Module2

Selection/ Sizing of Battery pack

and other Energy Resource:
High Performance BEV Range at Constant Speed
Simplified Battery
Lifetime and Design Considerations
 High-Voltage Cabling and Disconnects
• Guide For Safe Electrical Testing of Electric Vehicle (EV) Maintenance and Service
• The voltage that BEVs run on have grown increasingly in recent years.
• it necessitates several precautions when performing maintenance and inspections.
• how to disconnect and initialize an electric vehicle, please check with the vehicle manufacturer.
• Shutting down the HV system of the vehicle
Before proceeding to electrical testing and measurement, make sure to shut down the vehicle's HV system by disconnecting
the service plug or switch.
For safety, be sure to carry out a visual inspection and look out for engine faults by performing a DTC (Digital Trouble Codes)
scan.
The removal of high-voltage components is hazardous work.
Ensure that qualified personnel specified by the laws and regulations with professional training perform the work.
For details, please follow the operation manual of each vehicle manufacturer.

Temperature measurement of the HV batteries

Measure the surface temperature of the HV battery with a non-contact thermometer.
In this inspection, check for variations in temperature as well as areas of high temperature.
Instrument used: INFRARED THERMOMETER FT3701
The FT3701 is an infrared thermometer with a two-point laser marker that measures the average surface temperature
inside a circle formed by the two points.
Disconnect the HV battery cable and allow it to discharge
After performing a zero-voltage measurement disconnect the high-voltage (HV) cable and wait at least 10 minutes for the HV system to
discharge. To avoid a serious accident, it is necessary to wait for a certain period of time.
Take note that the discharge time may vary, so make sure to check with the vehicle manufacturer.
For reference, the locations of the measurements are labeled as follows:
• Inverter, motor etc
• Chassis
•HV cable
•HV Batteries
Zero-voltage measurement
This measurement is conducted to prevent electric shock and to make sure that the vehicle is shut down. Measure the voltage on surfaces
that are likely to be touched when unplugging the HV connector.
Also, after unplugging the HV battery’s connector, make sure that the HV system is shut down.
In this test, voltage should be measured between the specifc points and chassis ground of the vehicle. It should show up as zero volts (0
V).
This test is performed three times:
•[Link] disconnecting the HV cable between the HV battery and the inverter.
•[Link] disconnecting the HV cable between the HV battery and the inverter.
•[Link] reconnecting the HV cable between the HV battery and the inverter.
Instrument used: DIGITAL MULTIMETER DT4261
The LoZ (low input impedance) mode gets rid of the effects of ghost voltages caused by the measurement target's stray capacitance and
the multimeter's high input impedance.
After the above test, the HV system shut-down is officially over.
Now that the safety of the vehicle is ensured, the repair and inspection work on electric vehicles can be carried out.
Repair, inspection and replacement of HV components

Equipotential bonding test

This test is conducted when high-voltage (HV) components have been installed or replaced. Electrically check that all chassis,
shields, and other components are connected without any problem. Measure the resistance of the ground connection at the area
where the chassis of the vehicle and the HV components are connected. If the resistance value is high or the resistance value
differs significantly from the measured value, the connection of the HV component may have been installed incorrectly.
Instrument used: RESISTANCE METER RM3548-50

Insulation resistance test

In this test, we verify that there are no flaws in the insulation between the HV system and the ground. The insulation test is
performed on both the connector of the HV battery (battery side) and the connector of the inverter (inverter side). The test is
carried out between each of the sides (battery and inverter) and the chassis ground of the vehicle. This measurement requires a
test voltage greater than the vehicle’s battery voltage. Please keep in mind that the test voltage may vary based on the vehicle
model.
Instrument used: INSULATION TESTER IR4059

Zero-voltage measurement
When the repair or inspection is finished, take a zero-voltage measurement on the inverter side and the battery side before safely
reconnecting the HV system.

Reconnecting the HV system of the vehicle (re-initialization)

Install the high-voltage cable, service plug (aka switch) , and return the vehicle's HV system to energized status.
 High-Voltage Cabling and Disconnects
In electric vehicles (EVs), high-voltage (HV) cabling is used to transmit power between the battery pack, power electronics, and electric motor.
These cables typically operate at voltages ranging from 300V to over 800V and must be designed for thermal, mechanical, and electrical
reliability.
Considerations:
• Insulation & Shielding – To prevent electrical arcing and electromagnetic interference (EMI).
• Temperature Resistance – HV cables should withstand high temperatures from both environmental conditions and electrical loads.
• Connector Safety – High-voltage connectors must be sealed and feature interlock mechanisms to prevent accidental disconnection.
• Service Disconnects – HV disconnects allow technicians to safely de-energize the system during maintenance or in the event of an accident.
• Safety in Battery Design
• Battery safety is a crucial aspect of EV design, preventing thermal runaway, fire, and electrical hazards.
Safety Features:
• Battery Management System (BMS) – Monitors temperature, voltage, and current to prevent overcharging, overheating, and deep discharge.
• Thermal Management – Liquid cooling, air cooling, or phase-change materials help maintain optimal operating temperatures.
• Cell Isolation & Containment – Mechanical barriers and fire-resistant materials prevent propagation of failures between cells.
• Passive Protection – Includes fuses, circuit breakers, and current limiters to handle electrical faults.
• Crash Safety Design – Batteries are reinforced with structural enclosures to withstand impacts in a crash.
 Safety in Battery Design, Testing for safety.
Testing for Safety
• Battery systems undergo rigorous safety testing to meet regulatory standards
(e.g., UN 38.3, IEC 62619, UL 2580).
• Common Safety Tests:
• Overcharge & Over-discharge Tests – Ensures the battery does not overheat or
fail when exposed to extreme charging conditions.
• Thermal Runaway Testing – Simulates worst-case scenarios where a single cell
overheats and evaluates the propagation of heat.
• Mechanical Impact & Crush Tests – Ensures battery resilience in case of an
accident.
• Short Circuit & Internal Fault Testing – Determines the battery’s response to
electrical faults.
• Fire & Explosion Tests – Evaluates how the battery behaves under thermal stress.
Accelerated Reliability Testing of Electric
Vehicles,
Accelerated reliability testing simulates years of usage in a shorter time
frame to predict long-term durability.
Tests Include:
• Thermal Cycling Tests – Expose components to extreme temperature
fluctuations to assess degradation.
• Vibration & Shock Tests – Simulate real-world road conditions to test
mechanical integrity.
• High-Power Cycling – Rapid charging and discharging cycles evaluate aging
effects.
• Salt Spray & Corrosion Tests – Assess the resistance of components to
moisture and road salt.
Battery Cycle Life versus Peak Power and Rest
Period
• The relationship between cycle life, peak power output, and rest
period is critical in battery aging and performance.
Factors:
• Cycle Life – The number of charge/discharge cycles a battery can
undergo before its capacity degrades to 80% of the original.
• Peak Power Output – Frequent high-power discharges (e.g., hard
acceleration) stress the battery and accelerate aging.
• Rest Periods – Allowing the battery to rest between cycles can reduce
internal resistance buildup and slow degradation.
 Battery-Ultra-Capacitor Hybrid Combination Sizing
and Performance Analysis
• A battery-ultra-capacitor hybrid combines the high energy density of batteries with the
high power density and fast charge/discharge capability of ultra-capacitors (UCs). This
hybrid approach enhances EV performance, especially in high-power applications like
acceleration, regenerative braking, and peak power demands.
• Sizing Considerations:
• Energy vs. Power Demand – The battery supplies the steady-state energy required for
cruising, while the ultra-capacitor handles short-duration peak power demands.
• Capacity Ratio – The ideal battery-to-ultra-capacitor energy ratio is determined by the
power demand profile of the EV. Typically, the UC stores 5-20% of the total energy but
provides instantaneous power.
• Voltage Matching – Since batteries and UCs operate at different voltage ranges, a DC-DC
converter is required for proper integration.
• State of Charge (SOC) Management – The Battery Management System (BMS) must
coordinate energy flow between the battery and UC to optimize efficiency and lifespan.
• Weight and Space Constraints – UCs are bulky and add weight; their inclusion must
balance performance benefits against added mass.
 Performance Benefits

• Extended Battery Life – Reducing peak power loads on the battery

minimizes cycling stress, leading to longer battery lifespan.
• Improved Regenerative Braking – UCs can rapidly absorb braking
energy and release it for acceleration, enhancing energy recovery
efficiency.
• Faster Charging – Since UCs can charge/discharge almost instantly,
they help support fast-charging without overheating the battery.
 Design Considerations for Ultra-Capacitor-Based EV
& Charging Infrastructure Requirements
• Ultra-capacitor-based EVs require specialized design modifications to handle higher power surges and voltage variations.
Design Factors:
1. Power Electronics:
1. A DC-DC converter is essential to manage power transfer between battery, UC, and motor.
2. An energy management strategy must be implemented to optimize power flow.
2. Thermal Management:
1. Unlike batteries, UCs generate less heat, but efficient cooling is still required in high-power applications.
3. Weight and Space Optimization:
UCs have a lower energy density than batteries, requiring careful placement and integration into the vehicle design.
4. Control Strategy:
A supervisor control unit manages energy sharing between the UC and battery, preventing over-discharge and overcharging.
5. Charging Infrastructure Requirements:
6. High-Power DC Fast Chargers – UCs can charge at high current levels without damage, requiring high-power charging
stations with adequate grid support.
7. Grid Compatibility – Charging infrastructure should integrate with renewable energy sources and provide bidirectional
charging for vehicle-to-grid (V2G) applications.
8. Regenerative Braking Utilization – Instead of relying solely on grid charging, EVs with UCs can maximize regenerative
energy recovery to reduce external charging needs.
Flywheel Selection and Sizing for EV/HEV Applications
• Flywheels store kinetic energy by rotating at high speeds and can be used in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and electric vehicles (EVs)
for energy recovery and peak power assistance.
• Selection Criteria:
1. Energy Storage Capacity (kWh):
Determined by the mass (M), rotational speed (ω), and moment of inertia (I) of the flywheel.
2. Power Density & Efficiency:
Flywheels can deliver high power output in short bursts, making them suitable for regenerative braking and rapid
acceleration.
3. Speed & Material Selection:
High-speed flywheels (up to 60,000 RPM) require materials like carbon fiber composites or high-strength steel to
withstand extreme forces.
4. Friction & Energy Loss:
Vacuum enclosures and magnetic bearings minimize friction and improve efficiency.
5. Weight & Space Constraints:
The flywheel system must be optimized for vehicle weight balance and center of gravity to maintain handling
performance.
6. Applications in EVs/HEVs:
7. Regenerative Braking – Flywheels can absorb braking energy and release it during acceleration, reducing battery load.
8. Peak Power Assistance – Flywheels provide instantaneous energy for acceleration, reducing stress on the battery.
9. Transit and Racing Applications – Used in Formula 1 KERS (Kinetic Energy Recovery System) and public transport
buses for energy recovery.
 Summary

• Battery-Ultra-Capacitor Hybrid Systems enhance battery life, improve

efficiency, and enable high-power performance.

• Ultra-Capacitor-Based EVs require specialized DC-DC converters, fast-

charging infrastructure, and regenerative braking optimization.

• Flywheel Energy Storage is an alternative high-power, short-term storage

method suited for regenerative braking and high-performance EVs/HEVs.
 Ref

Electric Power Train by John Hays and G. Goodarji

Thank you