FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

AND
TOXICOLOGY
By: Felicisima Manabat Francisco & Alexander De
Asis Urbano

Learning Module No. 2

Weeks 3 and 4
(Blood and Bloodstains)

1
 MODULE 2
Blood and Bloodstains
(Weeks 3 and 4)

Objective: Describe the importance and reasons of studying blood,

bloodstains and tests to solve crimes.

Lesson 1
 Composition of Blood
 Importance of the study of blood
 Problems in the Study of Blood

Essential Question
How do you find out to which blood type someone belongs?

Do this!
Direction: Observe the two sets of bloodstains below. (2 points)

A B

Observation:
_______________________________________________________________________________.

Analyze this!
Direction: Answer the following.
1. Compare and contrast the pattern of bloodstains in A and B. (5 points)
2. Is the bloodstain in letter A fresh? How does it help you solve the crime? (5 points)
3. Cite a hypothetical crime scene that possibly shows or indicates the bloodstain
pattern of letter B. (30 points)

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Rubric to be used in assessing your answer in item number 3.
Superior Competent Adequate Developing Flawed Fundamental
Criteria Writing (6) Writing (5) Writing (4) Competence Writing (2) Deficiencies
in Writing (3) in Writing (1)
Response to
the topic
Quality and
Clarity of
Thought
Organization
of ideas
Grammar,
Usage &
Mechanics
On time (6 pts) 1 day delay (5 2 days delay (4 3 days delay (3 4 days delay 5 or more days
Plus Factor pts) points) points) (2 points) delay (1 point)

Prompt of
submission

Read and keep in mind!

BLOOD AND BLOODSTAINS

The significance of blood and bloodstains as evidence in crimes of violence is very

obvious such that we need not place emphasis on this. The test for the identification of blood is
employed as an important part of the routine investigation in many cases of violent death. The
specimen usually submitted is fresh blood or fluid blood, dried blood and clotted blood. Very
often it is brought to the laboratory in the form of dried r ed or brown stains on weapons,
clothing or other objects.

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 BLOOD — has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is referred to as highly complex
mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic substances. It is the red fluid of the blood
vessels. Blood is opaque. On treatment with either, water or other reagents becomes transparent
and assumes lake color. It is faintly alkaline. Normal pH is 7.35 to 7.45.

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
l. 45% Formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells.
a. Red Blood Cells or ERYTHROCYTES -- contains hemoglobin and carry oxygen to
various cells in the body. Circular, biconcave discs or rounded edges.
b. White Blood Cells or LEUKOCYTES — are masses of nucleated protoplasm. It
defends the body from invading microorganisms. Help fight infection.
c. Blood Platelets or THROMBOCYTES — Cells that are produced by the bone marrow
and are necessary for proper clotting of blood. Normally responsible for the retraction of
blood clot.
2. 55% Plasma — the fluid or portion of blood where the cells are suspended. It is principally composed of:
a. Water (90%)

b. Solid (10%) — largely protein in nature and consists of albumen, several globulins
and fibrinogen.
Albumen the most abundant protein in the blood. It binds with many drugs.
Globulins — has an important role in the immune mechanism of the body. The globulins carry drugs as well
as sex and thyroid hormones, lipids and iron.
Fibrinogen — the soluble precursor of fibrin, which forms blood clot.

Plasma— the yellowish fluids of the blood in which numerous blood corpuscles are suspended. A straw-
yellow liquid formed when blood to which an oxalate has been added to prevent clotting is allowed to
stand.
Serum- a straw- yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for sometime and the blood
contracts.

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD

1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator.
2. As evidence in case of disputed parentage.
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of victim survived the
attack.
4. As evidence in the determination of the direction of the case of victim or the assailant.
5. As evidence in the determination of the origin of flow of blood.
6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the crime was committed.

PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD

1. Where blood has to be searched?
In the collection of bloodstains, usually attention is directed to clothing and weapons. We
should also look for bloodstain under the fingernails, linings of the pockets, seams and the folds of
the garments of the suspect, under the edges of the table, etc.

2. Collection, preservation, packing and transportation of specimen suspected to contain blood.

Blood offers little resistance to decomposition. It undergoes a rapid change in its character with the
passage of time as process of clotting and drying commences almost immediately on exposure to air.

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 Sodium fluoride may be added to blood to preserve it for a week at room temperature or infinitely in a
refrigerator. Between 40-50 C is the ideal preserving temperature for blood and other perishable
specimens. Collection of blood stains should be done as soon as possible. Mere washing of
garment/clothing removes the blood.

3. Does the stain contain blood or another substance?

The examination of the specimen should determine if the stain is blood, -if it is animal or human blood,
what blood groups are present.

Apply this!

Direction: Answer the question below. (30 points)

Do all blood from different animal species the same? Justify your answer.

Rubric for the essay.

Superior Competent Adequate Developing Flawed Fundamental
Criteria Writing (6) Writing (5) Writing (4) Competence Writing (2) Deficiencies
in Writing (3) in Writing (1)
Response to
the topic
Quality and
Clarity of
Thought
Organization
of ideas
Grammar,
Usage &
Mechanics
On time (6 1-day delay 2 days delay 3 days delay 4 days 5 or more
Plus Factor pts) (5 pts) (4 pts) (3 pts) delay (2 days delay (1
pts) point)
Prompt of
submission

Read pa more!
Direction. Answer the question below. (5 points)
What are the functions of blood in the body?

NOTE: ANSWERS OF MODULE 2 LESSON 1 WILL DUE ON SEPTEMBER 23, 2020, 5:00 PM.

Lesson 2
 Collection, preservation and transport of physical evidence with alleged blood stains
 Chronological tests for blood
 Karl Landsteiner’s classification of blood types

Essential Question

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 How are antibodies used for blood typing?
Do this!

Direction: Observe the picture below. Write your observation on your answer sheet. (5 points)

Observation:

______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
_______________________.

Analyze it!
Direction: Answer the following questions based on the picture above.
1. What does the picture show? (5 points)
2. What conclusion can you draw on the relationship between height of blood
source and its bloodstain diameter? Cite an example. (30 points)

Rubric to be used in assessing your answer in item number 2.

Superior Competent Adequate Developing Flawed Fundamental
Criteria Writing (6) Writing (5) Writing (4) Competence Writing (2) Deficiencies
in Writing (3) in Writing (1)
Response to
the topic
Quality and
Clarity of
Thought
Organization
of ideas
Grammar,
Usage &
Mechanics
On time (6 1 day delay 2 days delay 3 days delay 4 days 5 or more
Plus Factor pts) (5 pts) (4 points) (3 points) delay (2 days delay (1
points) point)
Prompt of
submission

6
 Read and keep in mind!

COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORT OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE WITH

ALLEGED BLOOD STAINS
Blood and blood stains are trace evidence, whereby a trained officer must at all
times be assigned for a thorough search and collection of samples for examination.
In any crimes of violence where blood /blood stains are the physical evidence it is of prime importance to
collect samples of blood from the victim as well as the suspect to serve as standard for comparison. In
handling or collecting blood-stained physical evidence, you'll have to bear in mind that blood is a perishable
substance so that proper care and correct packing must be done to prevent blood from decomposing before
reaching the laboratory for examinations.
If the clothing is heavily stained with blood and cannot be delivered immediately to the laboratory,
then it must be air-dry to prevent putrefaction.
In cases where dried blood stains were found on the walls, doors, floorings, table tops, or any hard
object where it is not possible to collect and deliver it to the laboratory, the blood sample must be
scraped off or absorb in cotton with saline solution, carefully placed separately in glass tubes with
cover or in sealed plastic bags each with label;
For blood stains on tools like, knives, axes, crowbars, place them separately on sealed plastic bags
and label;
Don't forget to photograph all the physical evidences before collection is made.
Preliminary tests for blood maybe made by Police Officers and Investigating agents in cases of
emergency, provided there is enough blood sample left that will be used for further examination of
an expert.

THE CHRONOLOGICAL TEST FOR BLOOD

1. PRELIMINARY TEST — determines whether the stains contain blood or another substance. It is used
to demonstrate the presence of blood. It determines whether visible stains do or do not contain
blood.
2. CONFIRMATORY — test that possibly identify blood. It determines whether bloodstain really contains
blood.
3. PRECIPITIN TEST — determines whether the stain is of human or animal origin. Determines
whether the blood is of human or non-human origin, and if non-human, the specific animal family from
which is originated.
4. BLOOD GROUPING TEST- determines the blood group if human blood.

I. PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD

A. THE BENZIDINE TEST

An extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain. For many years the most commonly used
preliminary test for blood. Its use has generally been discontinued, as it is known carcinogen. A very
delicate test and will detect blood when present in dilution of 1:300,000 parts. The benzidine test never
fails to detect blood even when very old, decomposed stain with all sorts of contamination examined. This
test is more sensitive than guaiacum test and is valuable as a negative result. If the stain reacts negatively
it is not blood. The positive result is only indicative that blood may be present.
Reagent: a. Benzidine solution (a small amount of powdered benzidine dissolved in glacial acetic acid)
b. 3% solution of hydrogen peroxide
Procedure: Place a small fragment/ portion of the stained material on a filter paper. Add a drop of
benzidine solution and then a drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.
Positive Result: Intense blue color produced immediately.

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Limitation of the Test: Benzidine test is not specific test for blood. Positive result may be obtained from
the substances as sputum, pus, nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay and gum. The reaction is
weaker and produce faint coloration.
B. THE PHENOLPHTHALIEIN TEST
An alternative test to benzidine test. It can detect blood in a dilution of 1: 80,000,000
parts. A positive result with this test is highly indicative of blood. The negative result is therefore
valuable and is conclusive as to the absence of blood.
Reagent: a. Phenolphthalein solution (1 too grams of phenolphthalein to 100 ml of a 25% potassium
hydroxide in water added with one gram of zinc powder heated until colorless).
b. 3% solution of hydrogen peroxide
Procedure: Place a small fragment/ portion of the stained material on a filter paper. Add a drop of
phenolphthalein solution and then a drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.

Positive Result: Rose color develops/ deep pink/ permanganate color.

Limitation of the Test: The test is also given by copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.

C. THE GUAIACUM TEST

A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a solution of 1: 50,000 dilution. It may not react
to very old stain.
Reagent: a. Fresh tincture of guaiac resin (few lumps of this to 95% alcohol, then filter)
b. 3% hydrogen peroxide solution or few drops of turpentine.
Procedure: Place a small piece of the stained fabric on a porcelain dish. Soak with fresh tincture of guaiac.
Add a few drops of hydrogen peroxide.

Positive Result: Beautiful blue color that appears immediately.

Limitation of the Test: The test also reacts with saliva, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron salts, cheese, glutten,
potatoes, perspirations and other oxidizing substances.

D. THE LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST

This test is not as sensitive as the benzidine test.
Reagent: a. Leucomalachite green solution (1 gram leucomalachite green dissolved in 48 ml glacial acetic
acid and diluted to 250 ml water).
b. 3% hydrogen peroxide
Procedure: Place a small pieced of a stained fabric on a filter paper. Add a drop of
Leucomalachite green solution and after a few seconds add a drop of hydrogen peroxide.

Positive Result: Malachite green or bluish green

E. THE LUMINOL TEST

An important presumptive identification for blood. The reaction of luminal with blood results in the
production of light rather than color. By spraying luminal reagent onto a suspected item, large areas can be
quickly screened for the presence Of bloodstains. The sprayed object must be located in a darkened area
while being viewed for the emission of light. Luminol test is extremely sensitive test. It is capable of
detecting bloodstains diluted up to 10,000 times. Luminol is known to destroy many important blood factors
necessary for the forensic characterization of blood, so its use should be limited only to seeking out blood
invisible to the naked eye.
Positive Result: Luminescence or emission of light.

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 PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE FOUR PRELIMINARY COLOR TESTS FOR BL00D

The peroxidase present in hemoglobin acts as career of oxygen from the hydrogen peroxide to
the active ingredients of the reagents (benzidine, guaiac, phenolphthalein and leucomalachite)
and produces the characteristic coIored compounds by oxidation.
Peroxidase — is an enzyme that accelerates the oxidation Of several classes Of organic compounds
by peroxide.
II. THE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD

The actual proof that a stain is blood consists of establishing the presence of the
characteristic of blood pigment hemoglobin or one of its derivatives. Hemoglobin is the red
coloring matter of the red blood cells of the blood.
THE THREE CONFIRMATORY FOR BLOOD

The three confirmatory tests for blood that determine whether stain is really blood are:
1. Microscopic Test
2. Microchemical Test or Microcrystalline Test
3. Spectroscopic Test
A. THE MICROSCOPIC

Microscopic test is useful for the demonstration and mensuration of blood corpuscles for making the
distinction between mammalian, avian, piscine and reptilian blood for the investigation of menstrual,
lochial and nasal charges. In short it differentiates mammalian, avian, piscine and reptilian blood.

Method of Microscopic Examination:

1. Take two small fragments of the dried blood.
2. Place each fragment on separate slides with a drop of 0.9% salt solution.
3. The slides are put in a covered dish to prevent evaporation and the preparation allowed
to stand for 1-2 hours.
4. One of the slides is examined as wet preparation.
5. The other preparation is spread evenly over the slide, allowed to dry and stained by:
a. Fix preparation in absolute methyl alcohol for 3 minutes. Stain in a
0.5% aqueous solution of eosin for 1-3 minutes. Loffer's methylene
blue is added for 1-3 minutes. Eosin stains the red blood cells, while
methylene blue stains the nuclei.
b. Fix smear with methyl or ethyl alcohol for 3 minutes. Pour off alcohol
and flood smear with Geimsa's stain. Stain for 15 minutes, cover to
prevent evaporation, wash in water and dry.

c. Wright's Stain- The smear is flooded with the stain and allowed to stand
for a minute. Distilled water is added until a metallic scum forms on the
surface. Let stand for 3 minutes, wash with water and dry.
Visible Results:
1. Mammalian red blood cells — circular, biconcave discs with nucleus. Appear as
characteristics non-nucleated discs. Exception is camel and closely related animal as llama
whose red blood cells are oval but also without nucleus.
2. Birds, fish and reptile red blood cells — larges, oval and nucleated.
3. Amphibian red blood cells — are larger than mammals, oval and nucleated.
4. Lamprey eel red blood cells — circular and nucleated.

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 B. THE MICROCHEMICAL TEST AND MICROCRYSTALLINE TEST FOR BLOOD
The identification of more specific if microchemical or microcrystalline test is applied or
test and Teicmann test are the most popular ones.

The Three Microchemical and Microcrystalline Test for Blood

1. Teicmann Haemin Reaction or Teicmann Test or Haemin Crystal Test
2. Acetone-Haemin Test
3. Haemochromogen Crystal Test or Takayama Test

a. THE TEICMANN TEST

The test depends on the addition of the specific chemicals to the blood so that characteristics crystals with
hemoglobin will be formed.
Reagent: Sodium chloride, glacial acetic acid

Procedure: Place a minute fragment of the stain on a glass slide. Add a small crystal of sodium chloride
and 2 to 3 drops of acetic acid. Place cover slip and heat gently over small flame to evaporate the acid.
Cool. Examine under the high power objective.

Positive Result: Dark brown rhombic crystal of haemin or haematin chloride arranged singly or in cluster.

Limitation of the Test: The test is also given by indigo-dyed fabrics• If the stain is old or washed or is
changed by chemical reagents, the crystals are not formed• The addition of too much salt or presence
or moisture in the acid or Over-heating of the slide may result in failure.
b. THE ACETONE-HAEMIN TEST
The test depends on the addition of specific chemicals to the blood so that characteristic crystal with
hemoglobin will be formed.

Reagent: Acetone, dilute acetic acid or oxalic acid

Procedure: Place dried stain on a glass slide and cover with cover slip with a needle interposed to
prevent direct contact Of the cover slip with the slide. Add a drop of acetone then a drop of acetic acid.

Positive Result: Small dark, diachronic acicular crystals of acetone haemin.

c. THE HAEMOCHROMOGEN CRYSTAL TEST OF THE TAKAYAMA TEST

A delicate test for the presence of hemoglobin. The test depends on the addition of specific chemicals
to the blood so that characteristic crystals of hemoglobin derivatives will be formed.

Reagent: Takayama reagent (3 ml of 10% sodium hydroxide, 33 ml of pyridine, 3 cc of saturated glucose

solution and diluted with 7 ml water)

Procedure: Place a small piece of suspected material on a glass slide. Add a drop of takayama reagent.
Cover with a glass slip.

Positive Result: Large rhombic crystals of a salmon pink color arranged in cluster, sheaves and other forms
that appear within 1 to 6 minutes when viewed under the low power objective. To hasten result heat may
be applied.

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C. THE SPECTROSCOPE TEST FOR BLOOD
The most delicate and reliable test for the determination of the presence of blood in both
old and recent stains• This test is performed by means of an optical instrument known as
Spectroscope, an optical instrument for forming and examining spectra.

Procedure: Dissolved bloodstain in water or saline solution. Place in small chamber (glass) with
parallel sides so arranged that the rays of light will pass directly through it. The chamber is placed in
the spectroscope and the instrument is so adjusted that the spectrum is clearly visible.

Positive Result: Upon absorbing some of the rays from the spectrum, it produced characteristic dark
colored bands, which vary with the type of blood pigment. Example: oxyhemoglobin is marked by
two bands, hemoglobin-broad band, carboxyhemoglobin its spectrum similar to oxyhemoglobin.

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE SPECTROSCOPIC TEST: The absorption properties of translucent colored
fluids can be observed on the solar spectrum.

III. THE PRECIPITIN TEST FOR BLOOD

The precipitin test is the standard test used to determine whether the stain/ blood is of human or animal
origin. The precipitin test is very sensitive and requires only a small amount of blood for testing. Human
bloodstain dried for as long as 10 to 15 years and longer may still give a positive precipitin reaction. Even
extracts of tissues from mummies four to five years old have given positive reaction with the test.
Experience has shown that human bloodstain diluted by washing in water and left with only a faint color
may still yield a positive precipitin reaction.

Reagent: Precipitin/antiserum

Procedure: Scrape off bloodstain if on hard material. Powder the scrapings and extract with saline solution. If
the stain is cloth, paper or similar material, cut a small portion and then place in a test tube and add extract
with saline solution. Allow mixture to stand overnight. Centrifuge to clean the solution. Dilute with saline
solution. Layer an extract of the bloodstain on top of the human antiserum/precipitin in a capillary tube.

Positive Result:

1. Development of a white cloudy line at the contact point of the fluids that appears immediately or
within one or two minutes.

2. Human blood, or for that matter, any protein of human origin in the extract will react specifically
with anti-bodies present in the serum as shown by the formation of cloudy ring or band at the
interface of the two liquids.

Principle Involved in the Precipitin Test:

When a rabbit is injected with a human blood serum or whole human blood, the precipitin that develops
in its serum will react with the protein of human blood serum, other human body fluids and other tissue
extracts. The reaction is a specific one and if positive, will identify blood proteins or any other protein as
human origin.

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 Limitation of the Test:
The precipitin reacts not only with blood proteins but also with other body proteins as those in saliva,
semen, mucus and other body fluids. For this reason, the test does not identify specifically human body
but only a protein material from the specific animal type. In order that a conclusion of human blood is
arrived the precipitin test must be corroborated by supplementary chemical, microscopic or
spectroscopic tests.

The specificity and delicacy of the precipitin reaction is great, but the reaction may be inhibited or even
destroy by a number of factors. Chemicals like acid, alkalis, alcohols, cresols, formaldehyde, corrosive
sublimate or other germicide may alter blood to such as extent that the reaction cannot be formed. Heat
had the same effect. Fluid blood loses its power of reacting with antiserum if it is heated from 60 to 90 C,
while dried blood may stand 150. Rust and postmortem decomposition may react with it poorly. Old stains
may be identified after long period of time.

[Link] BLOOD GROUPING TEST OF FRESH BLOOD

If the specimen is human blood the next question is did it come from the victim, the accused or from
other persons? So the origin of blood or bloodstains will be determined by the identification of the blood
groups to which it belongs, in short to what blood group does it belong? This identification is carried out
on both fresh blood and bloodstains. Human blood of all races can be divided into definite groups.

In the blood grouping of fresh blood A-B-O System is used. It was Landsteiner who discovered the four
blood groups namely Group O, Group A, Group B, Group AB. He named the four groups on the basis of
the agglutinogen or antigen content of the red blood cells. Antigens are characteristic chemical structures
or "principles" that are found on the surface of each red blood cell, which stimulates the production of
agglutinins. There are two agglutinogens classified as agglutinogen A and agglutinogen B on the other
hand serum contains proteins or "principles" known as antibodies or agglutinins, which cause
agglutination or clumping together of the red blood cells. They are antitoxin substance within the body,
which reacts when confronted with a specific antigen to protect the system. There are two agglutinins
classified as anti-A and anti-B in the serum. Agglutinogen A and B are present at birth while agglutinins
are demonstrable in about 500/0 of newly born infants. If an individual belongs to group A this indicates
that his red blood cells has agglutinogen A located on its surface. Similarly, all group B persons have
antigen B, all group AB persons have antigen A and antigen B or group O persons have neither antigen A
nor antigen B.

When the serum of Group A blood was examined, anti-B was found present and no anti-A. Similarly,
Group B blood contains only anti-A, Group O has both Anti A and Anti-B and Grot-IP AB blood contains
either Anti-A or Anti-B.

HEREDITY OF THE BLOOD GROUPS (Inheritance of Blood Groups)

Knowledge of the laws of genetics will make it easier to understand the principle involved in the
inheritance of blood groups. The inheritance of human blood groups is predetermined by the presence or
absence in the chromosomes of two factors or genes called gene A and gene B. Since each body cell has a
pair of chromosomes, each of which carries or fails to carry one of these factors, an individual's genetics
constitution may be represented by AB, AA, AO, BB, BO, or OO where O represents the absence in the
chromosomes of either the A or B factor. In the joining of the ovum and spermatozoon during fertilization, a
new pair of genes is formed corresponding to the gene found in the chromosomes of the parents called
zygote. If the genes are homozygous or pure i.e. they are alike, and they are the same in both the father and

12
mother, the characters are transmitted unchanged from generation to generation. If the two genes are not
the same which is called heterozygous or hybrid a new combination will arise in the next generation.

Beinsten's Theory of Blood Group Inheritance

Beinstein's theory postulates the presence of three allelic genes A, B and O. According to him the
blood group of any individual is determined by combinations of A, B and O in a particular pair of
chromosomes. One gene is derived from the father and the other gene from the mother. Genes A and B are
dominant over gene O. A and B determine the presence of the corresponding agglutinogens, while O
determines their absence. The possible combination of these three genes arranged in pairs give rise to six
different genotypes corresponding to the four phenotypes or the blood groups. There are ten different
matings possible between the four blood groups.

Grouping of Dried Bloodstains

Absorption technique or absorption-elution technique is an indirect grouping technique of

bloodstains and it depends on the detection of agglutinogen in the dried blood.
In dried blood grouping one cannot use the direct method as used in grouping of fresh blood
because in direct grouping the identification of A and B antigens is accomplished by directly reacting the
blood with Anti-A and Anti-B serum. In dried blood, the red blood cells are already ruptured due to dying,
leaving no cells in the stain to be agglutinated. However, although the cells may have disintegrated, the
antigens present on their surface remain and are still identifiable by indirect means.

Important of Blood Group Data

Question of illegitimacy and relationship in many cases may be solved by means of the blood
groups as determined by the agglutinogens A, B, M and N.
1. Determination of whether a man accused of fathering a child out of wedlock could or not be
its parents.
2. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could or could not have been
fathered by her legal spouse.
3. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a given set of parents in the
case of accidental interchange of infants in hospital.
4. Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later recovered after a long interval
could or could not belong to a given set of parents.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Gene — any of the complex chemical units in the chromosomes by which hereditary
characters are transmitted. Occurs in pair. A factor occurring singly in a gamete. There are
two genes or factors called gene A and gene B. These are found in the chromosomes. Since
chromosomes go on pair, each of which carries or fails to carry one of these genes and an
individual's genetic constitution may be represented by AA, AB, BB, BO, AO, 00 which are
called genotypes, where O represents the absence in the chromosomes of either the A or B
gene. Responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics.
2. Chromosomes — any of the microscopic rod-shaped bodies bearing genes responsible for
the transmission of hereditary characteristics. Are observed to occur in pairs.
3. Phenotypes — term used to denote the expression of the inherited characteristics as
found in the individual. Actually the blood groups.
4. Genotype — are paired genes. It is either homozygous or heterozygous.
5. Homozygous genotype or pure genotype — paired genes are similar.

13
 6. Heterozygous genotype or hybrid — paired genes are dissimilar or not alike.
7. Gamete — sexual cells; reproductive cell that unites with one another to form cell that
develops into a new individual.
8. Sperm cell or microgamete — male sexual cell.
9. Egg cell or macrogamete — female sexual cell.
10. Zygote — pair of genes occurring in a gamete produced during fertilization. Cell formed
by the union of an ovum and sperm.
11. Alleles pairs of contrasting genes, which determines the expression of the inherited
characteristics of an individual.

Apply this!
Direction: Copy the tables below and fill in the correct answer. Use one sheet of
paper for this task. Show all your solutions for Table B.

A. Human Blood Types (8 points)

Blood Type Antigen (in red blood cells) Antibody (in serum)
Type A
Type B
Type AB
Type O

B. Different Mating Possibilities Between the Four Blood Groups (20 points)

Parents Group of Children Possible Not Possible

OO x OO
AO x OO
AO x AO
BO x OO
BO x BO
AO x BO
AB x OO
AB x AO
AB x BO
AB x AB

C. Results if Persons of the Different Blood Types Receive Blood from

Donors of the Four ABO Blood Groups (16 points)

To answer this table, use CLUMPING or NO CLUMPING only.

Blood Donor
Blood Recipient Type A Type B Type AB Type O
Type A (has anti- B)
Type B (has anti- A)
Type AB (has neither anti-
A nor anti- B)
Type O (has both anti- A
and anti- B)

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 Read pa more!
Answer the question below. (5 points)

Is blood clotting good?

Assessment
Answer the following.
1. What blood type can be donated to anyone? Justify. (2 points)
2. What blood group can receive blood from anyone? Justify. (2 points)
3. Write one hypothetical crime scene that involves the application of the
four chronological tests for blood and bloodstains and the basic principles in
handling them. (30 points)

Rubric to be used in assessing your answer in item number 3.

Superior Competent Adequate Developing Flawed Fundamental
Criteria Writing (6) Writing (5) Writing (4) Competence Writing (2) Deficiencies
in Writing (3) in Writing (1)
Response to
the topic
Quality and
Clarity of
Thought
Organization
of ideas
Grammar,
Usage &
Mechanics
On time (6 1 day delay 2 days delay 3 days delay 4 days 5 or more
Plus Factor pts) (5 pts) (4 points) (3 points) delay (2 days delay (1
points) point)
Prompt of
submission

References:

Francisco, Felicisima M., 2018. Handbook/ Manual in Forensic Chemistry. Revised Edition., pp. 6-8.
Rabago, Lilia M., 2010. Functional Biology (Modular Approach). 2nd Edition. Pp. 189-103.
Urbano, Alexander D, 2008. Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology (Lecture Guide and Laboratory Manual), 1st
Edition, Wisemans Books Trading, Inc. pp. 2-8.

Used as references for by:

DR. JOSE REDEN T. MORAL
Part- Time College Instructor, Sto. Nino College of Ormoc

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