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Crude Oil Recovery

• Rotary drills
• Bit and sections of hollow rigid
metal pipe produce the drill
stem, which is rotated by a
turntable
• Drilling mud is sent down
through the drill stem and
travels back to the surface in the
annulus

Figure: An oil rig used to bore

through rocks to produce a well
from which crude oil and/or natural
gas at depth can be extracted.
[Link]
147

Crude Oil Recovery (cont.)

• Operation of a drill rig

• Mud logging
• Examining rock chips extracted from drilling mud
• Downhole record produced is known as the mud log
• Reveals the type of rock and formations being drilled
• Estimates the oil and gas content of the section of rock through which the drill bit is
cutting
• After drilling and casing the well, it must be completed

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Oil and gas extraction techniques

• Primary recovery first relies on underground pressure to drive fluids
to the surface. (10%)
• Secondary recovery is the most widely applied enhanced recovery
technique. Water that is produced and separated from the oil in the
initial phase of drilling is injected back into the oil- bearing formation
to bring more oil to the surface. (30-35%)
• Water can flood the oil surfaces due to high density while natural gases can
mix with oil, lowering its viscosity to bring it up.
• Enhanced recovery techniques are used to mobilize the remaining oil.
(10-15 %)

149

Enhanced oil recovery

There are three common approaches: thermal recovery, gas injection or chemical flooding.
• Thermal recovery entails injecting steam into the formation (Steam lowers viscosity).
The heat from the steam makes the oil flow more easily, and the increased pressure
forces it to the surface.
• Gas injection uses either miscible or immiscible gases. Miscible gasses dissolve CO2,
propane, methane or other gasses in the oil to lower its viscosity and increase flow.
Immiscible gasses do not mix with the oil, but increase pressure in the “gas cap” in a
reservoir to drive additional oil to the well bore.
• Chemical flooding involves mixing dense, water-soluble polymers with water and
injecting the mixture into the field. The water pushes the oil out of the formation and
into the well bore.
• Enhanced recovery techniques are employed to bring as much as 60 percent of the
reserve to the surface.
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Thermal injection

151

Enhanced oil recovery

There are three common approaches: thermal recovery, gas injection or chemical flooding.
• Thermal recovery entails injecting steam into the formation. The heat from the steam
makes the oil flow more easily, and the increased pressure forces it to the surface.
• Gas injection uses either miscible or immiscible gases. Miscible gasses like dissolve CO2,
propane, methane or other gasses in the oil to lower its viscosity and increase flow.
Immiscible gasses do not mix with the oil, but increase pressure in the “gas cap” in a
reservoir to drive additional oil to the well bore.
• Chemical flooding involves mixing dense, water-soluble polymers with water and
injecting the mixture into the field. The water pushes the oil out of the formation and
into the well bore.
• Enhanced recovery techniques are employed to bring as much as 60 percent of the
reserve to the surface.

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Gas injection

153

Enhanced oil recovery

There are three common approaches: thermal recovery, gas injection or chemical flooding.
• Thermal recovery entails injecting steam into the formation. The heat from the steam
makes the oil flow more easily, and the increased pressure forces it to the surface.
• Gas injection uses either miscible or immiscible gases. Miscible gasses dissolve CO2,
propane, methane or other gasses in the oil to lower its viscosity and increase flow.
Immiscible gasses do not mix with the oil, but increase pressure in the “gas cap” in a
reservoir to drive additional oil to the well bore.
• Chemical flooding involves mixing dense, water-soluble polymers with water and
injecting the mixture into the field. The water pushes the oil out of the formation and
into the well bore.
• Enhanced recovery techniques are employed to bring as much as 60 percent of the
reserve to the surface.

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Chemical flooding

155

Enhanced oil recovery

There are three common approaches: thermal recovery, gas injection or chemical flooding.
• Thermal recovery entails injecting steam into the formation. The heat from the steam
makes the oil flow more easily, and the increased pressure forces it to the surface.
• Gas injection uses either miscible or immiscible gases. Miscible gasses dissolve CO2,
propane, methane or other gasses in the oil to lower its viscosity and increase flow.
Immiscible gasses do not mix with the oil, but increase pressure in the “gas cap” in a
reservoir to drive additional oil to the well bore.
• Chemical flooding involves mixing dense, water-soluble polymers with water and
injecting the mixture into the field. The water pushes the oil out of the formation and
into the well bore.
• Enhanced recovery techniques are employed to bring as much as 60 percent of the
reserve to the surface.

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Crude Oil Recovery (cont.)

• Primary production
• Natural pressure brings the crude oil and natural gas to the surface
• Blowout preventers are used to prevent gushers
• Secondary recovery
• Fluids at an injection well move crude oil in the reservoir to the production
well by increasing the reservoir fluid pressure

157

Crude Oil Recovery (cont.)

• Tertiary recovery
• Lower the remaining oil’s viscosity, increasing its ability to flow to the
production well
• Methods include steam flooding, chemical flooding, and injection with
microbes + nutrients
• Abandonment
• Poorly producing, unprofitable wells are abandoned by removing tubes and
filling the bore with cement

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Oil Shale and Tar Sand

• Oil shale
• Petroleum source rocks that
have not released all their
hydrocarbons
• Mined with surface mining
techniques
• Open pit mines
• Strip mines

Figure: a) Cross-section through an open pit

mine for recovery of oil shale. b) Overhead
view of a strip mine used to recover oil
shale.

159

Oil Shale and Tar Sand (cont.)

• After mining, the oil shale can be burned to produce energy or processed to
remove the hydrocarbons
• Environmental concerns
• Problems with disposal of processed shale
• Acidic groundwater production
• Erosion
• Sulfur gas production
• Particulate air pollution
• Significant water usage

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Oil Shale and Tar Sand (cont.)

• Increased interest in oil shale development as the price of petroleum

increases
• Shell Oil is developing an in-situ retorting method involving drilling holes up to 600
meters deep into the oil shale, inserting electrical resistance heaters, and heating the
shale over a period of three to four months
• Raytheon Company has developed a technology for in situ retorting using microwaves to
heat the underground kerogen

161

Oil Shale and Tar Sand (cont.)

• Tar sand
• Concentrations of very dense and viscous bitumen in sand
• Most appear to be formed in normal petroleum reservoirs by biodegradation, reaction
with oxidizing formation waters, and/or loss of their volatile fraction through time
• Open pits are used to mine tar sands
• Tar sand is crushed, hot water is added, and bitumen is recovered by flotation from the
top of the slurry

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Oil Shale and Tar Sand (cont.)

• Concerns
• Volume of spent shale and sand with its high porosity is greater than the original volume
excavated, making reclamation of the mined area difficult
• High porosity allows rainwater to penetrate deeply into the waste material and react
with it, potentially contaminating ground water
• High porosity also decreases surface runoff and stream formation in the area

163

Crude Oil Refining

• Crude oil is processed to
produce fractions
dictated by the market for
different oils
• Separated into fractions in
a distillation tower

Figure: Distillation tower used for separating

the constituents of crude oil by heating to the
boiling point of each component.

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165

Oil & Gas: uses and processing

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Distillation of Petroleum
In the distillation process, petroleum is separated into different
molecular groups:

C1-C4: Gas
C5-C10: Gasoline
C11-C13: Kerosine
C14-C18: Diesel fuel (light gas oil)
C19-C25: Heavy gas oil
C26-C40: Lubricating oil
> C40: Residuum

These groups will be discussed briefly in the following

167

The Pitch-Drop Experiment

Date Event

1927 Experiment set up

1930 The stem was cut
December 1938 1st drop fell
February 1947 2nd drop fell
April 1954 3rd drop fell
May 1962 4th drop fell
August 1970 5th drop fell
April 1979 6th drop fell
July 1988 7th drop fell
November, 2000 8th drop fell
April, 2014 9th drop fell

The experimental set-up at the University of Queensland

Viscosity is 2×109 P

[Link]
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Crude Oil Recovery (cont.)

• Directional drilling
• Becoming more common
• Can expose a lot more formation to the borehole
• Ideal for reservoirs that are shallow, spread out, fractured, and/or in
sensitive environments

169

Fracking (Hydraulic fracturing)

The combination of advanced hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling

• Involves safely tapping shale and other tight-rock formations by drilling
a mile or more below the surface before gradually turning horizontal
and continuing several thousand feet more
• Thus, a single site can accommodate a number of wells
• Mixture of water (90%) + sand (9.5%) + additives (0.5%) is pumped at
high pressure to create micro-fractures in the rock that are held open
by the grains of sand

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Fracking

171

Fracking (Hydraulic fracturing)

Additives play number of important roles:

• Helping to reduce friction (thereby reducing the amount of
pumping pressure from diesel-powered sources, which reduces
emissions)
• Prevent pipe corrosion
• Helps to protect the environment and boost well efficiency

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Why Fracking?
• Safe hydraulic fracturing
• Changed U.S. energy picture from scarcity to abundance
• Up to 95% of natural gas wells drilled in the next decade will require
hydraulic fracturing
• Used to stimulate new production from older wells

173

Fracking
environmental
effect

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Fracking - protest

175

Effects of fracking

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Environmental Impacts of Petroleum Extraction

177

Environmental Impacts of Petroleum Extraction

1. Acoustics (Noise Pollution):
• Exploration: Noise from seismic surveys and exploratory drilling can
reach up to 115 dBA at the source, reducing to about 55 dBA at 549
meters. This noise may disrupt local wildlife and nearby communities.
• Drilling & Production: Continuous noise from drilling rigs, heavy
machinery, and vehicle traffic, with levels reaching up to 86 dBA,
affecting both local communities and wildlife over extended periods.
• Decommissioning: Noise levels decrease significantly, with occasional
disturbances during the dismantling and removal of infrastructure.

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Environmental impacts of Petroleum Extraction

2. Air Quality:
• Exploration: Minor emissions from vehicle traffic, drilling rigs, and
dust from earth-moving activities, with pollutants such as NOx, CO,
SO2, and VOCs. Impact on air quality is generally minimal during this
phase.
• Drilling & Production: Increased emissions from vehicles, drilling
operations, and the separation of oil and gas. Key pollutants include
VOCs, NOx, SO2, CO, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes (BTEX),
and particulate matter. Potential for climate change impact, especially
with methane emissions.
• Decommissioning: Air quality impact decreases as operations cease,
with some dust generated during land restoration activities.

179

Environmental impacts of Petroleum Extraction

3. Water Resources:
• Exploration: Minimal impact on water resources, with minor risks
from soil erosion or small spills during the drilling of exploratory wells.
• Drilling & Production: Significant risks, including water use for
drilling, contamination from produced water (often saline and
containing hazardous chemicals), and potential cross-aquifer mixing if
wells are not properly completed. Surface and groundwater quality
can be affected by spills, leaks, and improper disposal of drilling
fluids.
• Decommissioning: Water resources are safeguarded by properly
sealing wells and removing infrastructure. Restoration activities help
reduce erosion and improve water quality over time.

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Environmental impacts of Petroleum Extraction

4. Ecological Resources:
• Exploration: Minimal impact on vegetation and wildlife, though some
disturbance occurs with the creation of access roads and exploratory
wells.
• Drilling & Production: Greater impact, including habitat loss from
vegetation removal, increased dust deposition on plants, and wildlife
disturbances due to noise and human activity. Risks of contamination
from spills and exposure to hazardous materials.
• Decommissioning: Restoration efforts aim to recontour the land and
promote the regrowth of native vegetation, reducing the long-term
ecological impact.

181

Environmental impacts of Petroleum Extraction

5. Hazardous Materials and Waste Management:
• Exploration: Limited generation of hazardous waste, mainly related to
drilling fluids and small-scale spills.
• Drilling & Production: Significant generation of hazardous waste,
including drilling fluids containing PAHs and heavy metals, fracking
chemicals, produced water with Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Materials (NORM), and industrial waste (e.g., lubricants, solvents).
Proper handling and disposal are critical to prevent environmental
contamination.
• Decommissioning: Safe disposal of any remaining hazardous
materials and waste, including NORM and sludge. Efforts focus on
ensuring that no residual contamination remains as infrastructure is
dismantled.
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Oil spills
• Causes (sources)
• Effects on environment
• Prevention (control)

183

Oil spill causes

• Oil spill pollution can have multiple causes both of natural (e.g.,
climatic factors, natural disturbances) and anthropogenic origin.

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Oil spill causes-anthropogenic

The main anthropogenic sources include:
• Accidental : Storage, Handling, Transport (millions of gallons),
Pipelines
• Offshore drilling: gulf of mexico
• Routine maintenance activities
• Road runoff: traffic, car oil
• Indirectly through burning fuels, including vehicle emissions

185

Accidents during transportation/handling

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BP oil explosion gulf of Mexico

• April 20, 2010, sealed on September 19, 2010
• Leakage of 4.9 million gallons

187

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Fate of Oil-Spills

189

Fate and Transport of Spilled Oil in Aqueous

Environments (Marine/Water)
Key Oil Characteristics Affecting Fate and Transport:
• Volatility: How easily oil components evaporate.
• Solubility: The degree to which oil dissolves in water.
• Density: Determines whether oil floats or sinks in water.
• Persistence: Duration oil remains in the environment before breaking
down.

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What Happens When Oil Spills in Water

• Volatilization:
• Process: Lighter oil components evaporate when exposed to air.
• Impact: Pollutes the air above the spill, potentially affecting air quality over large
areas.
• Spreading:
• Process: Oil spreads on the water's surface, forming a slick.
• Impact: Covers a large area, potentially affecting marine life and coastlines.
• Dissolution:
• Process: Some oil components dissolve in water.
• Impact: Can be toxic to aquatic organisms and disrupt ecosystems.
• Emulsification and Dispersion:
• Process: Oil mixes with water, forming stable mixtures.
• Impact: Increases persistence and difficulty of clean-up.

191

Fate and Transport of Spilled Oil on Land and

Subsurface
Key Oil Characteristics Affecting Fate and Transport:
• Volatility: Significant on land where oil is exposed to air.
• Soil Permeability: Determines how easily oil can penetrate and
spread underground.
• Persistence: Some oil components can remain in soil for years.

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What Happens When Oil Spills on Land:

Volatilization:
• Process: Oil evaporates into the air when exposed on the surface.
• Impact: Polluted air can enter homes and structures, especially in shallow subsurface
spills.
Soil Contamination:
• Process: Oil penetrates the soil, affecting plant life and microorganisms.
• Impact: Can lead to long-term damage to the soil, reducing fertility and harming
local ecosystems.
Groundwater Contamination:
• Process: Oil can seep into groundwater, especially in permeable soils.
• Impact: Contaminated groundwater can spread toxins, affecting drinking water
supplies and aquatic ecosystems.
Biodegradation:
• Process: Microorganisms break down oil over time.
• Impact: The process is slow, and some components may resist degradation, leading
to persistent contamination.

193

Environmental Effects of Oil pills

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Environmental Effects of Oil pills

• When an oil spill occurs, humans, wildlife and the environment may
be affected. Depending on the magnitude of the spill and its location,
the effects vary from minimal to serious ones.

195

Oil spill on humans

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Oil spill control

• Controlled burning of spilled oil: 90%
• Use of barriers or adsorbent materials
• Booms (fire-resistant booms)
• Skimmers ( propylene mop-like pads that are placed on ocean surface to adsorb
spilled oil film)
• Natural synthetic sorbent materials: Sponge like behavior
• Spraying of dispersants
• From airplanes
• Use of surface films: compress the oil affected area to thicken the layer
• Chemical and biological methods

197

Controlled burning of oil spill

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Use of adsorbant materials

199

spraying

200
 01/09/2024

Surfactant (dispersant)-Corexit 9500

201

Chemical/Biological methods for oil spill control

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 01/09/2024

Bioremediation

203

Selective nutrients supply for enhanced bacterial growth and

biodegradation

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 01/09/2024

Background & Knowledge Gaps

Bioremediation: in-situ/ex-situ bacterial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) to less toxic

intermediates at site representative cold temperatures. Bioremediation proceeds with biostimulation, i.e.,
supplying limiting nutrients (N, P) selectively to the indigenous soil hydrocarbon degrading bacteria,
leading to their growth and degradation of the TPH.

Relatively few studies have investigated applications to enhance biostimulation

effectiveness by selectively supplying nutrients to bacteria, e.g., slow release
nanocarriers in TPH bioremediation.

205

Nano-phosphates for selective nutrient supply at oil-water interface

• Why target the interface? Because it is an active zone of hydrocarbon degrading bacteria.

Hydroxyapatite (nHAP)
[ P source ]

nHAP@MSN
OIL [ MSN = mesoporous silica NP ]
WAT E R Active Ingredient
[ Phosphate & Ca ions ]

Hydrocarbon degrading
Dietzia maris

Oleic Acid (OA)

• Synthesize nHAP@MSN followed by surface functionalization with OA to render amphiphilic MSN surface:
Because normally Silica is hydrophilic, thus won’t bind selectively at the interface. Functionalization with OA
imparts partial hydrophobicity on the surface (Li et al. 2003 Appl. Surf. Sci.; Sadeghpour et al. 2013 Langmuir)

• Demonstrate release of Active Ingredient (AI) from the OA-nHAP@MSN.

• Demonstrate enhanced growth of hydrocarbon degrading [Link] at the oil–water interface in presence of OA-
nHAP@MSN NPs.

206
Kundu, A., et al., J Hazard Mater (2024) 462

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OA-nHAP@MSN
Morphology characterization

• Core-shell structure of
NPs: Core = nHAP, Shell =
Mesoporous Silica

• 80% binding of NPs at the

oil-water interface till 50
days

Rationale of using nHAP as NP core

• Non-toxic & Economic: Good fit for industrial application

• Bioavailable phosphate source: Protons react with the

pH ~ 2 – 6.8 nHAP crystal reactive surface leading to dual Ca2+ and
phosphate release.
Aqueous
solutions • Enhanced plant growth: Phosphate release from nHAP
led to 20-40 % increase in plant growth.

(Dorozhkin et al. 2002, Prog. Cryst. Growth Charact. Mater., Kottegoda et al. 2017, ACS Nano, Liu et al. 2014, Sci. Rep.)

Kundu, A., et al., J Hazard Mater (2024) 462 207

207

OA-nHAP@MSN
Bacteria growth at the oil-water interface
24
Thousands

+ NP - NP
Interface [Link] gDNA, ng

20

16

12

0 • Enhanced interfacial growth in presence of 150 ppm

Day 10 Day 20 Day 30 Day 50 OA-nHAP@MSN
ESEM characterization Time, Day

• NP clusters (yellow) observed to be embedded within the biofilm EPS matrix in

+NP systems
• Red & Blue arrows show cells.
• Cellular aggregates indicate biofilm development as seen previously (Akbari et al.
2016 Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett., Schleheck et al. 2009 PLoS One)
Mechanism of NP-driven growth:
• Close proximity of NPs and biofilm matrix driving i) nutrient acquisition from
nHAP core dissolution releasing Ca & Phosphate, ii) extra-cellular P
acquisition via bacterial enzymes
• Release of surface polymers, polypeptides, organic ligands from the biofilm
extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) that attack nHAP sites and release
Ca & Phosphate.
Kundu, A., et al., J Hazard Mater (2024) 462

208