Unit 3: Living Things and Their Environment
Module 1: Coordinated Functions of the Nervous, Endocrine, and Reproductive Systems
Introduction: The human body is made up of different systems that coordinate with one another in order to
perform their functions well. If any of these organ systems malfunctions, the body will become unbalanced.
The instability caused by the malfunctioning of one system can’t be made stable by other systems because
each system has its own function in the body, You have studied i the past that human body systems are the
combined functional units composed of various organs that work in full coordination with one other. In Grade
9, you have already studied how the circulatory and respiratory systems work together and how lifestyle
affects these systems. Now you will learn about the coordinated functions of the reproductive, endocrine, and
nervous systems. As you go through this module, you will be able yto understand organisms having
feedback mechanisms, are coordinated by the nervus and endocrine systems. You will also learn how these
feedback mechanisms help organisms maintain homeostasis to reproduce and survive.
Learning Competencies or Objectives:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1.) Describe the parts of the nervous, endocrine, and reproductive systems, along with their functions.
2.) Explain the role of hormones involved in the female and male reproductive systems.
3.) Describe the feedback mechanisms in regulating processes in the female reproductive system.
4.) Describe how the nervous system coordinates and regulates feedback mechanisms to maintain
homeostasis.
Nervous System
You have studied that cells make up a tissue, then tissues make up an organ, and organs make up an system.
Now, you will first try to understand the organ system before you go to the cellular level to know how the
individual cells or the nervous system work. Your nervous systems connects all your body parts and transmit
signals from one part to another. It is a system of cells, tissues, and organs that regulates the body’s
responses to internal and external stimuli. Each party of the nervous system has a a specific role as it
functions as an important part of the system.
Major Divisions andn Parts of the Nervous System
1.) Central Nervous System (CNS): The CNS serves as the main processing center for the entire nervous
system. It consists of two main components, namely the:
a.) Brain: This is an organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and distributor of
information for the body. It has three main parts:
i.) Cerebrum - large, upper part of the brain that controls activity and thought.
ii.) Cerebellum - the part under the cerebrum that controls posture, balance, and
coordination.
iii.) Brain Stem - the part that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls automatic
functions such as breathing, digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure.
b.) Spinal Cord: This serves as a channel for signals between the brain and the rest of the body,
and controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input from the brain.
2.) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): The PNS connects the central nervous system to the organs and
limbs. It has two main divisions:
a.) Somatic Nervous System: This system is associated with the voluntary control of body
movements and has two main parts:
i.) Spinal Nerves - the nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal
cord and the body.
ii.) Cranial Nerves - the nerves fibers taht carry information into and out of the brain stem
b.) Autonomic Nervous System: This system is associated with the involuntary control of body
movements and has two subdivisions:
i.) Sympathetic - it is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress (e.g., increased
heart rate and breathing, dilation of pupil, sweating, etc.)
ii.) Parasympathetic - it maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or
relaxed mode.
The Nerve Cell: The basic unit of the nervous system. Nerve
cells are called neurons. There are billions of neurons in the
body. Some exist alone. Others are joined together to form
organs like the brain and spinal cord. There are twelve to
fourteen billions of neurons in one part of the brain alone. A
neuron has a cell body containing the nucleus. Projecting out
from the cell body are root-like structures. These are the
dentures and axons. Dendrites carry impulses towards the cell body. A cell may have as many as 200
dendrites carrying impulses toward the cell body. A cell may have as many as 200 dendrites carrying
impulses toward the cell body. Axons pass impulses to the dendrites of other neurons or cell body of muscle
cells. Axons can be grouped together into cable-like bundles called nerves.
The Nerve Impulse: Neurons are cells with the special ability to carry signals or impulses. Thoughts,
emotions, learning, and many body functions are carried by nerve impulses in the neurons. A nerve impulse is
a combination of an electrical charge and a chemical reaction. A nerve impulse is not a flow of electricity, but
an electrochemical signal moving along a neuron. Imagine that you have board with a row of switches.
Quickly click each switch in the row on and off. This will give you and idea of how a nerve impulse travels
along a neuron. A nerve impulse cannot jump from one neuron to another. When a nerve impulse comes to
the end of an axon, it produces the chemical, called neurotransmitter, to be released. The chemical crosses
the space between neurons called synapse and stimulates the nerve impulse to start in the next dendrite.
The nervous system is assisted by five sense organs - the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin. These sense
organs are constantly receiving information from the environment and sensing messages to the brain. These
senses aid in the survival of human beings. A stimulus (plural: stimuli) is any factor in the environment that
may trigger a nerve impulse. A response is a reaction to a stimulus. A stimulus is received by the body and a
response is made. An organism must be able to respond to a stimulus in order to survice.
Messages do not travel in both directions along the same neuron. Only the axon of the neuron releases
neurotransmitters that cross the space between neurons. Reaction time is the length of time between
application of a stimulus and detection oa response.
Neurobs have the special ability to carry signals or impulses. A nerve impulse is an electrochemical signal
moving along in a neuron. The space between neurons is called synapse.
A stimulus is any factor in the environment that influences behaviour. A response is a reaction to a condition
or stimulus. An organism must be able to respond to a stimulus in order to survive. Reaction time is the
length of time between application of a stimulus and detection of a response.
Neurons are specially intended for information processing and signaling. They relay and receive ,essages
(impulse) between the brain and body, and within the brain and spinal cord. Motor neurons transmit impulses
from the brain to muscles, glands, or other neurons in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). Sensory neurons
transmit impulses from sensory nerves (receptor cells) to the Central Nevous Sysyem (CNS)>
When a receptor such as an organ perceives a stimulus, thee impulse is sent to the brain by the sensory
neurons, which then transmit information from one nerve cell to another. As the message reaches the brain, it
processes the information and commands an effector such as a muscle or an organ to respond. The message
coming from the brain is sent through the motor neurons.
The Endocrine System
Similar to the nervous system, the endocrine system controls and regulates body
processes. Generally, the endocrine system in in control of the mechanisms in
the body that slowly take place, such as cell growth. Rapid processes, such as
body movement and breathing, are controlled by the nervous system. Although
these two systems are different, they work together in a coordinate manner to
enable the body to function properly. After studying about the nervous system,
now you will learn about the endocrine system, its functions, and the glands that
comprise the system.
The endocrine system is composed of glands that secrete different type of hormone that affect almost every
cell, oran, and functuiion of our body. It is essential in regulating growth and development, metabolism, as
well as reproductive processes, and mood. Endocrine glands secrete chemical known as hormones into the
bloodstream, which carries them throughout the body. When a hormone in the blood reaches the target
organ, it produces a notable effect. The endocrine system send sugnbals all oliver the body, much like the
nervous system, but unlike the instant responses activated by the nervous system, the effects can take a few
hours or even weeks.
Endorcrube Glands and Their Hormones
The endocrine system contains a group of glands that release hormones into the body. The following table
lists all the major glands tin the body, with their functions, locations, and the hormones they release.
Gland Location Hormones Released Function
Pituitary At the base of the Oxytocin, Vasopressin, Growth Stimulates growth, and controls
brain Hormone, Adrenocorticotropic the functions of other glands
Hormone (ACTH), Prolactin,
Luteinizing Hormone, Follicle
Simulating Hormone (FSH)
Thyroid Below the voice box Thyroxin, Calcitonin Regulates body metabolism and
causes storage of calcium in
bones
Parathyroid In the neck Parathyromone Controls the calcium levels in
your body, and normalizes bone
growth
Thymus In front of the heart Thymosin Enables the body to produce
certain antibodies
Adrenal On top of the Adrenaline Prepares the body for action,
kidneys controls the heart rate and
breathing in times of emergency
Pancreas Between the kidneys Insulin, Glucagon Regulates blood sugar levels
Reproductive Controls maturation and male
Testes (Males) Lower abdomen Androgen, Testosterone characteristics
Influence female traits and
Ovaries (Female) Lower abdomen Estrogen, Progesterone supports reproductive function
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete chemicals called hormones to control various body processes. This
control system usually brings about slow changes in the body because chemical messengers move more slowly than
nerve impulses. Tha major glands in the bod are the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries,
and testes.
Effect of Hormones in the Body
Several processes in the body are coordinated by hormones which regulate and balance the working of organs, tissues,
and cells. The endocrine system influences how your heart beats, how your bones and tissues develop, and even your
capacity to have a baby. It plays an essential role in the occurrence of disorders such as diabetes, thyroid disease, growth
disorders, and/or sxual dysfunction.
Both men and women produce hormones in the same areas with one exception, the reproductive glands. Additional
maklee hormones are produced in the testes while female hormones are produced in the ovaries.
Some hormones have short-term effects while other hormones have long-term effects such as those that control our
growth and the changes at the onset of puberty. During puberty, there are many hormonal changes that happen in your
body. One moment you laugh, and then suddenly you feel like crying. Sudden mood swings are relatively caused by the
increasing amount of hormones in the body at this stage. It is therefore important to maintain a positive outloook in life
and remember that these changes are only temporary and will stabilize with time.
Hormones act in very small amounts. If the organ and hormones do not produce the regulated amount of chemical to
your body, it may result in any abnormality of your body. This condition is called hormonal imbalance. An increase or
decrease im its aunt may have a significant effect in the human body.
Hormones affect various processes in the body as they regulate abd balance the functioning of organs, tissues, and
cells. Hormones have great impact on your growth, appearance, emotions, and reproductive functions. Tjhese determine
whether or nor you developdisorders uch as diabetes, throid disease, growth disorders, or sexual dysfunction. Hormone
act in very small amounts. An increase or decrease in hormonal levels mau result in body disorder due to hormal
imbalance.
The Reproductive System
For most living creatures, repr
Steps in Protein Synthesis
1. A. Transcription
Transcription is the first part of the central dogma of molecular biology: DNA → RNA. It is the transfer of genetic
instructions in DNA to mRNA. During transcription, a strand of mRNA is made to complement a strand of DNA.
Steps of Transcription :
Transcription takes place in three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination.
a.) Initiation is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a region of a gene
called the promoter. This signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can “read” the bases in one of the DNA strands. The
enzyme is ready to make a strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases.
b.) Elongation is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand.
c.) Termination is the ending of transcription. The mRNA strand is complete, and it detaches from DNA.
2. E. mRNA links to ribosome
After mRNA leaves the nucleus, it moves to a ribosome, which consists of rRNA and proteins. The ribosome reads the
sequence of codons in mRNA,
3. B. tRNA amino acids units links to mRNA
Molecules of tRNA bring amino acids to the ribosome in the correct sequence.
4. C. amino acid separate from tRNA
While bound to mRNA, tRNA gives up its amino acid.
5. [Link] chain assembled
With the help of rRNA, bonds form between the amino acids as they are brought one by one to the ribosome, creating a
polypeptide chain.
6. F. Stop codon encountered in mRNA
The chain of amino acids keeps growing until a stop codon is reached.
What is Protein Synthesis?
Protein synthesis is the process in which cells make proteins. It occurs in two stages: transcription and translation.
Transcription- is the process during which a DNA sequence of a gene is copied to make an RNA molecule. It includes
three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination.
Translation- is the process during which an mRNA molecule is used to assemble amino acids into polypeptide chains.
For additional information about this process, just click this link: What is the function of RNA polymerase in protein
synthesis? [Link]/question/2123385
Processing mRNA
Splicing- removes introns from mRNA. Introns are regions that do not code for the protein. The remaining mRNA
consists only of regions called exons that do code for the protein.
Editing- changes some of the nucleotides in mRNA. For example, a human protein called APOB, which helps transport
lipids in the blood, has two different forms because of editing. One form is smaller than the other because editing adds
an earlier stop signal in mRNA.
Polyadenylation- adds a “tail” to the mRNA. The tail consists of a string of As (adenine bases). It signals the end of
mRNA. It is also involved in exporting mRNA from the nucleus, and it protects mRNA from enzymes that might break it
down.
Key terms
RNA (ribonucleic acid)- Single-stranded nucleic acid that carries out the instructions coded in DNA .
Central dogma of biology-The process by which the information in genes flows into proteins: DNA → RNA → protein .
Polypeptide-A chain of amino acids .
Codon- A sequence of three nucleotides that corresponds with a specific amino acid or start/stop signal during
translation.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)- Carries information from DNA in the nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm .
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- Structural component of ribosomes .
Transfer RNA (tRNA)- Carries amino acids to the ribosome during translation to help build an amino acid chain
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid- is a long molecule that contains our unique genetic code.