Chapter 4
Motion in two and three
dimensions
Coues Topics
4.1 Position and displacement
4.2 Average velocity and instantaneous velocity
4.3 Average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration
4.4 Projectile motion
4.5 Uniform circular motion
9:21 AM 1
4.1Position and Displacement
x
The position of an object is described by the position vector 𝒓
In one dimension (x-axis for example): x-axis
𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ r
y-axis
y
In two dimensions (xy):
𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦𝑗Ƹ
r x-axis
x
y-axis
In three dimensions (xyz):
y
𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧𝑘 r
x
x-axis
z
x, y and z are the coordinates on the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis, respectively.
z-axis
9:21 AM 2
If the object moves and changes its position from in initial position 𝑟1 to a final position 𝑟2 , where,
𝑟1 = 𝑥1 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦1 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧1 𝑘 and 𝑟2 = 𝑥2 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧2 𝑘
then its displacement will be ∆𝑟,
Ԧ where,
∆𝑟Ԧ = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
y-axis
= 𝑥2 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧2 𝑘 − (𝑥1 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦1 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧1 𝑘)
Δr
r1
= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) 𝑖 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) 𝑗Ƹ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) 𝑘 r2
x-axis
Or,
z-axis
∆𝑟Ԧ = ∆𝑥 𝑖 + ∆𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + ∆𝑧 𝑘
9:21 AM 3
Example 1: A rabbit runs on ground. The coordinates (meters) of the rabbit’s position as
functions of time t (seconds) are given by:
x = ‒0.31t2 + 7.2t + 28 and y = 0.22t2 ‒ 9.1t + 30
At t = 15 s, what is the rabbit’s position vector 𝒓 in a) unit vector notation and b) in magnitude-
angle notation?
Solution:
a) To find the coordinates of the rabbit at t = 15 s, we substitute this
Ө
value of t in the given equations:
x = ‒ 0.31 × (15)2 + 7.2 × (15) + 28 = 66 m
y = 0.22 × (15)2 ‒ 9.1 × (15) + 30 = ‒ 57 m
⸫ 𝑟Ԧ = 66𝑖Ƹ − 57𝑗Ƹ
This means that the rabbit will be at the point (66, ‒ 57) at time t = 15 s
9:22 AM 4
b) To find the vector 𝑟Ԧ in magnitude-angle notation, we use the following
relationship (between the vector and its components):
𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
= (66)2 +(−57)2
= 7605
= 87 m
The angle is calculated from:
𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥
−57
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
66
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−0.86)
= −41°
The minus sign in the angle means that this angle is measured clockwise.
9:21 AM 5
4.2 Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity
As we did in Chapter 2 (motion in one dimension), we define the average velocity 𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒈 and
instantaneous velocity 𝒗 but by using the displacement in 3 dimensions 𝑟:
Ԧ
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
∆𝑟Ԧ
𝑣Ԧ𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡
But we know that ∆𝑟Ԧ = ∆𝑥 𝑖 + ∆𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + ∆𝑧 𝑘
∆𝑥 𝑖+∆𝑦 𝑗+∆𝑧
Ƹ
𝑘 ∆𝑥
𝑣Ԧ𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 𝑖 + ∆𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + ∆𝑧 𝑘
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
For example:
If a particle moves through a displacement of (12 m) 𝑖 + (3 m)𝑗Ƹ – (10 m) 𝑘 in 2 s, then its
average velocity during that move is
∆𝑟Ԧ Ƹ (10 m) 𝑘
(12 m) 𝑖 + (3 m) 𝑗–
𝑣Ԧ𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = (6 m/s) 𝑖 + (1.5 m/s) 𝑗Ƹ – (5 m/s)𝑘
∆𝑡 2𝑠
9:21 AM 6
The instantaneous velocity 𝒗 in 3 dimensions is:
𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
𝑣Ԧ =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑣Ԧ = 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧𝑘
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑣Ԧ = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘
9:21 AM 7
4.3 Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration
When a particle’s velocity moves in 3 dimensions and changes from 𝑣Ԧ1 to 𝑣Ԧ 2 in a time
interval Δt, its average acceleration 𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒈 during Δt is:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑦
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑣Ԧ 2 –𝑣Ԧ 1 ∆𝑣Ԧ
𝑎Ԧ 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
The instantaneous acceleration in 3 dimensions (or acceleration) 𝒂 is,
𝑑𝑣Ԧ
𝑎Ԧ =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑎Ԧ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧
𝑎Ԧ = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘
9:21 AM 8
Example 2: The position 𝒓 of a particle moving in an (x,y) plane is given by:
𝒓 = (2t3 − 5t) 𝒊+
Ƹ (6 − 7t4)𝒋,Ƹ calculate (a) 𝒓, (b) 𝒗, and (c) 𝒂 for t = 2 s. (d) What is the angle between
the positive direction of the x axis and the particle’s velocity at t = 2 s?
Solution:
a) At t = 2 s:
𝑟Ԧ = (2 × 23 − 5 ×2) 𝑖+
Ƹ (6 − 7 ×24)𝑗Ƹ = 6 𝑖Ƹ − 106 𝑗Ƹ
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑(2t3 − 5t) 𝑑(6 − 7t4)
b) 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑖Ƹ
+ 𝑗Ƹ
+ 𝑘
= 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ = (6t2 – 5) 𝑖Ƹ + (–28t3) 𝑗Ƹ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
At t = 2 s:
𝑣Ԧ = (6×4 – 5) 𝑖Ƹ – (28×8) 𝑗Ƹ = 19 𝑖Ƹ – 224 𝑗Ƹ
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧 𝑑(6t2 – 5) 𝑑(–28t3)
c) 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑖Ƹ
+ 𝑗Ƹ + = 𝑎Ԧ =
𝑘 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ = (12t) 𝑖Ƹ + (–84t2) 𝑗Ƹ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
At t = 2 s:
𝑎Ԧ = (12×2 ) 𝑖Ƹ – (84×4) 𝑗Ƹ = 24 𝑖Ƹ – 336 𝑗Ƹ
𝑣𝑦 −224
d) 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −11.8 = −85°
𝑣𝑥 19
9:21 AM 9
4.4 Projectile Motion
• We consider a special case of two-dimensional motion: the projectile motion
• In projectile motion, the particle moves with initial velocity 𝑣𝑜
• The only acceleration in this motion is the free-fall acceleration g, which is downward (in the y-
axis direction) ⟹ the velocity is changing in the y-axis direction (𝑣𝑜𝑦 ).
• No acceleration in the x axis direction ⟹ no change in the speed in the x-axis direction (𝑣𝑜𝑥 )
• The only force acting on the projectile is the Earth’s gravity
In this chapter, we neglect the air effect
on the projectile motion
9:21 AM 10
▪ the projectile motion has a constant acceleration (that is g in the y-axis direction)
▪ we can use the equations of motion that we learned in Chapter 2 to analyze this motion
The Horizontal Motion (in the x-axis direction)
We can calculate the horizontal distance of the projectile at time
t from the equation:
𝒙 = (𝒗𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽) 𝒕
and always the velocity in this direction is constant, and can be
calculated form,
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
The Vertical Motion (in the y-axis direction)
We can calculate the vertical distance of the projectile at time t
from the equation:
𝟏
𝒚 = (𝒗𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽) 𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐
t is the flight time (the time since
and the velocity in this direction is NOT constant, the projectile started moving)
θ is the launch angle
𝒗𝒚 = 𝒗𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝒈𝒕 vo is the initial velocity
and
𝑣𝑦2 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 − 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 )
9:21 AM 11
The Horizontal Range
• The horizontal range R of the projectile is the horizontal
distance the projectile has traveled when it returns to its
initial height (the height at which it is launched).
• R can be calculated from,
𝒗𝟐𝒐
𝑹= 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝜽)
𝒈
where,
θ is the launch angle
vo is the initial velocity
• The horizontal range R is maximum for a launch angle of 45°
9:21 AM 12
Example 3: An object is launched from ground at a velocity of 40 m/s in a direction making
an angle of 50° upward with the horizontal.
a) What is the maximum height reached by the object?
b) What is the object’s total flight time (between launch and touching the ground again)?
c) What is the object’s horizontal range (maximum x above ground)?
d) What is the object’s position (horizontal and vertical coordinates) at t = 2 s
e) What is the object’s horizontal and vertical velocity at t = 2 s
Solution:
a) We have given that vo = 40 m/s and θ = 50°
Remember that at maximum height, the projectile (the object)
stops briefly
⟹ vy = 0 m/s
First, we calculate the time for reaching the maximum height:
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
0 = 40 𝑠𝑖𝑛50° − 9.8 𝑡
9.8 𝑡 = 40 𝑠𝑖𝑛50°
40 𝑠𝑖𝑛50°
𝑡= = 3.1 s
9.8
Now, we can calculate the maximum height (using t for maximum height):
1
𝑦 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
1
= (40 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛50°) × 3.1 − × 9.8 × 3.12
2
= 47.9 m
9:21 AM 13
b) When the object finishes the flight, it will reach the ground again ⟹ y = 0 m
1
𝑦 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
1
0 = 40 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛50° 𝑡 − × 9.8 × 𝑡 2
2
1
× 9.8 × 𝑡 2 = 40 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛50° 𝑡
2
1
× 9.8 × 𝑡 = 40 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛50
2
2×40×𝑠𝑖𝑛50
𝑡= = 6.25 s
9.8
𝑣𝑜2
c) 𝑅 = sin(2𝜃)
𝑔
402 1600
𝑅= sin 2 × 50 = sin 100 = 160.8 m
9.8 9.8
9:21 AM 14
1
d) We know: 𝑥 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑡 and 𝑦 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
So at t = 2 s:
𝑥 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑡 = 40 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠50° × 2 = 51.4 m
1 1
𝑦 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 = 40 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛50° × 2 − × 9.8 × 22 = 41.7 m
2 2
e) We know that 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
So at t = 2 s:
m
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 40 𝑐𝑜𝑠50° = 25.7 Note that the velocity in the x direction (vx)
s
does NOT change with time (it is constant
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 = 40 𝑠𝑖𝑛50° − 9.8 × 2 = 11 m/s during the whole flight).
9:21 AM 15
4.5 uniform circular motion
• A particle is in circular motion if it travels in a circular path.
A particle is in uniform motion if it travels at constant (uniform) speed.
⸫ A particle is in uniform circular motion if it travels in a circular path
at constant (uniform) speed.
• Although the speed does not vary, the particle is accelerating because
the velocity changes in direction.
• This acceleration is always directed radially inward. Because of this, the
acceleration is called a centripetal acceleration.
• The magnitude of this acceleration 𝑎Ԧ is
𝒗𝟐
𝒂=
𝒓
where,
a is the centripetal acceleration
v is the “linear” velocity of the particle
r is the radius of the circular path
9:21 AM 16
The period of revolution, or simply the period, of the motion is the time for a particle to
go around the path exactly once:
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑻=
𝒗
where,
T is the period
v is the “linear” velocity of the particle
r is the radius of the circular path
9:21 AM 17
Example 4: a car moves in circular road with a velocity of 5 m/s. the radius of the road
path is 30 m. Find a) the centripetal acceleration of the car, b) the period of this motion.
Solution:
𝑣2
a) 𝑎 = 𝑟
52
= = 0.83 m/s2
30
2𝜋𝑟
b) T = 𝑣
2×3.14×30
= = 37.7 s
5
9:21 AM 18
Example 1: A rabbit runs on ground. The coordinates (meters) of the rabbit’s position as functions of time t
(seconds) are given by: x = 0.5t2 - 3t + 19 and y = ‒ 0.2t2 + 3.6t + 55
At t = 10 s, what is the rabbit’s position vector 𝑟Ԧ in a) unit vector notation and b) in magnitude-angle
notation?
Example 2: The position 𝒓 ⃗ of a particle moving in an (x,y) plane is given by:
𝒓 ⃗ = (t4 − 2t2) 𝒊 ̂+ (4 − 3t5)𝒋 ̂, calculate (a) 𝒓 ⃗, (b) 𝒗 ⃗, and (c) 𝒂 ⃗ for t = 4 s. (d) What is the angle between the
positive direction of the x axis and the particle’s velocity at t = 4 s?
Example 3: An object is launched from ground at a velocity of 100 m/s in a direction making an angle of
45° upward with the horizontal.
a) What is the maximum height reached by the object?
b) What is the object’s total flight time (between launch and touching the ground again)?
c) What is the object’s horizontal range (maximum x above ground)?
d) What is the object’s position (horizontal and vertical coordinates) at t = 4 s
e) What is the object’s horizontal and vertical velocity at t = 4 s
Example 4: a car moves in circular road with a velocity of 12 m/s. the diameter of the road path is 50 m.
Find a) the centripetal acceleration of the car, b) the period of this motion.
9:21 AM 19