,700 30.5 8 80 1870 6,900 .422
114
1700 9,100 9.46 8 160 3700 12,600 .529
l y2 40
2800 12,600 10.9 8 XXS 3560 12,200 .519
i/2 80
4500 17,700 13.7 10 40 1030 4,1,00 .244
1/2 160
6,600
*

1800
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O

l>/2 XXS 7200 25,300 20.3 10

1500 7,800 5.74 10 160 3740 12,500 .340
2 40
80 2500 11,000 6.52 10 XXS 3300 11,200
2
4600 17,500 8.60 12 @40 1000 3,800
2 160
XXS 6300 22,100 10.9 12 **80 /800 6,500
2
8,500 4.02 12 160 3700 12,300 .239
2/2 40 1900
2800 11,500 4.54 12 XXS 2700 9,400
2/2 80

Figure B.2 Pressure ratings of steel pipe (based on ASTM A53 grade B or A106
grade B seamless).
 492 Hydraulic Facts and Technical Data

TUBING INTERNAL FLOW RATE MINIMUM PRESSU RE-PSI

OD Wa 11-1nches ID-INCHES Area Sq In. GPM@ 10 FPS BEND
Radius-Inches
WORKING BURST

1/4 .035 180 .0255

iO~
.797

0
0
9/16 3850
1/4 .049 .152 .0182 .568 9/16 5400 21,600
5/16 .035 .243 .0460 1.45 3/4 3070 12,300
5/16 .049 .215 .0362 1.13 3/4 430 17,200
3/8 .035 .305 .0731 2.29 15/16 2580 10,300
3/8 .049 .277 .0603 1.89 15/16 3600 14,400
3/8 .058 .259 .0527 1.65 15/16 4380 17,500
3/8 .065 .245 .0472 1.47 15/16 4750 19,100
1/2 .035 .430 .1452 4.55 1 14 1930 7,700
1/2 .049 .402 .1269 3.98 1 14 2700 10,800
1/2 .065 .370 .1075 3.37 1 Va 3580 14,300
1/2 .083 .334 .0876 2.74 1 /4 4560 18,250
5/8 .049 .527 .2181 6.83 1 Vi 2160 8,650
5/8 .065 .495 .1924 6.03 1 Vi 2850 11,400
5/8 .083 .459 .1662 5.18 1 Vi 3650 14,600
5/8 .095 .435 .1493 4.66 1 Vi 4190 16,750
5/8 .109 .411 .1327 4.16 1 h 4800 19,200
3/4 .049 .652 .3339 10.5 1 % 1800 7,200
3/4 .065 .620 .3019 9.46 1 % 2390 9,550
3/4 .083 .584 .2679 8.39 1 34 3050 12,200
3/4 .095 .560 .2463 7.71 1 Va 3440 13,950
3/4 109 .532 .2223 6.96 1 Va 4000 16,000
7/8 049 .777 .4742 14.9 2 ’4 1540 6,160
7/8 065 .745 ,4359 13.7 2 ’4 2050 8,200
7/8 095 685 3685 11.5 2 '4 2980 11,900
1 .049 .902 .6390 20.0 3 1350 5,400
1 .065 .870 .5945 18.6 3 1790 7,150
1 .083 .834 .5463 17.1 3 2280 9,150
1 .095 .810 .5153 16.1 3 2620 10,450
1 .109 .782 .4803 15.0 3 3000 11,900
1 .120 .760 .4537 14.2 3 3300 13,200
1 % .083 .959 .7223 22.5 3 Vi 2030 8,100
1 v| .095 .935 .6866 21.4 3 Vi 2330 9,300
1 Vs .109 .907 .6461 20.1 3 Vi 2660 10,650
1 Vs .120 .885 .6151 19.2 3 Vi 2940 11,750
1 V .083 1.084 .9229 28.9 3 Va 1830 7,300
1 V .095 1.060 .8825 27.6 3 Va 2080 8,350
1 V .109 1.032 .8365 26.2 3 Va 2400 9,570
1 V 120 1.010 8012 25.1 3 Va 2650 10,600
1 V .095 1.310 1.348 42.2 5 1740 6,970
1 V .109 1.282 1.291 40.4 5 2000 7,990
1 V .120 1.260 1.247 39.1 5 2200 8,800
2 .095 1.810 2.573 80.6 8 1300 5,200
2 .120 1.760 2.433 76.2 8 1650 6,600
2 .165 1.670 2.190 68.6 8 2280 9,100
2 .250 1.500 1.767, 55.4 8 3480 13,750

Figure B.3 Pressure ratings of ASA steel tubing.

 Helpful Tables for Fluid Power Systems 493

HOSE MINIMUM
PRESSURE-PSI
1 D 0 D INTERNAL FLOW RATE BEND
INCHES INCHES AREA-SQ IN. GPM @ 10 FPS RADIUS-
SIZE SAE WORKING BURST
INCHES

3/16 100-R1 3/16 1/2 .0276 .866 4 3000 12000

3/16 100-R2A 3/16 5/8 .0276 .866 4 5000 20000
-4 100-R5 3/16 33/64 .0276 .866 3 3000 12000
1/4 100— R 1/4 5/8 .0491 1.54 4 2750 11000
1/4 100-R2A 1/4 11/16 .0491 1.54 4 5000 20000
1/4 100-R3 1/4 9/16 .0491 1.54 3 1250 5000
-5 100-R5 1/4 37/64 .0491 1.54 33/8 2500 10000
5/16 100— R 5/16 11/16 .0767 2.40 5 2500 10000
5/16 100-R2A 5/16 3/4 .0767 2.40 4y2 4250 17000
-6 100-R5 5/16 43/64 .0767 2.40 4 2250 9000
3/8 100— R 3/8 25/32 .1104 3.46 5 2250 9000
3/8 100-R2A 3/8 27/32 .1104 3.46 5 4000 16000
3/8 100-R3 3/8 3/4 .1104 3.46 4 1125 4500
13/32 13/32 13/16 .1296 4.06 5V2 2250 9000
100—R
-8 100-R5 13/32 49/64 .1296 4.06 4V2 2000 8000
1/2 100— R 1/2 29/32 .1963 6.15 7 2000 8000
1/2 100-R2A 1/2 31/32 .1963 6.15 7 3500 14000
1/2 100-R3 1/2 15/16 .1963 6.15 5 1000 4000
-10 100 R5 1/2 59/64 .1963 6.15 5 1750 7000
5/8 5/8 .3068 9.61 8 1500 6000
100—R1 1 l/32
5/8 100-R2A 5/8 1 S/J2 .3068 9.61 8 2750 11000
5/8 .3068 9.61 6V2 1500 6000
-12 100-R5 1*44
3/4 3/4 1 3/l6 .4418 13.8 9v2 1250 5000
100— R1
3/4 3/4 .4418 13.8 9i/2 2250 9000
100-R2A 1 y«
3/4 3/4 .4418 13.8 6 750 3000
100-R3 1 y«
3/4 3/4 .4418 13.8 5 300 1200
100-R4 H
7/8 7/8 .6013 18.8 11 1125 4500
100—R1 1 s4&
.6013 18.8 11 2000 8000
7/8 100-R2A 7/8 H
.6013 18.8 7% 800 3200
-16 100 R5 7/8 1 ls/64
1 .7854 24.6 11 1000 4000
1 100— R1 l %
1 .7854 24.6 11 2000 8000
1 100-R2A 194
1 .7854 24.6 8 550 2250
1 100-R3 1/
.7854 24.6 6 250 1000
1 100-R4 1 l v2
.9940 31.1 9 625 2500
CN
o

100 R5 ly8 l v2
1

1.227 38.4 16 625 2500

V/a 100—R1 iy« ll3/l6
6500
2 1.227 38.4 16y2 1625
V/a 100-R2A 1/
1.227 38.4 10 375 1500
V/a 100-R3 lv. H
1.227 38.4 8 200 800
V/a 100-R4 1/ l5l/64
1.485 46.5 10y2 500 2000
-24 TOO
1 vu— RS 13/<
55.4 20 500 2000
V/2 100—R1 1/ 2% 1.767
20 1250 5000
1/2 100-R2A lv2 2% 1.767 55.4
1.767 55.4 10 150 600
1/2 nn r a
i1 UU— 11 y'2 2%,
2.580 80.8 13y4 350 1400
-32 100 R5 113/16 2v32
3.142 98.4 25 375 1500
2 100-Rl 2 2 Vs
3.142 98.4 22 1125 4500
2 100-R2A 2 2\
98.4 12 100 400
2 ■i1 r\r\ Da
UU —K4 2 2 y 3.142
4.909 154. 14 65 250
2/2 100-R4 2% 3y8
221. 18 55 225
3 100-R4 3 3 5/g 7.069
9.621 301. 22 50 200
3/2 100-R4 3y 4y8
50 200
4 y4 12.566 394. 26
4 100-R4 4
-L___

ALLOWABLE MINIMUM BURST AND WORKING PRESSURES FOR HOSE ARE BASED ON SAE STANDARDS.

Figure B.4 Pressure ratings of SAE hose.

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1.312 10.126 80.53- 160.33 504 1261 2523 3784 5045 6306 1.000 10.75 90.76 125.5 569 1421 2843 4264

Figure B.5 Characteristics of steel pipe —size, schedule, flow rates.

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496 Hydraulic Facts and Technical Data

Pipe size 150 psi 100 psi 80 psi 60 psi 20 in. Hg. vac. 10 in. Hg. vac.

1/8 16 14 12 11 — —

1/4 30 25 21 20 11 9
3/8 55 45 41 36 21 16

1/2 85 72 65 *
60 33 25
3/4 150 130 115 100 60 45
1 250 210 190 165 95 72

1 1/4 430 350 315 285 165 130

1 1/2 600 490 440 400 230 180
2 950 800 710 650 370 275

Figure B.7 Recommended maximum air flow in pipes.

 Helpful Tables for Fluid Power Systems 497

For Various Flow Rates, for 1/2-in., 3/4-in., 1-in., 1-1/4-in. Nominal Pipe Diameters, at Initial Pressures of 60, 80,100,125 psi
AIR FLOW RATES
Equivalents cfm of Compressed Air
---,
PRESSURE LOSSES FOR EACH 100 FEET OF PIPE LENGTH, PSI
1/2-in. Pipe Diameter 3/4-in. Pipe Diameter
Free Air, cfm
60 psi 80 psi 100 psi 125 psi 60 psi 80 psi 100 psi 125 psi 60 psi 80 psi 100 psi 125 psi
10 1.97 1.55 1.28 1.05 .59 .46 .38 .31 .14 .11 .09 .08
20 3.94 3.10 2.56 2.10 2.23 1.74 1.42 1.17 .53 .41 .34 .28
30 5.90 4.66 3.84 3.16 4.94 3.84 3.13 2.54 1.14 .90 .74 .60
40 7.87 6.21 5.13 4.21 8.90 6.93 5.55 4.53 1.99 1.55 1.28 1.05
50 9.84 7.76 6.41 5.26 14.20 10.70 8.65 7.01 3.08 2.42 2.00 1.62
60 11.81 9.31 7.69 6.31 4.45 3.47 2.84 2.33
70 13.78 10.87 8.97 7.37 6.06 4.73 3.85 3.14
80 15.74 12.42 10.25 8.42 7.96 6.14 5.01 4.08
90 17.71 13.97 11.53 9.47 10.00 7.75 6.40 5.17
100 19.68 15.50 12.82 10.52 12.60 9.62 7.80 6.33
125 24.60 19.40 16.02 13.15 21.00 15.50 12.40 9.80
150 29.51 23.30 19.22 15.78 31.50 23.00 18.10 14.40
Equivalents cfm of Compressed Air 1-in. Pipe Diameter 1-1/4-in. Pipe Diameter
Free Air, cfm
60 psi 80 psi 100 psi 125 psi 60 psi 80 psi 100 psi 125 psi 60 psi 80 psi 100 psi 125 psi
10 1.97 1.55 1.28 1.05 .05 .04 .03 .02 .011 .0086 .0071 .0058
20 3.94 3.10 2.56 2.10 .16 .13 .10 .03 .040 .032 .026 .021
30 5.90 4.66 3.84 3.16 .34 .28 .23 .19 .086 .068 .056 .046
40 7.87 6.21 5.13 4.21 .59 .46 .38 .31 .146 .116 .096 .079
50 9.84 7.76 6.41 5.26 .92 .73 .60 .49 .22 .18 .146 .120

60 11.81 9.31 7.69 6.31 1.30 1.02 .84 .69 .32 .25 .21 .17
70 13.78 10.87 8.97 7.37 1.75 1.36 1.12 .92 .42 .34 .28 .23
80 15.74 12.42 10.25 8.42 2.24 1.76 1.44 1.18 .55 .44 .36 .30
90 17.71 13.97 11.53 9.47 2.88 2.23 1.85 1.49 .69 .55 .45 .37
100 19.68 15.50 12.82 10.52 3.45 2.69 2.21 1.81 .84 .66 .55 .45

125 24.60 19.40 16.02 13.15 5.38 4.18 3.41 2.79 1.31 1.03 .85 .69
150 29.51 23.30 19.22 15.78 7.81 5.75 4.91 3.99 1.87 1.47 1.20 .99
175 34.44 27.20 22.43 18.41 10.80 8.10 6.80 5.45 2.58 2.00 1.64 1.32
200 39.36 31.00 25.63 21.05 14.50 10.90 8.79 7.11 3.31 2.58 2.12 1.73
250 49.20 38.80 32.04 26.31 5.30 4.05 3.30 2.67

300 59.00 46.60 38.45 31.57 7.51 5.78 4.71 3.83

350 68.90 45.30 44.86 36.83 10.30 7.90 6.45 5.15
400 78.70 62.10 51.26 42.09 13.70 10.30 8.30 6.74

Figure B.8 Pressure loss due to air friction in pipes.

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 Index

Absolute filter rating, 190 Air line filters, 211

Absolute pressure, 9 problems, 230
Absorption, 233 Air line lubricants, 227
Access plate, 181 Air motors, 167
Accumulators air consumption, 170
bladder type, 114 characteristics, 169
diaphragm type, 114 maintenance, 172
hydraulic, 114 piston type, 167
precharging of, 120 stalling, 171
servicing and repair of, 119 turbine type, 167
troubleshooting, 123 vane type, 168
Acoustic power, 407 Air quality, 213
Adsorption, 234 Air tools:
Aftercoolers, 137, 232 maintenance, 174
Air breathers,, 181 preventive maintenance, 174
Air couplers, 175 repair, 176
Air cylinder leaks, 160 Air valves (see Valves, pneumatic),
Air driers: 148
heated regenerative type, 236 American National Standards Insti¬
installation of, 240 tute (ANSI) symbols, 452
maintenance of, 240 Analyzer, hydraulic, 389
refrigeration type, 236 Antiwear properties, 286
regenerative desiccant type, 234 Atmospheric pressure, 6
troubleshooting of, 240
types of, 234 Baffle plate, 128
Air entrainment, 6 Bent axis motor, 57
Air hoses, 175 Bernoulli’s theorem, 3

499
500 Index

Bourdon tube, 399 screw type, 141

Boyle’s law, 7 single-stage, 29
Breather, reservoir, 124, 181 troubleshooting of, 146
Bypass test, 395 two-stage, 30
Bypass valve, 194 vane type, 30, 141
Condition indicator, 197
Cavitation, 385 Connectors, 296
Charge pump, 245 Contamination
Charles’ law, 7 in air systems, 207, 211, 213
Check valves, troubleshooting, 96 from components, 183
Chevron seals, 104 control of, 187
Clearances, of fluid power compo¬ effects of, 184
nents, 193 hydraulic system, 179
Closed-center system, 11, 17 sources of, 179
advantages, 25 Coolers, 271
with fixed-displacement pump and Counterbalance valve, 84
accumulator, 23 Couplings, 311
with variable-displacement pump, clamp type, 315
28 screw together type, 315
Closed-loop system, 419 Cup packings, 105, 333
Coalescing filter elements, 217 Cylinders, hydraulic and pneumatic,
Comparison of air and hydraulic, 33 97
Compatibility, air line lubricants, 227 cushions, 99
Compatibility of seals, 284 double acting, 99
Compressed air, 9 duplex type, 99
Compressed air filters, 211 installation, 108
Compression fittings, 299 maintenance of, 109
Compression packings, 334 piston seals, 102
Compression ratio, 9 ram type, 99
Compressor accessories, 140 single-acting, 97
Compressor classification, 132 storage of, 109
Compressor construction, 136 tandem type, 99
Compressor controls, 139 terminology, 98
Compressors troubleshooting of, 110
air, 29
cooling requirements, 136 Dash number, 295
crosshead type, 134 Dead end, piping system, 304
diaphragm type, 144 Dead zone, 423
dynamic, 132, 145 Decentralized piping system,
liquid ring type, 145 305
low-pressure high-volume, 144 Decibel, 407
lubrication of, 138 Deliquescent air drier, 234
nonlubricated, 138 Detents, 73
reciprocating piston, 29, 134 Dew point, 8, 238
rotary type, 140 Diagnostic instrumentation, 397
Index 501

Diffusers, 131 Filter materials, hydraulic, 194

Diffusion, 10 Filter, troubleshooting of, 204
Direction control valves, 14, 69 Filter types
solenoid-controlled, pilot-operated, depth type, 190
74 hydraulic, 190
four-way, 70 pneumatic, 211
repair, 87 surface type, 190
tandem center, 74 Filtration cart, portable, 374
three-way, 70 Fittings, 296
troubleshooting, 92 compression type, 299
Dispersion, 10 installation considerations, 302
Displacement, of pump/motor, 50 self-flaring types, 298
Dither, 429 straight thread O-ring type, 300
Drains, air line filter, 216 tightening of, 313
float-operated, 216 Flange packings, 107, 333
pulse-operated, 217 Flared fittings, 295, 297
Durometer, 351 Flareless fittings, 295
Dynamic response, 422 Flow, 483
Flow control valve, 15, 74
Electrohydraulic servo systems, 416 pressure compensation of, 78
Electrohydraulic servo valves, 423 repair of, 87
Energy, 11, 485 temperature compensation of, 80
Evaporation, 10 troubleshooting of, 93
Excessive heat, 376 Flow gain, 429
Excessive noise, 375 Flow meters, liquid, 403
Exclusion rings, 358 Flow rate, 10, 483
Fluid analysis, 205
F-R-L units, 225 Fluid conditioners, 190
Face seals, 339 Fluid conductors, 292
coning of, 340 Fluid level indicator, 131
high wear of, 345 Fluid power component symbols, 463
mechanical distortion of, 343, 344 Fluid power symbols, 447
thermal distortion of, 343 Fluids, hydraulic, 282
thermally distressed, 345 characteristics of, 284
troubleshooting of, 339 comparison of characteristics, 286
Faulty operation of hydraulic sys¬ fire resistant, 285
tems, 379 maintaining performance of, 288
Feedback control systems, 421 properties of, 283
Fillers, reservoir, 130 types of, 283
Filter bypass valve, 194 viscosity of, 291
Filter condition indicator, 197 Force, 485
Filter element, materials, 202 Force, pressure, and area relation¬
Filter element servicing, 203 ship, 6
Filter location, hydraulic system, 201 Formulas, fluid power, 486
Filter maintenance, 202 Free air, 8, 9
502 Index

Friction, 6 Erratic operation, 380

faulty operation of, 379
Galvanized pipe, 292 inoperative, 380
Gaskets, 349 knowing the, 365
Gauge pressure, 9 maintenance, 368, 369
Gear motor, 55 operation of, 364
Gear pump, 37 Slow operation, 381
external type, 37 startup of, 367
internal type, 38 temperature considerations, 265
Gerotor pump, 39 Hydraulic tester, 386
Grid system, piping, 308 Hydrostatic transmission, 244
circuit development, 246
Heat dissipation, 270 charge pressure circuit, 249
Heaters, fluid, 131 controlling speed, 247
Heat exchangers, hydraulic, 271 cooling circuit, 251
additional cooling capacity, 276 displacement control, 250
air-cooled, 272 maintenance of, 254
cleaning tube bundle, 280 startup procedure, 252
definition of terms, 275 troubleshooting of, 255
maintenance, 280 Hysteresis, 429
installation, 275
types, 272 Ideal gas law, 7
water-cooled, 272 Incorrect flow, hydraulic system, 377
water flow control, 278 Incorrect pressure, hydraulic system,
zinc anodes, 280 378
Heat generation, hydraulic system, Inertia, 6
265 In-line test, 387
Heat reduction, suggestions for, 269 Instrumentation, diagnostic, 393
Horsepower, 52, 485 Intake line filter
Hose, hydraulic and pneumatic, 295 compressor, 211
construction of, 295 hydraulic, 192
fittings, 296 pneumatic, 211
fitting styles, 315 Intercooler, pneumatic, 30
installation of, 304 air-cooled type, 137
pressure rating of, 493 water-cooled type, 137
selection of, 307 Interference meter, 404
size, 295
Hose assembly Jet pipe, 427
failures of, 317 Jet sensor, 427
installation tips, 329
Hose failures, analyzing of, 319 Kinematic Viscometer, 401
Hydraulic circuit analyzer, 388 Kinematic viscosity, 290
Hydraulic facts, 483 Kinetic energy, 11
Hydraulic system
design considerations, 364 Laminar flow, 10
Index 503

Lap condition, spool valve, 423 Octave wave band analyzer, 411
Lay line, hose, 311 Oil/synthetic blends, 285
Leak detector, ultrasonic, 397 Oil filtration cart, 374
Leakage Open-center system, 18
fluid system, 312 with flow divider, 23
from oil seals, 355 with series connection, 21
Leather, 103 with series-parallel connection, 23
Linearity, 427 Open loop system, 421
Liquid level indicator, 403 O-Ring seals, 105, 332, 350
Liquids, 6 failures of, 354
Load flow, 427 Overcompression, 233
Loop piping system, 308 Overlapped valve spool, 429
Losses, flow and friction, 267 Oxidation, 384
Lubricators, air line, 218
mist type, 219 Packings, 105, 333
micro-mist type, 220 compression type, 334, 401
flange type, 105
Magnets, 131 troubleshooting of, 338
Maintenance accessories, hydraulic U-type, 105, 333
system, 372 V-type, 333
Maintenance procedures, hydraulic Partial vacuum, 11
system, 369 Pascal’s law, 2
Malfunction detection, 382 Petroleum oil, 283
Manifold, 327 Phosphate ester fluid, 285
Materials, for sealing, 103 Pipe, 292
Metal bowls, air line filter, 226 characteristics of, 494
Micronic particle sizes, 188 dimensions of, 294
Modulating valve, 278 installation of, 302
Moisture, air line, 208 maximum air flow in, 495
Motors, hydraulic, 52 pressure loss due to air in, 497
troubleshooting, 62 pressure loss due to oil in, 496
Multiple-V packings, 104 pressure rating of steel, 491
Piston motors, hydraulic, 55
Natural rubber, 104 Piston pumps, 44
Needle valve, 78 axial type, 44
Noise over center axial piston type, 52
pump, 408 radial type, 44
power unit, 408 swashplate, 48
reduction of, 409 variable-displacement type, 47
measurement of, 410 variable volume type, 47
Noise level, 407 Piston seals, 102
Null adjustment failures of, 106
electrical, 438 Piston shoes, 47
mechanical, 436 Plant air piping, 304
Null shift, 421 Plastic bowls, 228
504 Index

Pneumatic principles, 6 capacity of, 126

Pneumatic system, 29 construction of, 124, 128
operation of, 28 heat dissipation capability of, 127
Pneumatic valves, 148 (see also Return line filters, 193
Valves, pneumatic) Ring seals, 105
Polycarbonate bowls, 228 Rod wiper, 358
Pressure, 486 Rotameter, 403
Pressure compensator, 20
Pressure control valves, 80 Safety relief valve, 149
repair of, 88 Saybolt universal seconds (SUS), 401
troubleshooting of, 91 Scraper rings, 358
Pressure drop, 12 Seal compatibility, 498
Pressure differential, 12 Seal failure, premature, 357
Pressure gauge, Bourdon tube type, Seal materials, 103
399 Seals
troubleshooting of, 401 dynamic, 334
Pressure line filter, hydraulic, 192 face type, 339
Pressure reducing valve, 85 forms of, 332
troubleshooting of, 91 mechanical, 334
Pressure regulator, air line, 149, 221 metallic, 334
application of, 224 spring loaded lip, 333
troubleshooting of, 229 static, 332
types of, 222 Sequence valve
Pumps, hydraulic, 36 hydraulic, 83
alignment of, 60 troubleshooting of, 92
initial startup of, 60 Series test, 388
installation of, 60 Servo-controlled components, 423
noise level of, 408 Servo systems, electrohydraulic, 415
noise made by, 408 comparison of, 417
testing of, 393 terminology, 445
troubleshooting of, 62 Servo valves, electrohydraulic, 423
double flapper type, 426
Radial lip seal, 335 flow control, 430
troubleshooting of, 336 installation of, 434
Radial piston pumps, 44 jet pipe type, 426
Radiation, heat dissipation by, 279 maintenance of, 441
Radiators, 273 operation of, 438
Ram cylinders, 99 pilot stages for, 425
Rankine, degrees, 7 pressure control, 433
Relative humidity, 8 single flapper type, 426
Relief valve, hydraulic, 15, 81 startup in system, 434
pilot-operated type, 82 troubleshooting of, 442
troubleshooting of, 90 Shaft seal application considerations,
Replenishing pump, 245 338
Reservoirs, hydraulic, 124 Shell-and-tube cooler, 272

OLDS COLLEGE LIBRARY

OLDS. ALBERTA TOM 1P0
Index
505

Silting, 429 system operates slowly, 381

Silting index, 429 Tube fittings, 296
Solenoid, 71 Tubing
Solenoid failures hydraulic, 293
AC solenoids, 161 installation of, 303
DC solenoids, 163 pneumatic, 293
Solenoid trouble detector, 372 pressure rating of, 492
Soluble oils, 285 Turbulent flow, 3, 10
Sone, 407
Specific gravity, 3, 485 Ultrasonic leak detector, 397
Spool, valve, 423 Unloading valve, hydraulic,
Spring offset, 70 85
Standard cubic feet (SCF), 8 troubleshooting of, 92
Static seal troubleshooting, 351 U packings, 106, 333
Streamline flow, 10 U seals, 106
Suction filter, 201
Suction strainer, 201 Valves
Synthetic rubber, 104 hydraulic, 68
servicing of, 85
Tee test, 392 assembly of, 89
Teflon, 104 disassembly hints for, 86
Temperature compensation, 80 electrohydraulic, 423
Temperature considerations, in hy¬ repair of, 87
draulic system, 264 servo, 423
Temperature increase formula, 267, troubleshooting of, 90
270, 271 pneumatic, 148
Temperature indicator, 131 direction control, 149
Tester, hydraulic, 388 flow rate control, 152
Testing maintenance of, 153
cylinder, 395 pressure control, 148
pump, 393 solenoid-operated, 150
valve, 394 troubleshooting of, 154
Theoretical torque formula, 57 Vane motor
Tightening of fittings, 313 hydraulic, 53
Torque, 57 pneumatic, 168
Torque motor, 439 Vane pump, hydraulic, 39
electrohydraulic servo valve, 439 cartridge assembly for, 42
Torricelli, Evangelista, 6 unbalanced type, 41
Transmission, hydrostatic, 244 pressure-compensated type,
Trio units (F-R-L), 225 44
Troubleshooting guides variable-volume type, 43
hydraulic systems, 375 Velocity, fluid, 487
pneumatic systems, 154 Vibration, 385
system inoperative, 380 Vibration meter, 415
system operates erratically, 380 Vibration mounts, 410
506 Index

Viscometer (viscosimeter), 401 Water, 288

Viscosity, hydraulic fluid, 290, 291 Water glycol fluid, 285
measurement of, 401 Water hammer, 383
Viscosity-temperature table, 291 Water-in-oil emulsion, 285
Volume control valve {see Flow coi Wiper rings, 358
trol valve) Work
Vortex meter, 406 definition of, 485
V packings, 333 units, 485
V seals, 333 Water vapor, weight of, 489

Walsh-Healy Act, 407 Zinc anodes, 280

about the book . . .

With Fluid Power Troubleshooting, it’s no longer necessary to consult limited manufac¬
turers’ guides. This comprehensive single-source reference covers both hydraulics and
pneumatics, ranging over a wide variety of equipment rather than focusing on any specific
type.

Including a handy listing of American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as well as fluid
power symbols and a helpful glossary of terms, this book details the cause-and-effect
relationship of component failure, laying a problem-solving foundation . . . and pinpoints
precisely what to look for in over 250 explicit illustrations.

With fluid power equipment so pervasive, it follows that a work as thorough as this quick¬
ly becomes a vital asset. Mechanical, maintenance, design, hydraulic, pneumatic, industri¬
al, manufacturing, and electrical engineers; as well as manufacturers of hydraulic and
pneumatic machinery; fluid power and process control technicians; system maintenance
personnel; and chemical, lubrication, plastics, and automotive engineers will use this
reference again and again. Fluid Power Troubleshooting also serves as an excellent text
for undergraduate-level courses in Fluid Power, and is ideal for in-house training programs
and society or association courses.

about the author...

Anton H. Hehn is an independent consultant specializing in fluid power design, trouble¬

shooting, and education. Previously, he worked at the Illinois Institute of Technology
Fluid Systems & Lubrication Group, and the Research Division of the General American
Transportation Corporation. Mr. Hehn has over twenty years of experience in this indus¬
try, with a broad background covering fluid power applications in machine tools, robots,
automated equipment, research and development, and diagnostic and failure detection
systems. He has authored and presented over thirty papers in the areas of fluid power and
controls, mechanisms of failure, automatic checkout, and sealing technology. Addition¬
ally, he holds a number of U.S. patents in these fields.

Cover illustration courtesy of John Deere & Co., Waterloo, Iowa.

Printed in the United States of America ISBN: 0—8247—7048—X

marcel dekker, inc./newv

2015-06-G5 11:0