Environmental Sciences-EVS2016-Module-3

Water Pollution
The environment consists of four segments –atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and
biosphere. The hydrosphere includes all types of water resources like oceans, seas, rivers, lakes,
streams, reservoirs, glaciers and ground water. Now about 97% of the earth’s water supply is in
the ocean which unfit for human consumption and other uses because of its high salt content. Only
it can be used for cooling of thermal power plant and sink for pollution. Of the remaining water
supply 2% is locked in the polar ice caps and only 1% is available as fresh water in rivers, lakes,
streams i.e. as surface water and ground water which is suitable for human consumption.
Underground water contains salts of tolerable limit. These are sweet. Spring and well water called
mineral water, contains many soluble salts.
Natural water, though it is essential for the survival of all living organisms, contains numerous
micro-organisms, dissolved gases and all sorts of toxic substances. Therefore it is polluted. Water
pollution can be defined as the deterioration of physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water through natural and anthropogenic activities to such an extent that
it has become harmful for all living organisms. Following are the signs of water pollution:
1. Bad taste and offensive odour
2. Unchecked growth of aquatic weeds
3. Decreased number of fishes
4. Floating of oil and grease on water surface.

Pollutants of water
There are many kinds of pollutants present in water, e.g. oxygen demanding waste, pathogens,
nutrients, salts, thermal pollutants, pesticides, heavy metals etc.
i) Oxygen demanding waste

The oxygen demanding wastes are generally biodegradable organic matter contained in
sewage, industrial wastes from food processing, paper mills and tanneries, agriculture return etc.
These organic wastes provide a good substrate for the luxuriant growth of aerobic bacteria which
decompose the waste and deplete the oxygen dissolved in water. The bacterial decomposition of
organic wastes in the presence of dissolved oxygen (DO) can be represented as:
𝑀𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑠
𝑂𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

Dissolved oxygen (DO) present in water is therefore one of the most important measures of water
quality. The saturated value of DO in water is 9 mg/L. optimum DO required for healthy fish and
other aquatic life in natural water is 5-8 mg/L Effects of drop of DO: a) If DO drops, fish and other
aquatic life are threatened and in extreme case killed. b) The effect of reduced DO imparts
undesirable odours, tastes, colours and reduce the acceptability of water as a domestic supply.
Measurement of oxygen demand: 1. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is the amount of
oxygen required by micro-organism to biologically degrade the waste. 2. Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD): It is the amount of oxygen required to chemically degrade the waste.

Water quality parameters: DO, BOD, COD.

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Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Just like animals and humans living on land, animals that live in water
need oxygen to survive. Oxygen from the atmosphere dissolves in river and lake water, and it is
this oxygen that fish and other aquatic animals use to breathe. In polluted systems, overgrowth of
animals, plants and bacteria cause the oxygen to be used up quickly, sometimes causing fish to
suffocate.
The amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) present is water body is therefore, one of the important
measures of water quality. The DO depends on the physical, chemical and biological activity of
the water body. The measurement of DO gives an idea about the purity level of water, maintaining
aerobic conditions in water bodies and aerobic treatment of sewage and industrial waste water.
The DO contents of a water sample can be determined iodometrically by Winkler method as well
as by polarographic method.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand or Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Definition: The amount of dissolved oxygen required by microorganisms to oxidize organic
wastes present in water aerobically is called biochemical or biological oxygen demand. It is
expressed in milligrams of oxygen required per liter of waste water (mg/l).
BOD test is important as far as the analysis of waste water is concerned. The aerobic
decomposition of organic matter by dissolved oxygen can be presented as below
𝑀𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑠
𝑂𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
The aerobic decomposition produces non-objectionable products. The result of such oxidation is
the rapid depletion of dissolved oxygen from the water body affecting aquatic life as well as
addition of undesirable odour, taste and colour and ultimately reducing the acceptability of water
for domestic purpose.

Why BOD test is necessary? BOD test is very important for analysis of waste water for assessing
organic pollution. BOD test provides information regarding purification capacity, especially of
streams and serves as a guideline for the regulatory authorities to check the quality of effluents
discharged into these water systems.

Five-day BOD test

A BOD test can take several weeks for completion, making it impractical for routine purposes. As
a result, five-day BOD test is introduced, realizing that the ultimate demand is quite high.
Five-day BOD implies the total amount of oxygen utilized by microorganisms in the first five days
of biodegradation. In this test, a sample of waste water is kept in the stopper bottle and
concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) is measured at the beginning of the experiment and again
after five days. The difference in DO values gives the result of the five-day BOD test.
The following precautions must be taken while performing the experiment:

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1. The stopper of the bottle must be fixed properly so that the depleted DO by biodegradation
is not filled up by oxygen of air again.
2. The bottle must be kept away from sunlight otherwise the algae will produce oxygen by
photosynthesis by absorption of this sunlight.
3. The process must be carried out at 20°C for its standardization.
4. As saturated value of DO at 20°C is 9.0mg/l, the sample must be diluted to keep the final
DO above zero otherwise the experiment will be invalid since more oxygen would have
been removed had more been available.

Seeded BOD test

In this test two BOD bottles (300ml) are prepared, one containing just seeded dilution water
(blank=essential nutrients + bacteria + distilled water) and the other containing the mixture of both
waste water and seeded dilution water, sample. The change in DO in both the bottles is measured
at starting and after five days.

BLANK SAMPLE

BODmVm=BODwVw +BODdVd

BODwVw= BODmVm- BODdVd

BODmVm− BODdVd BODm BODdVd BODm BODd Vd/Vm
BODw = = Vw/Vm - = Vw/Vm -
Vw Vw Vw/Vm

Since Vm=Vw +Vd

Vw Vd
Or 1= Vm − Vm

Vd Vw 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑡𝑒𝑟

Or Vm = 1- Vm = 1-f, where =dilution fraction = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟+𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

BODm BODd (1−f) BODm − BODd (1−f)

Or BODw = - =
f f f

(𝐷𝑂𝑖 − 𝐷𝑂𝑓 ) − (𝐵𝑖 − 𝐵𝑓 )(1 − 𝑓)

𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑊 =
𝑓
Bi = initial DO in the seeded dilution water

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Bf =DO in the seeded dilution water after five days.

DOi =initial DO of the mixture (seeded dilution water + waste water)
DOf =final DO after 5 days of the mixture (seeded dilution water + waste water)

f = the dilution fraction

BOD reaction rate

The simplified presentation of aerobic decomposition of organic matter can be given as
𝑀𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑠
𝑂𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑂2 (𝐷𝑂) → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
The reaction is 1st order w. r. t. oxygen concentration. Suppose at any time t concentration of
oxygen is C and when time = 0 i.e.; at initial condition, concentration of oxygen is C 0, since the
reaction is of 1st order
Rate α C
𝑑𝐶
- αC
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐶
Or - = kC, k=proportionality constant called the rate constant of the reaction.
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐶
Or - = kdt
𝐶

𝐶 𝑑𝐶 𝑡
Or- ∫𝐶𝑜 = k ∫0 𝑑𝑡
𝐶

𝐶
Or -Ln𝐶𝑜 = kC
𝐶
Or Ln𝐶𝑜 =-kC
𝐶
Or 𝐶𝑜 = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

Or C=Co𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

Now we can write, Co-C= Co- Co𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

 BODt= Co(1- 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ), since (Co-C) is the biological oxygen demand after time t .
The BOD reaction rate constant, k is a factor that indicate the rate of biodegradation of wastes. As
k increases, the rate at which dissolved oxygen is used up increases although Co does no change.
The reaction rate depends on
1. Nature of the waste.
2. Activity of the microorganism to degrade the waste.

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3. Temperature at which the degradation is carried out.

Temperature dependence of BOD

The rate of biodegradation of waste increases with increasing temperature. The dependence
of rate constant with temperature is given by the equation:

kT = k20 (T-20)

Where kT= rate constant at T°C, k20= rate constant at 20°C and = temperature coefficient=1.047
Chemical Oxygen demand (COD): The chemical oxygen demand test is commonly used to
indirectly measure the amount of organic compounds such as cellulose, phenols, benzene and
pesticides, industrial chemicals in water. COD determine the amount of organic pollutants found
in surface water (e.g.; lakes and rivers), making COD a useful measure of water quality. It is
expressed in mg/L, which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution. The
working principle of COD involve reflux of waste water sample with a known excess of K2Cr2O7
in a 50% H2SO4 solution in presence of AgSO4 (as due to chloride), the organic matter of the
sample is oxidized to water, CO2 and NH3. The excess K2Cr2O7 remaining unreacted in the solution
is treated with a saturated solution of ferrous ammonium sulphate. The COD of the sample is
calculated as follow:
(V1−V2) x N x 8 x 100
COD (mg/L) =
X

Where V1 and V2 are the volumes of ferrous ammonium sulphate (of normality N) run down in
the blank and test experiments respectively and X is the volume of the sample taken for test.

BOD method COD method

1. This method determines the amount of 1. It is the amount of oxygen required to

oxygen required to degrade the waste chemically oxidize the waste present in water.
biologically.

2. Demand oxygen is supplied by dissolved 2. Demand oxygen is supplied by oxidizing

oxygen (DO) in the water sample. agent such as K2Cr2O7.

3. As it involve microorganism the duration of 3. It involves a strong oxidizing agent, so time

BOD test is very high. require is very little.

4. The value of BOD is always less than COD. 4. The value of COD is always greater than
BOD.

5. Amount of oxygen required for 5. Amount of oxygen required for both

biodegradable substance is determined. biodegradable and non biodegradable
substances are determined.

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Numerical Problems
Q1. In a 5day BOD test the Do level drops by mg/l for the seeded dilution water. A 300ml BOD
bottle fitted with 21ml waste water and rest amount of seeded dilution water, shows a drop in DO
of 6mg/l in the same time period. Find out the BOD5 of the waste water.
(𝐷𝑂𝑖 −𝐷𝑂𝑓 )−(𝐵𝑖 −𝐵𝑓 )(1−𝑓)
Solution: 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 = 𝑓

Here dilution fraction f=21/100=0.07

6−1𝑥(1−0.07)
Therefore 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 = = 72.4 mg/l
0.07

Q2. The BOD reaction rate constant for a particular waste water sample is 0.30/day. Calculate the
expected BOD5 for the same sample if the two day BOD is 150mg/l. Consider temperature is
constant throughout the experiment.

Solution: BODt= Co(1- 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )

BOD2= Co(1- 𝑒 −2𝑥0.30 )=150

150
Therefore, Co= (1− 𝑒 −0.6) =333mg/l

150
Hence, BOD5 = (1− 𝑒 −0.6 ) (1- 𝑒 −5𝑥0.30 ) = 258 mg.l

Q3. A waste water sample has a BOD5 at 20°C equal to 200mg/l and ultimate BOD of 400mg/l.
Find out the BOD5 at 35°C.

Solution: BODt= Co(1- 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )

Or, 200= 400(1- 𝑒 −𝑘.5 )

Or, k = 0.138

Again, kT = k20 (T-20)

Or, k35 = 0.138x 1.047(35-20)
Or, k35= 0.276/day

Therefore, BOD5 at 35°C = 400(1- 𝑒 −0.276𝑥5 )=300mg/l.

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ii) Pathogens
Pathogens are disease causing microorganisms which grow and multiply within the host.
The resulting growth of microorganisms in a host is known as infection. Water is the carrier of
such pathogenic microorganisms, causing immense harm to public health. The pathogenic micro-
organisms enter water mainly from domestic sewage and other wastes. Generally these
microorganisms occur in the faeces and urine of the infected person and finally discharge into
water body. The discharge of an infected individual may contain billions of these pathogens and
if they enter the water body, epidemics might occur. Epidemics of infectious diseases generally
occur in a crowded population and under poor sanitary conditions. The infectious diseases can be
classified into four groups according to the mechanism of transmission.
Water born diseases: Cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, bacillary dysentery.
Water-wastes diseases: Spread through unclean water, e.g. trachoma, scabia.
Water based diseases: spread through water contact, e.g. schistosomiasis.

Water related diseases: It is the host which depends on water for its habitat. Example:
mosquitos’malaria, dengue etc.

iii) Nutrientsml
Nutrients are the chemicals essential for the growth of the living things. For plants there
are sixteen elements required for their healthier growth. They are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur and micronutrients such
as iron, cobalt, manganese, boron, molybdenum and copper. The nutrients can be considered as
pollutants when there concentrations are sufficient to allow excessive growth of aquatic plants,
particularly algae.

Eutrophication: Source, Effect and Control

The word eutrophication is originated from Greek word eu =’well’ and trophs =‘food’.
Thus it means ‘well fed’ or ‘nutrient rich’. So we can define eutrophication as excessive nutrient
load in a water body or enrichment of water body by nutrients.
Nutrients become pollutants if their concentration is sufficient to allow excessive growth of aquatic
plants, especially algae. An aquatic system can be categorized into three classes in accordance with
the nutrient status i.e. concentration of nutrients and productivity of aquatic plants:
Oligotrophic: Water with poor nutrient status and very low productivity of aquatic plants.
Mesotrophic: Water with moderate (not low or high) nutrient status and moderate productivity of
aquatic plants.
Eutrophic: Water with rich nutrient status and high productivity of aquatic plants.
A young lake or a newly formed lake has low nutrient content and thus low plant
productivity. Such types of lakes (oligotrophic) with time acquire nutrients from surface run-off,
drainage basin, excreta and exudates of animals using the water source which ultimately inceases

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aquatic nutrient growth. In this way oligotrophic water bodies turn gradually into mesotrophic
water body. With time the nutrient status of water bodies gradually increases. The biological
productivity thus enhanced and leads water to become murky with phytoplankton i.e. algae blooms
to occur. The lake thus becomes eutrophic (well fed). Eutrophication is a natural process and may
take thousands of years, called natural eutrophication. However, it is enhanced by human
activities. This is called accelerated or cultural eutrophication. Industrial wastes, municipal
wastes, run-off from agricultural land provide plenty of phosphates, nitrates and various minerals
stimulating algal growth and water becomes green.

Effects:

 Various minerals present in water stimulate algal growth

 Algal bloom may die with time and cause depletion of oxygen level.
 Due to depletion of oxygen fishes and other aquatic animals will be destroyed
 Water will have bad taste, colour, odour and unsuitable to use
 Because of organic debris the lake becomes shallower
 More plants spread their roots along the shallow edges, and the water body slowly
transformed into a marsh land and ultimately into a dry land.

Thus a water body so useful becomes totally useless within a short span of time due to
anthropogenic activities.

Control:

 Effective waste water treatment and removal of main nutrients like phosphorus, nitrogen
before discharging the sewerage into the water bodies.
 Removal of algal blooms frequently by dredging.
 Developing phosphate free detergent for domestic use. Washing water containing
detergent, reacts with water to form phosphate ion (PO43-) and directly used by plants for
their growth.[P3O10(from detergent)+2H2O3 PO43- +4H+]
 Reducing excessive use of fertilizers in the fields.
 Applying algaecides such as chlorine, copper sulphate etc. on water bodies.

iv) Salts
Water accumulates a variety of dissolved solids or salts while passing through soils and
rocks and on its way to the sea. Generally, the cations in the salt are sodium, potassium, calcium
and magnesium and the anions are chloride, sulphate and bicarbonate. The measure of salinity of
water is usually the measure of concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS). Water having less
than 1500 mg/l of TDS is considered to be fresh water, and above 5000 mg/l saline water. Sea-
water contains 30,000-35,000 mg/l of TDS. Drinking water has a recommended TDS of maximum
500 mg/l according to WHO’s specification but for in Indian drinking water having TDS upto
1500 mg/l has been permitted under certain conditions.
Remedy: The only approach for removal of salts from water is desalination. Different
desalination technologies are available such as a) ion-exchange, b) reverse osmosis and c) electro-

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dialysis. Due to advancement of membrane technologies the later two processes are energetically
and economically favourable.

v) Thermal Pollution
The accumulation of excess heat due to anthropogenic activities and due to some natural
phenomena such as volcanic eruptions, forest fires etc. which disturb the natural ecosystem may
be termed as thermal pollution. In thermal power plants, water is used to cool the condenser and
is again released back to the water resources from where it was collected. This water is known as
cooling water. With increased industrialization, thermal pollution is increasing day by day. The
rise in temperature decreases the amount of DO in water adversely affecting the aquatic life.
Effects: Thermal effects on water can be classified into a) Physical effect, b) Chemical effect and
c) Biological effect.
a) Physical effect: i) Temperature influence the viscosity, density, gas solubility, and gas diffusion
etc. of water. ii) The low density of water due to high temperature makes it spread over the surface.
As a result, water circulation as well as oxygen penetration to the deep is restricted. iii) At high
temperature evaporation rate increases. iv) The suspended particles sediment faster due to low
viscosity and low density of water at high temperature.
b) Chemical effect: With increase in temperature the solubility of all the gases, including oxygen
decreases. Again the rate of chemical reaction and the rate of metabolism are accelerated with the
increase in temperature. Thus, with increases in temperature, oxygen demand increases and the
amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) decrease.
c) Biological effect: i) Activities of species in general are temperature dependent. Hence, species
which can cope with the change in environment, survives i.e. some species decline in numbers. ii)
With high temperature resistance against diseases is lowered, especially in fishes. iii) Natural
migration of fishes is restricted due to thermal pollution.
Control of thermal pollution: Thermal pollution due to natural phenomena, such as volcanic
eruption cannot be controlled. Thermal pollution, resulting from human activities especially, is the
outcome of cooling of thermal power plants can be controlled. To maintain natural eco-system,
the water temperature must be normalizised before disposing it again to the water resources. The
different methods adopted for this purpose are a) cooling ponds, b) spray ponds, c) cooling towers
etc.

vi) Pesticides
Chemicals which prevent, destroy or migrate any pest (insects, fungus, bacteria, viruses
etc.) are called pesticides. The main groups of pesticides of our concern are insecticides. With
increase in population growth man had to increase agricultural productivity. However, the
extensive use of insecticides had proved its harmful side effects. Although the targets of pesticides
are insects, fungus, rodent which damage crops, they also target the non-target beneficial
organisms like earth worms, fish, birds, mammals and man. The killing of such species disturbs
the balance of natural cycle.

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The most widely used pesticide is DDT(Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane). Action of

DDT on environment has been more extensively studied. Central nervous system is the main target
of DDT. DDT dissolves in lipid (fat) tissue and accumulates in the fatty membrane surrounding
nerve cells and therefore interferes into the nerve cells. The net result is the disruption of the central
nervous system killing the target insect. DDT is fairly stable and persists in the environment and
the bio-accumulation of DDT in the food chain creates toxicity. Birds are high in the trophic level
of food chain and more accumulation of DDT has adverse effect on them. Another class of
insecticides which are not persistent have been developed, e.g. Malathion, Phosdrin, Diorom etc.
although these insecticides are not accumulated in food chain, they pose direct threat. They get
absorbed rapidly through skin, lungs and gastro-intestinal track. Excessive amount of such types
of insecticides cause chest discomfort, vomiting, headache, nervous disorder. Thus non-
biodegradable pesticides accumulate in food chain and biodegradable pesticides leave behind more
toxic side products.
Some pesticides commonly used to kill pests are:
Fumigant: Insects die inhaling poisonous gaseous fumigants like, HCN vapour, CH 3Br, nicotine
etc.
Fungicides: Fungus on plants and crops are killed by quinines, organomercury etc.
Bactericides or antibiotics: Bacterial growth on plants is checked or removed completely by
steptomycine spray.

Rodenticides: Rat like animals are killed by thalium sulphate, zinc sulphite etc.

vii) Heavy Metals

Heavy metals are referred to as metals with specific gravity greater than about 4 to 5. The
most important heavy metal pollutants are mercury(Hg), cadmium(Cd), lead(Pb) and arsenic(As).
The most important route for the elimination of metals is via the kidneys. Kidneys can be
considered as complex filters, whose primary purpose is to eliminate toxic substances from the
body. The kidneys contain millions of excretory units called nephrons and the chemicals that are
toxic to kidney are called nephrotoxins, e.g. Cd, Hg, Pb, As. Thus due to the contamination of
heavy metals kidneys are first affected.

Biochemical effects of heavy metals

Cadmium (Cd)
Sources of cadmium: 1. Industrial effluent, 2. Cadmium nickel batteries, 3. nuclear fission
plants, 4. Water pipes
Cadmium occurs in nature in association with zinc minerals. Plants take up zinc (Zn2+)
along with trace amount of associated cadmium (Cd2+). The Cd2+ thus absorbed, replace Zn2+ as
they have same charge and almost similar size and get attached to the active sites of enzymes
which leads to cadmium toxicity inhibiting its essential enzyme function.
Effects of cadmium: 1. Kidney damage, 2. Disorder of liver and brain, 3. Bone marrow disorder,
4. Gastric and intestinal disorder.

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Mercury (Hg)
Sources of mercury: 1. Mining and refining, 2. Agricultural industries producing organic
mercury (methyl mercury) as pesticides and fungicides, 3. Paper industry using Hg as cathode, 4.
Chlorine and sodium hydroxide producing industry using Hg electrode, 5. Laboratories using Hg
Importance of mercury as toxic metal came into limelight after the incidence of Minamata
disease in Japan (1953-1960). At Minamata Bay in Japan many people lost their lives, many were
permanently crippled and babies born to the mother consuming the mercury contaminated fish
were genetically defective. The source of mercury was the effluent discharged into the bay from
Minamata Chemical Company. The fish in the bay were found to contain 25 to 100 ppm mercury
in the form of methyl mercury. The Minamata incidence was followed by a tragic incidence in
Iraq, where many people died consuming wheat contaminated with organic mercury used as
fungicides for seed dressing (methyl mercury nitrite, methyl mercury chloride, etc.)
Effects of mercury: 1. Kidney damage, 2. Numbness of limbs, tongue and lips, 3. Blurred vision,
deafness and mental disorder.

Lead (Pb)
Sources of lead: 1. Mining and refining of Pb, 2. Automobile emission (tetraethyl lead
used as anti-knocking agent, 3. Electrical storage battery industry, 4. Ceramic industry, 5.
Agricultural industry (producing insecticides, e.g. lead arsenate), 6. Paints, pigments, varnishes,
7. Hair dyes, eye paints, canned foods, sea food, painted toys, etc.
Effects of lead: 1. The main biochemical effect of lead is due to its interference with heme
synthesis, leading to hematological damage. When blood lead level reaches 0.8 ppm, symptoms
of anemia occur with high degree kidney infection and brain damage.
2. One of the most harmful effects of Pb is that it can replace Ca in the bones and cause severe
toxic effects while transporting. Chronic exposure to Pb leads to weight loss, loss of teeth etc.
3. Organic lead, like tetraethyl lead is more poisonous. It can penetrate skin and absorbed in the
body tissue. The organic Pb compounds are selectively localized in the central nervous system
causing high degree of toxicity. It may also cause genetic modification.
4. Mental retardation
5. Lever and kidney damage

Arsenic (As)
Sources of arsenic: 1. Natural rocks and soils, 2. Agricultural industries (chemicals like
As2O3, lead arsenate etc.), 3. Pesticides, fungicides, 4. Mining and extraction 5. Glass industry.
The major contribution of arsenic pollution is contamination of ground water.
Contamination of ground water has become a global phenomenon. If arsenic polluted water is used
for drinking and cooking purposes for a prolonged time, a person may suffer from anemia,
melanosis, keratosis and conjunctivitis.
Effects of arsenic: 1. Affects liver, 2. Cause central necrosis and cirrhosis, 3. Damages
bone marrow and cellular elements of the blood, 4. May lead to skin cancer.

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Water Treatment
Surface water treatment: Surface water has turbidity, large floating and suspended
materials, tots of harmful pathogens and metal ions causing hardness of water. A typical treatment
plant for surface water might include the following sequence of steps:
(i) Screening: Parallel steel bars followed by wire mesh screen with small opening, are generally
used to remove relatively large floating and suspended materials.
(ii) Coagulation and flocculation: The screen waste water might contain suspended particles,
including bacteria which are too small to be screened and are settle in a reasonable time period. If
the particles are in colloidal dimension they will never settle down and then coagulant is added to
facilitate the precipitation by means of coagulation (process by which colloidal particles come
closer after removal of their surface charge resulting precipitation). In water treatment process,
usually electrolytes are added for coagulation such as alum [K2SO4.Al2(SO4)2.24H2O], the Al3+
ions are taken by the negatively charged colloidal particle and get neutralized then subsequently
coagulated. The coagulating or flocculating agent is added to the raw water into a rapid mixing
chamber having rapidly rotating paddles with a detention time of approximately 90 seconds. After
well mixing it is allowed to pass through another chamber for gentle agitation for about 30 minutes,
while the surface charge neutralization of colloidal particles take place and they form bigger
floating particles.

Coagulation process

(iii) Sedimentation: After flocculation, the waste water is allowed to flow through a sedimentation
basin in a circular or rectangular concrete tank for a longer time (1-10 hours) hold without any
damage. Obviously with greater detention time settlement of suspended materials is much
efficient. The solids settled at the bottom of the tank are removed manually or mechanically by a
scrapper.

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(iv) Filtration: The filtration unit is a sand filter consists of multiple layers of graded gravels of
particle size decreasing downwards. The pore openings between the sand grains are smaller than
the flow particles, so they cannot pass out and the water get filtered.

Sand filter
(v) Disinfection: The surface water is now free from suspended solids and small amount of
bacteria but contains a lot of pathogenic organisms. To make water suitable for drink it must be
disinfected and fluorinated to prevent from dental caries. The most common method for
disinfection is chlorination, which is done by using chemicals like chlorine gas Cl2, sodium
hypochlorite NaOCl or may be calcium hypochlorite Ca(OCl) 2. In all these cases nascent oxygen
is liberated, which destroys enzymatic processes in the pathogenic cells and thus kills them.

Cl2, + H2O  HOCl + HCl, HOCl  HCl + [O] nascent oxygen

The advantage of chlorine as disinfectant is mainly due to its slow reaction with water and
thus it can remain in water for a long time so the pathogenic microorganism cannot grow. The
disadvantage of chlorine as disinfectant is formation of chloroform, which is a carcinogen.
Disinfection can be carried out using ozone (O3). It is effective against both bacteria and
viruses, while chlorine is effective only against bacteria. Ozone does not produce toxic products
and causes no problem in taste and odours. It is however very expensive and is mainly used in
European country for water treatment.

Waste water treatment: Waste water contains lots of chemical pollutants as well as dissolved
solids and suspended solids. Waste water treatment can be classified as Primary treatment and
Secondary treatment. A sample flow diagram for a waste water treatment plant that provides
primary and secondary treatment is illustrated below:

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1. Primary treatment: The purpose of primary treatment is to remove pollutants like large floating
and suspended solid materials, grit, oil and grease etc. The large floating rubbish like sticks, rags,
cans, clothes and various other objects and removed by screening, similar to the surface water
treatment. The collected materials are then disposed off.
After screening the waste water is passed into a grit chamber and time just sufficient for
the heavy materials, like sand, grit etc. to settle down is allowed. The settled materials can be
disposed off in the land fill.
From the grit chamber, the waste water is now allowed to pass through primary settling
tank or primary clarifier. The flow rate is now reduced. Most of the higher suspended solids settled
down because of the gravity and they are removed by mechanical scrapping into hoppers and are
pumped out subsequently. In the overall process, about 60% of suspended solids and 40% BOD
can be removed. However, finely divided suspended solids and colloidal particles cannot be
removed by this process. Under this condition, mechanical flocculation and chemical coagulation
can be employed.
2. Secondary treatment: The purpose of secondary treatment is to remove the finely suspended
solid, dissolved solid and BOD which still remain after the primary treatment. The BOD is
removed by biological process using bacteria and other microorganisms. The process may be
aerobic or anaerobic:

Organic matter (BOD) + O2 (bacteria/ microorganism/ aerobic decomposition)

 CO2 + H2O +NO3-, SO42-, PO43- + new cells of microorganisms

(Stable products)
Organic matter (BOD) + (bacteria/ microorganism/ anaerobic decomposition)

 CO2 + H2O +H2S, NH3, CH4 + new cells of microorganisms

(Unstable products)

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Thus in the secondary treatment, oil, grease and organic matter (BOD) are removed to the
largest extent. The complex cell tissues formed can be removed by agglomerating then and finally
setting out. The effluent from the primary settling tank is first subjected to aerobic oxidation in
system like trickling filter, rotating biological contractor, active sludge units and oxidation ponds.
The sludge obtained in the primary settling tank is allowed to undergo anaerobic decomposition
in the sludge digester. Anaerobic decomposition is generally employed for digestion of sludge.
The efficiency of both aerobic and anaerobic decomposition depends on many factors such as:
temperature, pH, concentration and nature of wastes. In the secondary treatment about 85% BOD
and suspended solids can be removed efficiently. However neither primary nor the secondary
treatment is effective in removal of nutrients, dissolved materials and biologically resistant
materials. Under such circumstances, tertiary treatment is required.

a) Trickling filter
Commercial trickling filters normally consists of a rock bed 1 to 3 meters in depth with
sufficient opening between the rocks to allow air to circulate easily and aerobic conditions are thus
maintained. The incoming waste water after primary treatment now can be spread over these
circular filter beds by a rotating distributor (figure below).

The individual rocks in the bed are covered with a gelatinous film consisting of bacteria,
algae, fungi, protozoa, worm, insect etc. The BOD present in the incoming waste water gets
absorbed in the bed surface and undergoes aerobic decomposition by these bacteria or
microorganisms. With increase in the thickness of the film, a part of it gets attached and carried
away along with the treated waste water to a secondary settling tank and is removed finally. The
sludge so obtained is now pumped into the sludge digestion unit.

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The efficiency of trickling filter depends on temperature, pH, nature of waste, uniformity
of loading of the waste matter and air supply. The effluent from milk processing, paper mills and
pharmaceutical industries are treated by trickling filter.

b) Rotating Biological Contractor (RBC)

RBC consists of a series of closely spaced circular plastic disks (diameter 3.6 meter) and
is attached to a rotating horizontal shaft. The arrangement is so designed that about 40% of each
of the circular plastic disk is submerged in the tank containing waste water, which needs treatment.
The circular disks are covered with gelatinous film containing of bacteria, fungi, algae, worm and
insects. As the RBC rotates the submerged portion absorb organics (BOD) and when they come
out they are exposed to atmospheric oxygen for aerobic decomposition. The device is easy to
handle and can be operated under high load conditions not possible by trickling filter. Compare to
trickling filters, higher rate of BOD removal is achieved in RBC.

c) Activated sludge process

The effluent from the primary settling tank, recycled bacteria and other microorganisms
from the secondary settling tank (the activated sludge) are collected in a tank called aeration tank.
The main purpose of this process is to provide sufficient amount of oxygen for complete aerobic
decomposition of the wastes, by pumping oxygenated air into the mixture and thorough agitation
using mechanical stirrer. The water is kept in constant turbulent motion inside aeration tank. After
about 3-6 hrs of aeration (for sewage) and 6-24 hrs of aeration (for industrial waste water), agitated
effluent water again flow into secondary settling tank and the effluent is separated from the sludge
by settling, which is finally discharged. The BOD removal from the waste water in this process
can be as high as 95%.

d) Oxidation Pond
Oxidation pond is a large shallow pond (0.5 to 1.5 meter in depth, when the waste water,
mainly the sewage water, is treated through its decomposition by microorganisms, the waste water
enters the pond at one end and the treated water is removed from the other end.

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Both aerobic and anaerobic processes operate together. The aerobic decomposition mainly take
place near the surface and anaerobic process at the bottom. The oxygen required for the metabolism
of bacteria is obtained from the surface through aeration as well as photosynthesis of algae of the
pond and in turn the bacteria supplies carbon dioxide by decomposing the waste. Shallow depth
of the pond helps for good oxygen supply and penetration of sunlight, accelerating algal
photosynthesis. The waste thus present in the upper part of the pond undergoes aerobic
decomposition to form CO2 and H2O. The solid present in the waste settles at the bottom and
undergoes anaerobic decomposition to form CH4, CO2 and NH3. The oxidation pond with both the
aerobic and anaerobic condition prevailing is called facultative pond. Waste treatment in oxidation
pond is cheap and the maintenance is simple. However, it requires large space and cause odour
problems.
3. Tertiary treatment:
The main purpose of tertiary treatment is to remove dissolved nutrients, especially nitrogen
and phosphorous. The most important nutrient causing eutrophication is phosphorous, which
present as soluble phosphate. Phosphate can be removed by precipitation with coagulant, like, like
alum or lime or ferric chloride:

Al2(SO4)3 + 2PO43-  2AlPO4 + 3SO42-

3Ca(OH)2 + 2PO43-  Ca3(PO4)2

FeCl3 + PO43-  Fe PO4 + 3Cl-

Nitrogen is very difficult to remove. If nitrogen is present in the form of NH4+, aerobic bacteria
convert it to nitrate (NO3-) and anaerobic bacteria convert nitrate (NO3-) to nitrogen gas.

NH4+ + 2O2 (Aerobic bacteria)  NO3- + 2H+ + H2O

2NO3 + Organic matter (Anaerobic bacteria)  N2 + CO2 + H2O

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Tertiary treatment is mainly done make water suitable for drinking. Therefore, besides
nutrient removal some amount of finely suspended solids, some amount of bacteria, and small
amount of organic material should also be removed. So after primary and secondary treatment
water can be passed through activated charcoal, which removes fine suspended solids, some
bacteria and small quantities of organic material still present in the water through absorption. Some
absorbent can also be utilized to remove heavy metals, if present. Removal of toxic metals and
even hardness of water can be removed by ion exchange resin. Finally the water is disinfected.

Ion-Exchange Resin
Hard water contains soluble salts of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in form of chloride, sulphate and
bicarbonate, so that it does not form lather easily with soap. Hardness of water is expressed in
terms of parts of calcium carbonate in million parts of water parts per million (ppm). Temporary
hardness can be removed easily by boiling when soluble bicarbonate salts Ca 2+ and Mg2+ get
precipitated as insoluble carbonates. Permanent hardness caused due to chloride and sulphate of
Ca2+ and Mg2+ cannot be removed easily but with appropriate physical and chemical method. One
of the best methods among them is the ion exchange resin. It is interesting to know that when hard
water is heated calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide readily precipitated out of the
solution, producing a rock like scale that clogs hot water pipes and reduce the efficiency of water
heater, boiler and heat exchanger, so hard water should not be used in such cases. Again, hard
water does not form lather with soap easily, so it cannot be used in laundries also.

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