Radiative Energy Transport
Radiation heat transfer is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation.
Thermal radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation similar to x rays, lightwaves, gamma
rays, and so on, differing only in wavelength. It obeys the same laws as light: travels in straight
lines, can be transmitted through space and vacuum, and so on. It is an important mode of heat
transfer and is especially important where large temperature differences occur, as, for example,
in a furnace with boiler tubes, in radiant dryers, and in an oven baking food. Radiation often
occurs in combination with conduction and convection.
The mechanism of radiant heat transfer is composed of three distinct steps or phases:
1. The thermal energy of a hot source, such as the wall of a furnace at T, is converted into the
energy of electromagnetic radiation waves.
2. These waves travel through the intervening space in straight lines and strike a cold object at T,
such as a furnace tube containing water to be heated.
3. The electromagnetic waves that strike the body are absorbed by the body and converted back
to thermal energy or heat.
The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation is determined by the Stefan-Boltzmann law of
radiation:
Q/t=σeAT4
where σ=5.67×10−8J/s⋅m2⋅k4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, A is the surface area of the
object, and T is its absolute temperature in kelvin. The symbol e stands for the emissivity of the
object, which is a measure of how well it radiates.
The radiation rate is directly proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature—a
remarkably strong temperature dependence. Furthermore, the radiated heat is proportional to the
surface area of the object. If you knock apart the coals of a fire, there is a noticeable increase in
radiation due to an increase in radiating surface area.
All objects emit and absorb radiation. The net rate of heat transfer by radiation (absorption minus
emission) is related to both the temperature of the object and the temperature of its surroundings.
Assuming that an object with a temperature T1 is surrounded by an environment with uniform
temperature T2 the net rate of heat transfer by radiation is
where e is the emissivity of the object alone. In other words, it does not matter whether the
surroundings are white, gray, or black; the balance of radiation into and out of the object depends
on how well it emits and absorbs radiation. When T2>T1, the quantity Qnet/t is positive; that is,
the net heat transfer is from hot to cold.
Boiling and Condensation
Mechanisms of boiling. Heat transfer to a boiling liquid is very important in evaporation and
distillation and also in other kinds of chemical and biological processing, such as petroleum
processing, control of the temperature of chemical reactions, evaporation of liquid foods, and so
on. The boiling liquid is usually contained in a vessel with a heating surface of tubes or vertical
or horizontal plates which supply the heat for boiling. The heating surfaces can be heated
electrically or by a hot or condensing fluid on the other side of the heated surface.
In boiling the temperature of the liquid is the boiling point of this liquid at the pressure in the
equipment. The heated surface is, of course, at a temperature above the boiling point. Bubbles of
vapor are generated at the heated surface and rise through the mass of liquid. The vapor
accumulates in a vapor space above the liquid level and is withdrawn. Boiling is a complex
phenomenon.
Mechanisms of condensation. Condensation of a vapor to a liquid and vaporization of a liquid
to a vapor both involve a change of phase of a fluid with large heat-transfer coefficients.
Condensation occurs when a saturated vapor such as steam comes in contact with a solid whose
surface temperature is below the saturation temperature, to form a liquid such as water.
Normally, when a vapor condenses on a surface such as a vertical or horizontal tube or other
surfaces, a film of condensate is formed on the surface and flows over the surface by the action
of gravity. It is this film of liquid between the surface and the vapor that forms the main
resistance to heat transfer. This is called film-type condensation.
Another type of condensation, dropwise condensation, can occur where small drops are formed
on the surface. These drops grow, coalesce, and the liquid flows from the surface. During this
condensation, large areas of tube are devoid of any liquid and are exposed directly to the vapor.
Very high rates of heat transfer occur on these bare areas.
Dropwise condensation occurs on contaminated surfaces and when impurities are present. Film-
type condensation is more dependable and more common. Hence, for normal design purposes,
film-type condensation is assumed.
Example Problem
Solution
Example Problem
What is the rate of heat transfer by radiation, with an unclothed person standing in a dark room
whose ambient temperature is 22.0 degrees Celsius. The person has a normal skin temperature of
33.0 degrees Celsius and a surface area of 1.50 m2. The emissivity of skin is 0.97 in the infrared,
where the radiation takes place.
Solution
Discussion
This value is a significant rate of heat transfer to the environment (note the minus sign),
considering that a person at rest may produce energy at the rate of 125 W and that conduction
and convection will also be transferring energy to the environment. Indeed, we would probably
expect this person to feel cold. Clothing significantly reduces heat transfer to the environment by
many methods, because clothing slows down both conduction and convection, and has a lower
emissivity (especially if it is white) than skin.