Aircraft Dynamics

ME76508
Mechanical IV/II
Chapter 2: Aircraft Performance

Session 03: Aircraft Performances

Prepared by 2024
Bibek Dhungana
Asst. Professor
 Contents

Equations of Motion for Flight in Vertical Plane

Gliding Flight
Level Flight
Climbing Flight
Range and Endurance
Turning Flight
Take-off and Landing
Range and payload

2
 Introduction
Performance characteristics depend on the weight of the airplane,
aerodynamic characteristics of the airframe, and the thrust or the
power developed by the powerplant.
For a given airplane configuration, aerodynamic characteristics
depend on AOA/sideslip, Mach number, and Reynolds number.
The thrust/power characteristics of the powerplant depend on
altitude, flight velocity, and engine operating conditions.
Therefore, in general, it is not possible to analytically estimate
airplane performance considering the arbitrary variations of
aerodynamic and propulsive characteristics.
We will discuss simplifying assumptions so that performance
calculations become amenable to the methods of ordinary calculus.

5/31/15 3
 1. Equations of Motion
Forces acting on an airplane in a vertical plane

V – Flight Velocity
γ – Flight Path Angle
θ – Inclination Angle
α – Angle of Attack = θ - γ
4
 1. Equations of Motion
Force balance equations

V – Flight Velocity
ε – Thrust Inclination
γ – Flight Path Angle
θ – Inclination Angle
α – Angle of Attack = θ - γ

5
 1. Equations of Motion
Force balance equations
Generally , thrust inclination, ε, is very small. For an airplane with
a straight flight path and constant velocity, both the angular and
centrifugal accelerations vanish.

6
 1. Equations of Motion
Non-Dimensional Parameters
Defined non-dimensional parameters:

Lift-to-Drag Ratio

Load Factor

Non-dimensional Thrust

Non-Dimensional Flight Velocity

7
 1. Equations of Motion
Reference Velocity
The reference velocity is the velocity at which a given aerodynamic
performance is achieved, often used as a baseline for comparison.
The reference velocity is the flight velocity in level flight when the drag is
minimum, i.e., when

Thus,

8
Numerical

Answers: Vmax=244.04 m/s, Vmin= 78.8 m/s

 2. Level Flight
Mechanism
The forces acting on an airplane in a level flight are shown in
figure below:

In level flight, the condition for force balance can be stated in

simple terms as the lift is equal to weight and thrust available is
equal to thrust required.

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 3. Level Flight
Power Required
With lift = weight, the drag equation can be written as,

Zero-lift drag varies as the square of velocity, whereas the induced

drag varies inversely with the square of the velocity.
At low speeds, the induced drag is dominant because the lift
coefficient needed to sustain level flight is quite high. As the
velocity increases, the zero-lift drag rises very rapidly, but the
induced drag becomes insignificant.
At low subsonic speeds, the zero-lift drag coefficient can be
assumed constant with respect to velocity, while at t higher speeds,
it varies with Mach number and includes the wave drag component.
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 3. Level Flight
Power Required

Power-required curves for propeller aircraft

Variation of drag component with velocity
12
 3. Level Flight
Power Required
As seen in the plots, the total drag assumes a minimum value at a
certain velocity.

The reference velocity happens to be

the velocity for minimum drag.
When total drag in level flight is
minimum, D0 = Di.

For the velocity for minimum power required we have,

13
 3. Level Flight
Power Required
The lift coefficient in level flight when the power required in level
flight is minimum is as follows:

Thus, both thrust- and power-required curves assume their

minimum values at some velocities.

14
 2. Level Flight
Power Required
There are two intersection points between power-required and
power available curves for propeller planes, and between thrust
required and thrust available curves for jet airplane.

15 Level flight solutions

 3. Level Flight
Power Required
Spending the same amount of fuel and developing the same
magnitude of thrust or power, an airplane can fly at either of these
two velocities.
At the low or minimum velocity Vmin, the thrust power available is
essentially used to overcome induced drag, whereas, at high or
maximum speed Vmax, it is mostly used to balance the zero-lift drag.

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 3. Level Flight
Numerical

Answers: a) 237 Kph, 409 Kph b) 0.064, 0.0794, 6400N,

641.5Kw, 412.2Kph, 310.7Kph.

17
 3. Level Flight
Analytical Solutions for Propeller Aircraft
The force (or power) balance equation for a propeller aircraft in
level flight has not closed-form analytical solution.
Thus, to determine the two speed limits in level flights, i.e. Vmin
and Vmax, it is a common practice to obtain graphical or numerical
solution. This is the case even under the assumption that the power
developed by the reciprocating engine and propulsive efficiency are
independent of flight velocity.
Define an altitude-independent parameter- equivalent airspeed as:

The equivalent airspeed can be used to rewrite the drag equation

such that it holds for all altitudes.
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 3. Level Flight
Analytical Solutions for Propeller Aircraft
The drag equation written in a form that can represent a single
curve as a function of equivalent airspeed and altitude can be
written as:
Several thrust available curves for different
altitudes are plotted

The thrust available curve

intersects the drag curve at two
points designated as Ve,min and
Ve,max .
At these two points, the level
flight eqns are identically
satisfied, thus each is a level
flight solution.

Variation of maximum and minimum

speeds in level flight.
19
 3. Level Flight
Analytical Solutions for Propeller Aircraft
The true airspeed corresponding to the
high-speed solution increases initially
with altitude and then begins to
decrease, whereas the true air speed
corresponding to the low-speed
solution increases monotonically with
altitude.
At a certain altitude, the two solutions
merge, and we have only one level
flight solution. This altitude is called
the absolute ceiling of the airplane.
This is also the point where the
thrust-available is tangential to the
thrust-required curve.
20 Level flight envelope
 3. Level Flight
Analytical Solutions for Propeller Aircraft
At absolute ceiling, the thrust-available has
dropped so much the level flight is only
possible only at one speed.
At absolute ceiling:
○ Drag is minimum.
○ Rate of climb is zero.
○ Beyond it, steady level flight is not
possible because the thrust available
is not sufficient to balance the
aerodynamics drag.
Question: why is true airspeed’s high-speed
solution initially increasing?

21
Level flight envelope
 3. Level Flight
Analytical Solutions for Jet Aircraft
Assuming that at a given altitude, the thrust developed by a jet
engine is independent of flight velocity, the analytical solution for
level flight can be obtained as discussed here:

If V1 is more than the critical

Mach number then C_D0 and
K would need correction and
revised calculation would be
required.

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 2. Level Flight
Analytical Solutions for Jet Aircraft
In cases where Vmin < Vstall , the speed Vmin itself has no
significance and Vstall effectively becomes the low-speed solution.
For flight at any speed V such that Vmin < V < Vmax , the pilot has
to throttle such that the drag at this speed equals the thrust available.

Concept of level flight

at any desired speed

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 4. Climbing Flight
Mechanism
For all altitudes below the absolute ceiling, two solutions for steady
level flight exist.
For flight at any speed V such that Vmin < V < Vmax , the question
remains as to what happens when using full thrust or power…
Since now there is excess thrust, steady flight is not possible. Either
one the following two cases may happen:
The airplane will accelerate to Vmax if the altitude is forced to
remain constant.
The airplane will climb.
There can be two methods for climb- a steady or constant velocity
climb, and the more general method of accelerated climb.
For reasonably short climb durations/distance, the weight of the
aircraft can be assumed to be constant.
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 4. Climbing Flight
Mechanism

25
 4. Climbing Flight
Steady Climb
The equations of motion for an aircraft in steady climb are as
follows:

The climb angle γ is directly

proportional to the excess thrust per unit
weight. Therefore, the steepest climb
γmax occurs when the excess thrust per
unit weight is maximum.

The rate of climb, R/C, is

given by:
Ps is the excess power per unit weight.
It is usually called the specific excess
26
power.
 4. Climbing Flight
1. Climb Performance with given speed
2. Climb Performance with given engine

27
 4. Climbing Flight
Numerical
 4. Climbing Flight
Numerical

An airplane weighing 180,000N has a wing area of 45 m^2

and drag polar given by CD = 0.017 + 0.05 CL^2 . obtain the
angle of climb and the rate of climb at a flight speed of 400
kmph at sea level, taking the thrust available as 45,000 N.
 4. Climbing Flight
Optional Numerical
 4. Climbing Flight
Analytical solution for climbing flight of propeller
aircraft
For propeller aircraft whose power developed by the engine
P(KW) and propulsive efficiency np are independent of flight
velocity,

Available Required

This is also the speed for minimum power required in level flight.
Thus, the speed at which the rate of climb is maximum is the
same as that when the power required in level flight is
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minimum.
 4. Climbing Flight
Analytical solution for climbing flight of propeller
aircraft
The two speeds are the same because, for the propeller aircraft, we
have assumed that the power available is independent of forward
speed.
Thus, essentially, the speed at which the excess power is maximum
becomes the same as that when the power required is minimum, i.e.
VR/C, max = Vmp .
The climb angle is maximum (steepest climb) at that velocity when
the excess thrust per unit weight is maximum.
The angle for steepest climb can be obtained by maximizing the
climb angle with respect to velocity.
However, no analytical solution can be obtained through this
method, thus a graphical method is sought.
32
 4. Climbing Flight
Analytical solution for climbing flight of propeller
aircraft
The velocity for maximum climb angle is given by the tangent
drawn from the origin to the hodograph representing R/C vs. V, as
shown here:

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Hodograph of climbing flight
 4. Climbing Flight
Absolute and Service Ceilings
Absolute ceiling was found to be a point where the two level flight
solutions merge into one. Based on the rate of climb, an alternative
definition of the absolute ceiling can be obtained.

The altitude where the

(R/C)max drops to 30.5 m/min
is called service ceiling.
When (R/C)max = 0,
absolute ceiling is reached.
For jet aircraft whose thrust
is indepenent of flight
velocity, z = 1 when (R/C)max
= 0.
Service and absolute ceiling.
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 4. Climbing Flight
Absolute and Service Ceilings
For propeller airplanes, the service ceiling is in the range of 4-6
km, whereas for commercial jet airplanes it is 11-17 km.

Service and absolute ceiling for

35
jet and propeller aircraft.
 4. Climbing Flight
Energy Climb Method
Energy climb is the case of climb flight that involves non-zero
accelerations along and normal to the flight path directions.

Energy height is defined as,

Such that,

Thus, the specific excess-power is more realistically equal to

energy rate of climb rather than the kinematic rate of climb dh/dt as
assumed for steady-state climb.
36
 3. Gliding Flight
Mechanism
A glider is an unpowered light airplane. The power to overcome the
aerodynamic drag comes at the expense of its potential energy or its
height above the ground.
Because a glider does not attain the height on its own, it must be
towed by another powered airplane to the desired height and then
launched to fly on its own.
Example is the gliding flight of the space shuttle during its
atmospheric reentry.
Gliders were the first test platform for flight mechanism, as studied
by Otto Lilienthal, George Cayley and the Wright Brothers.
In nature, avian scavengers like eagles and vultures use
evolutionarily developed gliding capabilities to remain for a long
period of time in the sky.
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 2. Gliding Flight
Mechanism
Forces acting on a glider are as shown in the picture below.
The glide angle γ.

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 2. Gliding Flight
Mechanism

Since the glide angle is

generally small,
Minimum glide angle

39
 2. Gliding Flight
Minimum rate of sink

● Gliders with very low sink rate (0.5m/s) are called sailplanes.
● Condition for low sink rate:
○ low wing loading
○ low C_D0 with smooth surface finish
○ large aspect ratio (16 to 20) to reduce K.
● The velocity for the glide with minimum sink rate is about 0.76 times
the reference velocity.

40
 2. Gliding Flight

Range of glide

● If a glider is left at a height ‘h’ above the ground, then the horizontal
distance covered in descending to the ground is called ‘Range in glide’
and denoted by R_glide. Assuming γ to be constant during the glide,
the range in glide can be expressed as:

● Thus, the range in glide would be maximum when the flight is at C_L
corresponding to C_Lmd or at V= V_md

41
 2. Gliding Flight
Endurance
Sailplane pilots fly at V= Vm when they are in the ‘lift’ mode, i.e. ,
when they encounter an upward gust. When the lift dies, they
accelerate to VR, the velocity for flattest glide to cover the most
ground while searching for another lift.
An instrument called ‘variometer’ tells sail plane pilots whether
they are in lift mode or not.

The endurance is the total time the glider remains in the air.

42
 2. Gliding Flight
Endurance
For maximum endurance, the glider has to fly at that angle of
attack or lift coefficient when the parameter (CL3/2/CD) is
maximum, which occurs when CL=√3*CL* and V = 0.76VR .
This is also the condition for minimum sink rate. Thus, the
endurance is maximum when the sink rate is minimum.

If the difference between initial and final altitude is significant,

then the variation in density may also have to be considered.

43
 2. Gliding Flight
Range and Endurance
The range and endurance are important measures of a glider’s
performance.
Whereas the maximum range was independent of the weight, the
maximum endurance depends on the weight. This calls for the
designer to make the glider as light as possible.
Furthermore, both the maximum range and endurance improve if
the aerodynamics parameters k and CD0 are kept to their lowest
possible values.
Because of this, gliders tend to have an elliptical wing with a high
aspect ratio and an efficient low-drag, laminar –flow airfoil section.

44
 2. Gliding Flight
Glide hodograph
A glide hodograph is obtained when horizontal velocity (Vh)
is plotted on the x-axis and the rate of sink (Vd) is plotted on
the y-axis

45
 2. Gliding Flight
Numerical

46
 5. Cruise Flight and Range
Cruise flight begins at the end of the climb phase when the airplane
has reached the desired altitude, and cruise flight ends when the
descent phase begins.
For a given amount of fuel load, the horizontal distance covered
with respect to the ground during cruise flight is called cruise
range , not including any distance covered during the climb or
descent.
For physical considerations, the range will be maximum when the
airplane cruises at that velocity when the ratio of velocity to fuel
consumed per unit time is maximum.
Endurance is the total time that an airplane can remain in air for a
given amount of fuel load and is usually expressed in hours. It is of
interest to all aircraft during loiter, which is defined as that phase of
flight where the primary aim is to remain airborne and not worry
47
about the ground distance covered.
 5. Cruise Flight and Range
Range of a jet aircraft
Range of a jet aircraft at constant altitude: the velocity must
vary continuously during the cruise to compensate for the variation
in weight.
The conditions for maximum
range are given as follows:

Thus, for a given amount of fuel load,

In general, the thrust available
the range is maximum when, drops with altitude so that there is
an altitude where the overall range
is maximum. This altitude is called
the cruise altitude.
48
 5. Cruise Flight and Range
Range of a jet aircraft
Range of a jet aircraft at constant velocity: the range of an
airplane cruising at a constant velocity is given by the Breguet
range formula.

The Breguet range is maximum when the aircraft flies at that

velocity for which E = Em . Thus the maximum range is given by:

During this constant velocity cruise the airplane will steadily gain
the altitude because of continuous decrease in weight. This method
is called cruise climb. Height attained is substantial for long
49 cruises.
Breguet Range Equation

50
 5. Cruise Flight and Range
Range of a propeller aircraft
For propeller airplanes, the specific fuel consumption (c) is the
amount of fuel consumed per unit power developed by the engine
per unit time.

The power required is equal to the product of drag D and velocity

V. The power available is the product of the power developed by the
engine and the propulsive efficiency. For steady level flight
condition,

The range of a propeller aircraft in level flight is given by:

51
 5. Cruise Flight and Range
Range of a propeller aircraft
Thus, the range of the propeller aircraft assumes a maximum value
when flying at E = Em (CL=CL*).
To determine the velocity for maximum range, consider the
following 2 options: 1) constant-velocity cruise and 2)
constant-altitude cruise.
In constant-velocity cruise, the cruise velocity is taken equal to the
reference velocity based on the initial weight.

In constant-altitude cruise, the flight velocity varies continuously

and is equal to the instantaneous value of VR , based on inst. weight.

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 5. Cruise Flight and Range
Effect of wind on range
Tailwind has a beneficial effect and headwind has an adverse
effect on the range.
The velocity with respect to ground in presence of the wind is
given by, (the – and + signs apply for headwind and tailwind, respt.)

For a given airspeed V, the headwind reduces the Earth-related

velocity, whereas tailwind increases it.

53
 5. Cruise Flight and Range
Estimation of cruise altitude
The cruise, or the most economic altitude, is that altitude where the
overall range is maximum. For propeller airplanes, it is in the range
of 4-7 km and, for jet airplanes, it is 11-17 km.
An approximate estimation of the cruise altitude can be made if we
ignore the variation of specific fuel consumption with altitude.
For propeller aircraft, the cruise altitude corresponds to the altitude
of that Pa curve, which intersects the PR curve at a point where Ve
= Ve,Rmax . The speed Ve,Rmax is obtained by drawing a tangent from
the origin to the PR curve.
For jet aircraft, the cruise altitude corresponds to the altitude of that
Ta curve which is tangential the TR curve. However, this altitude is
not the absolute ceiling since the TR is based on the initial weight
W0 and not the instantaneous weight.
54
 5. Cruise Flight and Range
Estimation of cruise altitude

Determination of cruising speed and cruising altitude

55
 6. Endurance
Estimation of cruise endurance
The endurance of an airplane is the total time an airplane remains
in the air and is usually expressed in hours.

For a jet aircraft:

For a propeller aircraft:

56
 7. Turning Flight
Mechanism
The turning flight can be broadly classified in two categories:
Steady turning flight in a horizontal plane
General turning flight
In a steady or constant velocity turning flight in a horizontal plane,
the airplane is at a constant altitude, whereas the general turning
flight may involve a gain or loss of altitude.
The routine flights of commercial transport and general aviation
airplanes usually belong to the first category.
The examples of the second category are the turning flight of a
glider and that of a fighter aircraft performing limiting turns
exploiting the full aerodynamic and structural capabilities.

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 7. Turning Flight
Mechanism
μ -Bank Angle

Tangential dir

Normal dir

Radial dir

58
 7. Turning Flight
Turning flight in a horizontal plane
For a steady flight in a horizontal plane, γ = 0. Ignoring the
variation of weight because of fuel consumption during turn the
following relations are obtained:

The load factor ‘n’ depends on

the bank angle.
The higher the bank angle, the
higher the load factor that will
be developed.
59
 7. Turning Flight
Turning flight in a horizontal plane

The time to complete one complete turn of 2π radians in given by:

The important metrics of turning performance are the turn rate or

the angular velocity in turn ω and the radius of turn R.
60
 7. Turning Flight
Turning flight in a horizontal plane
The aircraft with smaller values of wing loading W/S will have
higher turn rates and a lower radius of turn, everything else being
equal.
The expressions for the load factor n, rate of turn ω, and the radius
of turn R do not explicitly contain the drag term. It is implied that
for these relations to be true, the thrust available balances the drag.
The sideslip helps the turning flight because of the availability of a
thrust component Tsinβ, which provides part of the centripetal
force.
However, this benefit may be slightly offset because of the
additional drag experienced by the aircraft in sideslip.

61
 7. Turning Flight
Coordinated turning flight in horizontal plane
In a coordinated turning flight, the sideslip is zero and the aircraft
is correctly banked so that the lift vector is tilted away from the
plane of symmetry to provide the centripetal force.
With β = 0,

The turning performance improves with increase in load

factor, all the other things being equal. Increase in the load factor
result in better performance in turning flight in terms of R and ω.
62
 7. Turning Flight
Coordinated turning flight in horizontal plane
The load factor is a measure of the stress to which both the aircraft
and the pilot are subjected. A load factor of 2 means the aircraft
structure and the pilot are stressed twice as much in steady level
flight with a load factor of unity.
For transport airplanes, the load factor is limited to about 2.5,
whereas for fighter aircraft it can be as high as 9. However, in most
of the cases, this limit of a fighter aircraft becomes more of a
limitation of the pilot rather than to the machine he is flying.
As the load factor increases, the pilot experiences what is called
“blackout” or “greyout” caused by the blood draining away from
his/her brain; then he/she loses color perception. With further
increase, he/she will experience loss of peripheral vision and
eventually a complete loss of sight; unconscious by the time of
63 6-7g.
 7. Turning Flight
Coordinated turning flight in horizontal plane
The two best conditions- highest possible rate of turn and least
possible turning radius, generally do not occur at the same time.
The capability to turn as fast as possible is often preferred compared
to the capability to make the sharpest turn.
Some of the (modern) high-performance combat aircrafts such as
the F-15 or the F-16 are capable of producing turn rates as high as
20 deg/s.

64
 7. Turning Flight
General Turning Flight
The aircraft can generate higher rates of turn if it is permitted to
lose altitude so that it can make use of its height or the potential
energy in addition to the aerodynamic and propulsive forces.
The turn rate so generated can be much higher than MSTR and is
called the maximum instantaneous turn rate or the maximum
attainable turn rate (MATR).
A high value of MATR is a good measure of the air superiority of
combat aircraft because it is of crucial importance in close
encounters where a pilot getting first point-and-shoot capability has
a better chance to win.
Because the aircraft will rapidly lose altitude during this maneuver,
it is necessary for a pilot to have enough height margin before he
initiates this maneuver.
65
 7. Turning Flight
General Turning Flight
Herbst Maneuver: During the Herbst maneuver, the pilot decelerates the
aircraft by pitching the nose up till the angle of attack goes well beyond the
stall and aircraft is nearly perpendicular to the flight path using the entire
airframe as the speed brake. The pilot rolls the aircraft about the velocity vector
until the nose points in the right direction, levels the nose and accelerates back
to the desired airspeed.

66 Conventional turn and Herbst maneuver

 8. Takeoff and Landing
Typical Commercial Aircraft Mission Profile

[Link]

67
 Takeoff and Landing
Takeoff flight path:

[Link]

68
 Takeoff and Landing
Takeoff-Distance

h_obs
35ft /15ft/50ft
Dry/wet/STOL

Schematic diagram of an airplane in takeoff

69
 Takeoff and Landing
Takeoff-Distance: ground roll

V2

Schematic diagram of an airplane in takeoff

70
 Takeoff and Landing
Takeoff speeds

• Vstall: the aircraft stalling velocity.

• Vmcg(minimum control speed on the ground): The minimum velocity at which
enough aerodynamic force can be generated on the vertical fin with rudder
deflection while the airplane is still rolling along the ground to produce a yawing
moment sufficient to counteract that produced when there is an engine failure
for a multi engine aircraft.
• Vmca(minimum control speed on air.): Minimum speed, in the air, that
directional control can be maintained with one engine inoperative and a
maximum of 5 degrees of bank towards the good engine(s).
• V1(decision speed): The speed at which the pilot can successfully continue the
takeoff even though an engine failure (in a multi engine aircraft) would occur at
that point. This speed must be equal to or larger than V_mcg in order to
maintain control of the airplane. If an engine fails before V1 is achieved, the
takeoff must be stopped. If an engine fails after V1 is reached, the takeoff can
still be achieved.
71
 Takeoff and Landing
Takeoff speeds

• Vr(rotation speed): At this velocity, the pilot initiates elevator

deflection a rotation of the airplane in order to increase the of
attack.
• Vmu(minimum unstick speed): speed where the angle of attack
achieved during rotation is the maximum allowable by the tail
clearance.
• V_LO(Lift off speed): the point at which the airplane actually
lifts off the ground. The total distance covered along the ground
to this point is the ground roll.(typical value 1.1 Vstall)
• V2(safety speed): speed required to be achieved at obstacle
height. (typical value 1.2Vstall)

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 Takeoff and Landing
Calculation of Ground Roll (sg)

Forces acting on an aircraft

73
 Takeoff and Landing
Ground Roll: Parameters affecting distance
● The ground run increases when the wing loading
(W / S) increases.
● The ground run also increases when density
decreases. Since density decreases with
altitude, the take-off distance will be more when
the altitude of the airport increases.
● The ground run decreases as C_Lmax
increases. Hence, the high speed airplanes
which have high wing loading from consideration
of cruise, employ elaborate high lift devices to
increase CLmax.
● The take-off run decreases by increasing the
accelerating force which mainly depends on
(T/W).
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 Takeoff and Landing
Takeoff Airborne distance (sa):

=1.19

Fig: Takeoff path during airborne

75
 Takeoff and Landing
Takeoff process
A typical takeoff phase consists of the following steps:
Throttle-up to maximum power/thrust in order for the aircraft to
reach the takeoff speed,
on reaching the takeoff speed the aircraft is rotated noseup so
that the angle of attack increases to generate sufficient lift for
liftoff, and
the aircraft starts to climb to clear the specified obstacle height.
S1 is the ground run distance and S2 is called the airborne
distance.
The Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR), US specifies an obstacle
height of 35 ft (11.5m), whereas the Royal Aircraft Establishment
(RAE), UK specifies it at 50 ft (~15m)
76
 Takeoff and Landing
Takeoff
Crosswind takeoff: with sideslip, the drag will be higher and as a
result the ground run will be higher. The pilot has to operate the
rudder to prevent the airplane from aligning itself along the
resultant velocity vector.

Crosswind takeoff.

77
 Takeoff and Landing
Landing
A typical landing phase consists of the following sequences:
a steady shallow glide approach to the runway holding a constant
glide angle, held as small as possible so that the rate of sink is kept
down to a minimum. This way it is possible to reduce the energy that
has to be dissipated at impact with the ground.
flare, during which the aircraft is rotated noseup so as to
momentarily achieve a level flight condition and to further minimize
the rate of sink.
touchdown, prior to which the pilot may momentarily stall the
airplane.
ground run, during with full reverse thrust (if available). Spoilers or
drag parachutes, and brakes are applied to produce maximum
retardation and bring the aircraft to a complete halt.
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 Takeoff and Landing
Landing

Schematic diagram of airplane landing.

79
 9. Hazards During Landing and Takeoff
Windshear and Microburst
Windshear is the change in wind direction and/or speed in a very
short distance with respect to the ground. Whereas a change in
horizontal wind velocity affects the airspeed, the vertical component
of windshear affects the flight path angle.
They are normally caused by thunderstorm activity, weather fronts,
and jet streams. It is most hazardous if encountered during landing
and takeoff.
Microburst is formed when a column of air at high altitudes
quickly cools because of evaporation of ice, snow, or rain and,
becoming denser than surrounding air, falls rapidly to the ground.
On hitting the ground, this mass of air it spreads radially outward in
all directions.
The life of a microburst is typically 5-15 min.
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 9. Hazards During Landing and Takeoff
Windshear and Microburst

Effect of microburst during takeoff/landing

81